moe JNU LIBRARY (E) 370.15 DUB. TCWhat is Education? If we study the literature on education, specially its history, we shall find that scholars and leaders of public opinion have expressed themselves from time to time in regard to education. What has been said by them is generally in terms of their society, and the times they lived in. In every society, a system of education is evolved according to its needs and the temper of its times. If we go to the root meaning of the word ‘education’, we find that it is derived from the Latin word ‘educare’, meaning ‘to educate’, ‘to bring up’, ‘to raise’, as they say in America, or clever, as they say in France. There are some other words which are cited as basic to the meaning of education. For example the word ‘educere’ which means ‘to lead out’, or the other explanation based on the meaning of the Latin ‘e’ standing for ‘out of and “duco’ for ‘to lead’. Thus ‘education’ is leading out what is within man. It is means of education that the latent potentialities of man are made patent. So we see that In general there are two meanings given to the word ‘education’. One meaning lays emphasis on the training and teaching and the other on the ‘leading forth’ or enabling the individual to develop according to his potentialities. It is the second meaning that is now accepted widely, for education is for all life and it is vitally related to our way of living and experiencing. That is why education is called life. We receive education in the school of life and the experience is our best teacher. General Meaning In general usage, the term education is used either in its narrow sense or in its more liberal connotation. A slight elaboration of these two senses is given here. A large majority of people use the term to mean the training or studies undertaken for a few years in some educational institutions. This is the restricted meaning of the term. It implies eduwation provided according to a fixed curriculum by a particular set of people in a specific place. It does notEmerging Indian Society and Education 2 ovide any real knowledge, since the individual still has ia aa rrnies an individu Reed to nohlev6 puce&Ah in practical lite Oe ated HE WR RCN This meaning ofthe tem ane mow fol KR OF Go eaK6n 1H WHOH aA RE Ua Pe or eve by a standard curriculum and at the end of a sa pis aa a degree or diploma. This certificate enables him to re rn oF jh In every country, there are instances of great social - an ai philosophers and thinkers who have never been near an ey of formal education. But can they be called uneducated, on this institutio ground? Need of Education The new born infant is a helpless human being. He has neither any friend nor an enemy. He is not aware of the social customs and traditions. Not only this, he is not even keen to achieve any ideal or value, But as he grows older, he is influenced by the informal and formal agencies of education. In this way, he develops his physical, mental and emotional self and social feelings also develop in him gradually. By and by, he is able to develop a sense of responsibility like his elders and solve the problems of life successfully. In short, education is able to instill in the child a sense of maturity and responsibility by bringing in him the desired changes according to his needs and demands of ever changing society, of which he is an integral part Speaking more frankly, education bestows upon the child immense benefits. It brings up the child as the parents do. It guides him like an affectionate father and serves him faithfully like a wife. A well-educated Person is known all over the region, He is able to meet the conflicting challenges and tide over all the difficulties which confront him in day to day living. Not only this, education culturises the individual and helps him in his , education develops the individual like a igrance all over the environment. In this sense, education is that conducive Process which drags a person from darkness, Poverty and misery by developing his individuality in all its aspects— Physical, mental, emotional and social. With this type of all-round development, he becomes a Tesponsible, dynamic, resourceful and enterprising citizen of strong good moral character who uses all his Capacities to develop his own self, his society and his nation to the highest fg his best to national honour, national glory, national and civilization of the nation of which he is a part, an integral part.What is Education? 