NAME: VANEEZA SAJJAD

SEMESTER: 7TH

ROLL NUMBER: F19-1170

DEPARTMENT: PSYCHOLOGY

SUBJECT: GENDER ISSUES I PSYCHOLOGY

DATE: 29TH NOVEMBER’2022

SUBMITTED TO: MA’AM TALAT ASAD

INSTITUTION: UNIVERSITY OF HARIPUR

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TOPIC: RESEARCH EVIDENCE IN SEX DIFFERNECE

WHAT IS SEX?

"Sex" refers to biological differences between females and males, including chromosomes, sex

organs, and endogenous hormonal profiles.

WHAT IS GENDER?

"Gender" refers to socially constructed and enacted roles and behaviors which occur in a

historical and cultural context and vary across societies and over time. All individuals act in

many ways that fulfill the gender expectations of their society. With continuous interaction

between sex and gender, health is determined by both biology and the expression of gender.

WHY SEX AND GENDER MATTER IN IMPLEMENTATION RESEARCH?

The rationale for routinely considering sex and gender in implementation research is multifold.

Sex and gender are important in decision-making, communication, stakeholder engagement and

preferences for the uptake of interventions. Gender roles, gender identity, gender relations, and

institutionalized gender influence the way in which an implementation strategy works, for whom,

under what circumstances and why.

There is emerging evidence that program theories may operate differently within and across

sexes, genders and other intersectional characteristics under various circumstances.

Furthermore, without proper study, implementation strategies may inadvertently exploit or

ignore, rather than transform thinking about sex and gender-related factors. Techniques are

described for measuring and analyzing sex and gender in implementation research using both

quantitative and qualitative methods.

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SEX DIFFERENCES – WHAT IS THE RESEARCH EVIDENCE?

 
   THE TECHNIQUE OF META-ANALYSIS:

A.     Narrative versus quantitative reviews (Maccoby and Jacklin’s (1974)

classic, The Psychology of Sex Differences)
B.     Advantages of meta-analysis: a more objective procedure for synthesizing
results; computes an “effect size”; can probe the homogeneity of findings and
search for moderator variables
C.     Possible problems with meta-analysis: finding the studies that are to be
reviewed; the “file drawer problem”; meta-analyses cannot remedy problems with
the underlying research studies (e.g., poor reliability of measures, poor
experimental manipulations)
D.     Some basic concepts: distributions and the normal distribution; the mean,
variance, and standard deviation of a distribution.  The d statistic: the difference
in the means values of two distributions, divided by the standard deviation of the
distributions; the d statistic provides a common measure or metric of differences
(e.g., between men and women), which can then be averaged over studies; small,
medium, and large effect sizes.
AFFECTIVITY OF META ANALYSIS:
provides a more precise estimate of the effect size and increases the generalizability
of the results of individual studies. Therefore, it may enable the resolution of
conflicts between studies, and yield conclusive results when individual studies are
inconclusive. Some meta-analytic and non-meta-analytic findings on sex
differences

 
    SOME META-ANALYTIC AND NON-META-ANALYTIC FINDINGS ON SEX

DIFFERENCES:

A.     Personality
1.    The “Big Five” Model of personality; biggest sex differences seem to
be in assertiveness (an Extraversion facet) and tender-mindedness
(an Agreeableness facet).
Assertiveness is the quality of being self-assured and confident without
being aggressive to defend a right point of view or a relevant
statement. Tender-mindedness is a personality trait, defined as the
extent to which an individual's judgments and attitudes are
determined by emotion.
i.e. Men tend to use assertive speech, which is used to advance one's
personal agency in a situation. In contrast, women prefer afflictive
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speech, which is used to affirm or positively engage with someone

else.

2.   The Costa, Terracciano, and McCrae (2001) study of sex differences in

personality across cultures in over 23,000 people.

3.    Other personality traits: risk taking, sensation seeking, self-esteem,

authoritarianism, and social dominance orientation.

B. Social Behaviors

1. Aggression: Meta-analyses show small to medium differences, with males more

physically aggressive than women; children show bigger sex differences than adults;
experimental studies may use artificial measures of aggressiveness; real-life statistics on murder,
assault, warfare show substantial sex differences in aggressiveness.

2.  Helping Behavior: measures of empathy versus experiments on helping

behavior.  Eagly and Cowley’s meta-analysis found that men are particularly more helpful than
women when they are being observed and when the person being helped was a woman rather
than a man (here’s an example of “moderator variables”).

3.Conformity and susceptibility to persuasion: women conform a bit more than men,
particularly in face-to-face influence settings; women slightly more persuadable that men in
attitude change studies.

4.   Group behavior and leadership: task-oriented vs. social emotional behavior in groups—
moderate sex differences; differences in emerging as group leaders and in leadership style: men a
bit more likely to emerge as leaders of lab groups; men more likely to be “task leaders” and
women as “social-emotional leaders”;  women tend to show a slight tendency to be more
democratic leaders, and men a tendency to be more autocratic leaders; men show a slight
tendency to negotiate better outcomes in group settings.

5. Nonverbal behaviors: there are a number of significant sex differences in nonverbal

behaviors and nonverbal perceptiveness; some of these are large.

6. Sexuality and mate preferences: Men tend to be more interested in sex and engage in sex
more; recent reviews by Roy Baumeister and colleagues argue that men, on average, have higher
sex drives than women and that men’s sexuality is more fixed, urgent, and biologically driven,
whereas women’s sexuality is more fluid, flexible, and influenced by social settings, pressures,
and norms

Occupation Preferences And Interests

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1 Holland’s RIASEC model –

Realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional occupations; they are big
differences in men’s and women’s interest in realistic occupations and moderate differences in
interest in artistic and social occupations
2. People-Things dimension and interests: men are more thing-oriented and women are more
people-oriented.

Sex differences in mental illnesses and behavior disorders

Hartung and Wedger’s (1998) summary the Sex differences in emotional experience:
• Self-disclosure; “reading” emotions from internal physiological cues vs. external
social cues; males, females, and the “internalizer-externalizer dimension”
• Sex differences in self-concept: the “interdependent” vs. “interconnected” self;
different ways of relating to others: intimacy in one-on-one relations vs. hierarchical
group settings; Baumeister and Sommer (1997): “female sociality is dyadic, whereas
male sociality is tribal”.
Sex differences in children:
Different friendship patterns, different styles of play, different fantasy lives, and the
pervasive phenomenon of sex segregation in children are a result of sexual differences