3 Just as, on one hand, education develops to the full the personality of an individual in all fields and aspects making him intelligent, loaned, bold, courageous and possessing strong good character much in the same way, on the other hand, it contributes to the growth and development of society also. It is only through education that moral ideals and spiritual values, the aspiration of the nation and its cultural heritage is transferred from one generation to another for preservation, purification and sublimation into higher and higher achievements. In other words, with the growth and development of the individual, the society also develops to higher and higher levels of attainments. Thus, education is greatly essential for the growth and development of individual as well as society, Meaning of Education ‘The word ‘Education’ Ras been interpreted in various ways. Following are the different interpretations given to education: Etymological Meaning of Education ‘The word ‘Education’ is derived from the Latin root as under: ‘Aims Objectives 1. Educatum ~~ [To train, Act ofteaching or training 2. Educere To lead out, To draw out 3. Educare To bring up, To raise, To educate The Latin word ‘Educatum’ means to train. ‘E” means from inside and “Duco” means to draw out, to lead out or to bring up. To combine the two we come to mean as to draw from within. Developing this concept further we come to mean that education is a process which draws from within. To be more clear, each child is born with some innate tendencies, capacities and inherent powers. Education is to draw cut these powers out and develop them to the full. Latin words ‘“Educare’ and ‘Educere’ also mean the same thing—to bring up, to lead out and to develop etc. In this way, the word . education means to develop the inborn qualities of a child to the full. From the above discussion, it is clear that education is a process of development. To understand its nature and rate of progress, it is essential that one must know the data of education. Thus, before throwing light on the {rue meaning of education, we discuss its data as under:> What is Education? 9 emphasis on concurrent development of society, of which he isan integral part, Such an education will develop both the child and the society to higher and higher positions of glory and cultural eminence Definition of Education After throwing light on the true meaning of education, it is clear that education is a process of growth and development. However, to make this concept more clear, the following definitions are being given: A. Education as a Process of Drawing out the Innate Powers -dueation means the bringing out ofthe ideas of universal validity which are latent in the mind of every man,” —Socrates 2. “Education is process by which the child makes the internal Sen” —Froebel 3. “Education is the manifestation of perfection already reached in He —Vivekanand B. Education as a Process of Development of Individuality 1. “Education means to enable the child to find out ultimate truth...making truth its own and giving expression to it.” —R.N. Tagore 2. “Education is a natural, harmonious and progressive development of man’s innate powers.” —Pestalozzi 3. “Education is the complete development of individuality of the child, so that he can make his original contribution to human life according to his best capacity.” —T.P. Nunn 4, “Education is the development in the individual of all the perfection of which he is capable.” —Kant C. Education as a Process of Producing Change in the Group 1. “Education is the consciously controlled process whereby changes in behaviour are produced in the person and through the person within the group.” —Brown 2. “The purpose of education is to develop in each individual the knowledge, interests, ideals, habits and powers whereby he will find his place and use that place to shape both himself and society towards nobler ends.” —Report of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Schools, U.S.A.Aims & Objectives of Education “As political, social and economic conditions change and new problems arise, it becomes necessary to re-examine and te-state clearly the objectives which education at each definite stage, should keep in view.” —Secondary Education Commission Report Meaning of Aim An aim is a predetermined goal which inspires the willful activities of an individual, after careful thinking and proper planning, till it is achieved. If the aim is clear and definite, the activity process goes on till the individual achieves it. As the individual reaches near the goal, his activities also go on changing till it is attained and it is with this attainment of the goal that the aim of education is fulfilled. In short, an aim is that predetermined goal which stimulates human activities to achieve it. John Dewey has rightly remarked, “An aim is a foreseen end which gives direction to a certain activity or motivates human behaviour.” Importance of Aim An aim is essential to guide and make all the activities of an individual successful in all spheres of life. Without the knowledge of an aim, one will not achieve any success in any sphere of life. This is true in the field-of education also as there always remains a gulf between the needs of the newly born child and the developing or already developed society. To abridge this gulf education is the only means which according to same aim, and keeping into consideration the changing needs and ideals of society, tries to develop an individual according to his basic instincts in such a way that both the individual and the society are developed to the fullest extent. In view of this—nursery, primary, secondary and higher together with general, vocational, technical adult and other forms of education are so organised and conducted that they are able to achieve their aims successfully.oP Emerging Indian Society ang r, td ‘tion 2 Necessity of Aim An individual is inspired with confidence, zeal and tenacity if an a set up before him in clear and definite terms. It is only after this, that he ua to pursue the aim single-minded ‘and with full devotion. Not only this, Jevant teaching strategies, tactics ., ie aim enables us to determine re ’ ith the selection of materials, proper curriculy « conditions and learning experiences. Under th ‘dual and the society get ahead on the path ¥ jucation without an aim is useless. To Such an education children become indifferent. Their efforts do not meet ty sults in their physical, social, mental and mony degradation. Hence, before organizing and conducting the education process both the teacher and the children must know the aims of education to by achieved by them. An educational system without clearly defined set aims is just like a boat whose navigators do not know their destination and thy children are like the drifting planks in t! 2 sea which will ultimately deyoy, them sooner or later. Classification of Aims of Education Aims of education are of different nature and orientation. Generally they are divided into the following four broad categories: techniques together Ww structuring of conduciv conditions, both the indivi progress and development. Any e¢ expected success, and this re: 1. Particular Aim. 2. Universal Aim. 3. Individual Aim. 4. Social Aim. 1. Particular Aims These aims are called as specific aims also. They have a limited area and nature. Their purpose is also limited and definite. They are structured under social circumstances and under the stress of special reasons. As such, these aims are flexible, adjustable and liable to change. In other words, specific aims of education are conditioned according to the demands of @ particular country, specific situations and specific times. 2. Universal Aims Universal aims apply to all human beings in a general way. Theit Pea to promote desirable qualities in the individuals of all countries. se aims are limited according to the identity of the country, specific‘Aims & Objectives of Education 4 conditions or times. They belong to all for all times and all conditions, The whole human race is benefited by them. Their nature and orientation is also all pervading and all inclusive. Hence, they are permanent, unchangeable and of definite nature. All the philosophers of the words recognize their universality applicability and desirability. Development of individuality, proper physical, mental and moral development are examples of such aims which make education a universal phenomenon and process of human development. 3. Individual Aim According to individualists an individual is greater than the society. Individual’ aim, therefore, emphasizes the development of individual according to his individual capacities to his fullest extent. T.P. Nunn, the ardent supporter of this aim emphatically says—‘Nothing good enters into the human world except in and through the free activities of individual men and women and that the educational practice must be shaped to accord with this truth.” 4. Social Aim According to socialists, society is greater than the individual. Hence, socialists lay greater emphasis upon social development and the social aim of education which promotes this development. According to them, man is a social being. He can neither live without society nor develop in isolation. Hence, the individual should develop his self in co-operation with the social norms and ideal of society. Raymont aptly remarks, “An isolated individual isa figment of imagination.” It may be noted carefully that a balance has to be maintained between the individual and social aims of education and also between the particular and universal aims of education. This balance and synthesis between them will always be promoting the progress and development of both the individual and the society. Basis of the Formulation of Educational Aim Educational aims are intimately related to all the children of the whole world. Hence, the formulation of educational aims is very important and essential task of great responsibility. If the formulation of educational aims is done in haste and with indifference, there is every possibility of drawbacks to creep into the process and forms of education. This will harm not only a few individuals but successive generations of society will be harmed and4 Emerging Indian Soclety and Education spoiled. Hence, due consideration regarding the needs of children and also of the principles of education, require that these problems should receive deep thought and wide discussion so that scientific, purposeful and really valuable aims are formulated, In reality, education is a reflection of society. Sociaj uplift or downfall depends upon education. As is the education $0 is the society. Education shapes the nature and form of society. Because the aims of education are integrally related to the aims of life, so the formulation of the aims of education is also the formulation of the aims of life. It is really a sad state of affairs that even today the aims of education are formulated by le who have little to do with the education. In other words, 1s have been formulated and are still being formulated by parents, philosophers, administrators and politicians and not by teachers. These aims differ in nature and orientation. Some are permanent, definite and unchangeable whereas other are flexible, adjustable and changeable. Now the question arises as to why they are different in nature. The answer leads us to the four bases of education namely—Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism and Realism. These four bases of education are the formulative ideologies of educational aims and hence a study of these four philosophies will be @ rewarding expense and add to our knowledge of the nature. and orientation of all the educational aims. These philosophies have been fairly well discussed in later chapters of this book. Here we will try to discuss them under two main categories— 1. Idealistic Basis. 2. Realistic Basis. those peopl educational aim 4. Idealistic Basis According to Idealism, thinks that reality is material, the ultimate reality is spiritual. Naturalism This is contrary to the belief of Idealism. Because of their belief in spiritual reality, the Idealists advocate that education prepares the individual for spiritual and moral life. On the contrary, according to Naturalists, education should prepare the individual for material enjoyment and material prosperity. Idealists rate the ‘Idea’ as superior to matter which is destined to decay. The Idealists believe firmly that the union between the soul and God is possible only through spiritual ideas. As such, Idealism advocates the absolute value of the highest moral ideas, To them Truth, Beauty and Goodness are perennial values, They never die or decay. Realization of these values leads to the salvation of man. Thus, in an Idealistic society, moral and spiritual values are rated higher than the‘ims & objectives of Education _ 15 material prosperity. Hence, societies wedded to Idealism propagate immortal, universal and specific aims of education which develop human values and the society marches ahead on the road of spiritual progress 2, Realistic Basis Realistic and Pragmatic ideologies are opposed to Idealism, According to Pragmatists reality is still in the making, As such, the ultimate reality is not final. It is changeable. Because of this continuous process of change, aims of education are conditioned by the present and Operating situation of a country at that time and specific circumstances. Like Pragmatism, Realism is also against Idealism. The protagonists of Realism advocate the confrontation and solution of modern current problems of society and decry and kind of escapism into alleys of spiritualism or Idealistic sidewalks, The Realists, like the pragmatists, insist that considering the current material situations, educational aims should be flexible, adjustable and changeable to suit the conditions and norms of society. Only then, the child will be able to face the real challenges of life and develop himself by solving all the conflicting problems that confront him from time to time. The real conditions and situations are given below: (1) Philosophy of Life. (2) Political Progress. (3) Technological Advancement. (4) Social and Economic Conditions, 1. Philosophy of Life: Education influences the aims of life and as such it is influenced by the philosophy of life. Since early times this influence is going continually and will also so on in future. As a consequence, those persons, whose spiritual philosophy of life is of a high order, advocate forcefully the moral development and character formation as aims of education. On the other hand, people who believe in external nature, advocate material prosperity and enjoyment of life as aims of education. Herbart, being an Idealist, advocated the aim of education as morality. On the other hand, Herbart, being a Naturalist, advocated Complete Living as an aim of education. This clearly proves that philosophy of life determines the aims of education. 2. Political Progress: According to Brown, the educational organization of country reveals the special characteristics of its rules, The despotic, the communistic and the democratic states have fashioned the pattems of educational aims according to their own ideologies. In countries where‘ on Emerging Indian Society and Eqy democracy reigns supreme, alms of education have been oriented to achj the creation of good citizens. UK, USA and India are such Count, Despotic states enforce rigid unquestioning discipline and comp) obedience to their arbitrary will while the democratic countries deve), qualities of self-discipline, initiative and democratic attitudes. » 3,Technological Advancement In this modern scientific age a ate emphasis 1s Jaid on technological advancement. America, England, Saray Germany and Russia are labeled as progressive countries only because Yy their technological advancement. These countries firmly believe any accordingly organize their educational system for developing technologies , various fields, Thus, technologically backward countries should give Pring importance to this aim in their educational system. This is the reason that o country also is giving maximum facilities for this kind of education ang stimulating more and more research in this direction 4,Social and Economic Condition: The social and economic conditions of a country condition the formulation of educational aims of tha country. Those countries where social and economic conditions are poor, formulate educational aims to ameliorate their state of affairs by creating dynamic citizens who try to achieve more and more efficiency. In ow country also the government is doing its best to build such citizens in mor: and more numbers who are sincerely devoted to serve their country, democratically and constructively so that they are able to raise their standarj of living and take their country to a higher position in the community of developed nations of the world. The above discussion clearly shows that the aims of education are formulated in accordance with the needs of life and society. Relation of Educational Aims of Life and Ideals of Society ‘There is an intimate relation between the aims of education and ideals of life and: society. In those countries which lag behind in the race of material prosperity, emphasis is laid on the vocational aim of education, that people of those countries may improve their economic condition by the: own efforts and initiative and lead a life of pleasure and contentment Contrary to this, in some other countries, aims of education are formulate! with regard to the needs, aspirations and ideals of the society. In monarchies and in counties under despotic rule, social ideals and social welfare are muct emphasized. In such countries, education is planned and organised to me the immediate needs of society. During the regime of Hitler, educationt‘Aims & Objectives of Education 7 system was planned and organised to make German people obedient, disciplined, self-sacrificing and devoted to social advancement and national glory. In other words, German people were educated in such a way that they began to think their highest duty to sacrifice their lives for the glory of their nation and world supremacy, Relation of Educational Aims to the Life of the Individual The relation of educational aims to the life of the individual is in the following forms 1, Nature of Human Spirit: The spirit of every human being demands nurture and development. For this, proper experiences need to be provided by educational aims. If such experiences are not provided, then the spirit will begin to decay. Herbart, Froebel and other educationists uphold that proper development of human spirit is possible only through proper educational aims, ideals and activities, 2, Achievement of the Values of Life: The key to a successful life is to control the diversities and diversions of life and achieve the desired values. This is possible only when the aims of education are so highly conducive and good that they help the individual to achieve human values and ideals. 3, Achievement of Perfection: The goal of human life is to achieve perfection. For this, a man should be inspired by the highest ideals of Truth, Beauty and Goodness. This also depends upon the aims of education. If the aims of education inspire the individual to achieve the said ideals, then only he will be able to achieve perfection. 4,Mental and Spiritual Growth: Educational aims are very intimately related to mental and spiritual development. An individual can achieve perfection only through a continuous process of self-expression, capacity and conducive learning experiences. His spiritual development is possible only when the aims of education continually adjust the individual according to changing conditions of sgciety. This will ensure a synthesis between the aims of education and the life of the individual. If the aims of education will not change according to the changing needs of the individual, his mental and spiritual development will be an impossibility. 5. Development of Conduct and Moral Character: Education aims to develop higher moral character and praiseworthy behaviour in thefo a yo Emerging Indian Society ang iad ly by useful and desirable it pired by spiritual and moral ge % ively higher and higher cong t 8 This idea ot aims of educatio he individual a progress | can be, achieved on! n are ins education. If the they will develop in U ral character. ; : and mot Balanced Personality: Aims of education f the individual. If the aims of education ‘t will definitely result in the develope 6 Development of B closely related to the life 0 fulfil the needs of the individual, i of is balanced personality. { Judgement and Appreciation: For a success individual knows the difference between good ag bad, true and false, moral and immoral and proper and Improper. It is af, the true evaluation of these that he may come toa right judgement, Tf the aims are good the capacity of proper evaluation and right judgement will develop in him, otherwise not. 8, Preparation of Self-preservation: Self-preservation is an essentia) need of the individual. Good aims of education develop the capacity ang confidence in the individual to such an extent that he can face all the challenges that confront him and preserve his life. 9, Building of Social Organization: An individual always wishes to build such a society which provides him full opportunities for greater and reater development of his personality. This is possible only when there is a close co-operation between the aims of education and the aims of his life. 10. Promotion of Social Feelings: Educational aims can stimulate and inspire children for social service and social progress through purposeful activities for the welfare of society: Only desirable aims of education can promote the desirable social feelings in children. 7, Attainment of life it is essential that an Relation of Educational Aims to Ideals of Society Just as the relations of educational aims and human life are very intimate, much in the same way closeness exists between the aims of education and the ideals of society. History of human civilization stands witness to the fact that whenever a society has formulated its aims of education, it has always kept its ideals in the fore-front. In short, as is the society so are its aims of education. It should be remembered that the present society has different forms. Hence, each form of society has formulated the aims of education according to its own needs, ideals and norms. In theAims 8 Obj following paragraphs, an attempt is being made to show as to how their relation exists and operates 1, Relationship in an Idealistic Society: According to the philosophy of Idealism, spiritual ideas, ideals and values are more important than mere material prosperity, It may be noted here that spiritual ideals can only be achieved if the educational system promotes their realization, With this view, in an idealistic society, giving more importance to thought process and intelligence and keeping: into consideration the development of spiritual ideals as of supreme importance, aims of education are formulated Character formation and moral development etc. are some of the important aims for education to achieve in an Idealistic society. 2. Relationship in Materialistic Society: In a materialistic society, more importance is given to material prosperity. In such a society, moral ideas, spiritual values, creative activities and sense of rational judgement are not valued as of much importance. Thus, educational aims, in materialistic society, are formulated keeping in view the attainment of material pleasures and plenty of goods for physical comfort and enjoyment. 3, Relationship in Pragmatic Society: Pragmatism is quite contrary to the philosophy of Idealism. The pragmatists do not attach any importance to the other world. They confine their efforts to achieve material welfare in the present every day life. Pragmatists do not believe in the ultimate reality of spiritualism like idealists. They do not accept the pre-determined ideals and values as of supreme and permanent reality. To them, truth is related to the present conditions of times and places. Verification is the testing criteria. If the criteria does not hold it as truth, it should be rejected. According to pragmatists, values are in the making. Hence, in a pragmatistic society, the aim of education is to put the child in such a position so that he is able to create new values for himself. 4, Relationship in Communistic Society: In a communistic society, the factories and the farms establish schools for the children of their workers. These factories and collective farms bear the expenses of the schools which are directly controlled by the ministry of education. The rulers indoctrinate children from the very beginning. Labour is regarded as an important activity and emphasis is laid on three ideals in a communistic society. Those ideals are—(1) Equal rating of a physical and mental workers, (2) Price of an article in relation to the labour spent over its manufacture and (3) Formation of societies, agencies and political institutions according to the manufactureEmerging Indian Society ang 20 th ety Even, of material things and processes of production. A communistic Society ke, 10 consideration while formulating the aims of education, | in a Democratic Society: In a democratic: soc iality is given due importance ‘Thus, each individya) is provided full opportunities to develop his personality according to hig interests, inclinations, aptitudes, capacities and needs so that he is able to contribute his best to the welfare of society to which he belongs. In short, aj work is done in close and friendly co-operation to help one another. ‘7, achieve these ideals (i) Developing the interests, (ii) Inculcation of goog habit, (iii) Developing mental powers, (iv) Developing social attitudes (©) Developing democratic values and (vi) Providing vocational and libera c. are some of the important aims for education to be achieved in a) these things int 5, Relationship development of individu education et a democratic society. It is clear from the above discussion that the aims of education are integrally related to the life of the individual and ideals of society. If we wish, to formulate the aims of education for individual and society separately, we shall have to understand the needs ‘’and ideals of both. Since very early times this has been a buming question before educationists whether education should be from individualistic point of view or from a socialistic angle. In other words, whether the aim of education should be individualistic or socialistic. Those educationists who think that individual is greater than society have been emphasizing the individual aim of education so that the individual is able to develop his or her personality to the full. On the other hand, those educationists who regard the greater importance of society than the individual have been insisting on the social aim of education, so that social development goes on continually. Now the problem is whether there can be synthesis between these rival aims of education or not. For this, we have to study impartially both the aims in their narrow and wider forms to know whether the two are really contradictory or they differ only in emphasis. In the following lines we are discussing both the aims of detail: Individual Aim of Education Meaning of Individual Aim Individual aim of education means that education should develop individuals according to their interests, capacities and specialities. It should be noted that individual aim of education is not a new aim. In ancient India,3 Forms of Education “The whole of the environment is the instrument of man’s education in the widest sense. But in that environment certain factors are distinguishable as being more particularly concerned; the home, the church, the press, the vocation; public life, amusement and hobbies.” —Sir Godfrey Thompson Meaning of Agencies of Education It is generally believed that children are educated in schools and colleges. But the truth is that a child receives his education from various sources besides schools and colleges. The famous American educationist John Dewey defines education as a process of life or development. This development depends upon two factors—(1) The heredity and (2) The environment. Heredity is fixed and definite but environment can be manipulated to be good or bad. As such, development or life depends upon the good or bad environment. Thus, education clearly means the providing of proper environment for the development of the child. The family, the school, the community, the church, the state, the library, the news-papers, the exhibitions, the magazines; the radio, the television and the cinema etc. are all the means which provide diverse opportunities for the child to learn something or the other and bring about a modification in his behaviour. All these means are the sources of education. Precisely these means or sources may be called as ‘Agencies of Education’. All these agencies of education have their great impact upon the growing child as they influence the education or development of the child in their own way directly or indirectly, openly or silently and consciously or unconsciously. Hence, through all these agencies education is concerned with the preservation, transmission and development of cultural heritage from one generation to another. B.D. Bhatia has rightly remarked—*Society has developed a number of Specialized institutions to carry out these functions of education. These institutions are known as Agencies of Education.”Emerging Indian Society 4, 2 j : Classification of Agencies of Education Classification of all the agencies of education has been done ire ays, Some of the important ones are given below: i ways. Sol First Classification of All the Agencies of Education eae | eee] Formal Agencies Informal Agencies (Gchool, Organized Entertainment Centres, Libraries, Picture Galleries, Games, Cinema, Educational programmes on Radio, TV., etc.) (Family, Community, Religion, Free play, Marketplace, Fairs, Exhibitions, etc.) According to the above classification, the two general Categories » the Formal and Informal agencies of education. As the names indicate, 4, formal agencies impart formal education while the informal agencies Prepa the child for general as well as various types of education. Second Classification of All the Agencies of Education —— ie Active Agencies Passive Agencies (The Family, the School, the (Cinema, T.V., Radio, | Community, the Religion, the Newspapers, State, Social Clubs, Organized Magazines, Market games, Entertainment places, etc.) programmes, etc.) ~ Active agencies of education act and react upon the growing chil Here the child is active and can influence the working of the agencies while the passive agencies act in one way only. The child is not in a positi {0 influence them at all and remains a passive recipient only. In other wor interaction between the child and agency is possible only in active agenci of education, whereas in passive agencies of education, the question 0! interaction does not arise at all.Forms of Education 33 Third Classification of All the Agencies of Education Forms! Informal Commercial Non-Commercial 1, School 1. TheFamily 1. Radio 1. Sports Club 2. Religious 2. General games 2, TLV. 2. Social Welfare institutions 3. The State 3. Cinema Centres 3. Library 4. The 4. Clubs 3. Dramatic Clubs 4, Museum Community or 5. Theatres 4. Scouting and 5, Zoo Society 6. Newspaper Guiding 6. Art Galleries 7. The Press 5, Youth Welfare 7. Organized Clubs games 6. Adult 8. Educational Education programmes Centres The above classification has been prescribed by Brown. Let us discuss it in some detail as under: 1. Formal Agencies: Brown’s formal agencies, described above, give pre-planned readymade titbits of knowledge to the child in such a way that he becomes conscious of the past history, wisdom of ages and cultural values of the race. In this way, his character is formed. 2. Informal Agencies: These agencies inculcate in children the desired human qualities and moral values. Through these agencies children learn various theories, principles of conduct and behaviour. Thus, these agencies bring about the socialization of the child and imbibe him with a sense of duty and responsibility. 3. Commercial Agencies: According to Brown, these agencies give various kinds of knowledge, discoveries, inventions and achievements of human race. Through these agencies children acquire knowledge about the culture, beliefs and activities of different sections of human society. For example—newspapers and magazines prepare children to be sympathetic with regard to social happenings and activities going on not only in their ‘own country but also throughout the whole world by communicating them most upto date information. Thus, through these agencies, the child develops social attitudes and receives all kinds of social education and experiences. 4, Non-Commercial Agencies: Brown is of opinion that non- Commercial agencies come into being for social good. They are not linked with any Commercial motive. For example—sports, educational tours,Emerging Indian Society a rg and 34 debates, scouting, girl guiding, programmes are al for the social In short, non-commercial agencies youth forums, welfare activities gp : | good and character formation of chi th .s of education create the sense of din , “ial genic citizenship and social service. ; ing all the three classifications le e disc regarding al E a, The above discussion r ; nifies that the first classification is most to the fo |n other y, : formal and informal agencies of education are oat racing Whereas 1 formal 2 allen other two classifications may also be grouped under this one. Study of Formal and Informal Agencies of Education 4, Formal Agencies : P Meaning of Formal Agencies: Under this category we list tho, institutions which impart definite and ready made titbits of knowledge ing specified time under a controlled and structured environment. Here the teachers are definite and the objectives to be achieved are Specific. Su institutions are established by society with the purpose of directly Providing the accumulated knowledge in specific dozes under a pre-planned programme. To be more clear, education imparted by formal agencies js limited and specific. Such type of education has its own merits, because the experiences. are structured and learning gained can be measured and evaluated. Not only this, stage of progress are also pre-decided and well. marked. Merits of Formal Agencies: Everything is definite and specific about the objectives, learning experiences, desired behavioural changes together with measuring and evaluation techniques. Time limit prescribed leads to effective planning, organization, leading and controlling. John Dewey has rightly remarked—*Without formal education, it is not possible to transmit all the resources and achievements of a complex society. It also opens a way to a kind of experience which would not be accessible to the young, if they are left to pick up their training in informal association with others.” Demerits of Formal Agencies: Education imparted by formal agencies 1s often merely bookish, theoretical and artificial devoid of realities of life and society. It is planned under rigid conditions and strict discipline which makes the whole environment dead and lifeless, | interpretations of words and phrases and often underlying the content. Lastly, rendering and does not includes emphasizes neglects the real spirit it promotes rote memorization, mechanical thoughts, understanding and insight into theition Forms of Educa “ 35 nds of educands. John Dewey has right remarked easily becomes remote and dead, abstract and by nowledge exists in low grade societies is at le vanced culture much which has to be learnt j a translation into familiar acts, “Formal education ookish. What accumulated st put into practice. But in 's stored in symbols. It is far i : a There is the standing danger that the material of formal education will be merely the subject-matter of schools jsolated from the subject-matter of life experience,” 2 informal Agencies Meaning of Informal Agencies: Informal agencies of education are those institutions which influence the child indirectly. Therefore, they are often termed as indirect agencies also. The objectives of these agencies are wider and more comprehensive than mere educational objectives. In these agencies nothing is pre-planned and rigid. Experiences gained through these agencies are neither controlled nor rigidly structured. Every thing is free and patural. The teachers and strategies, tactics and techniques used by them to impart knowledge are not fixed in advance. Education, through these agencies, is imbibed incidentally and naturally by the student’s own initiative and efforts. There are no set places or locations for imparting education. The family, religious ceremonies, community, social gathering and newspapers are some of the important informal agencies of education. Merits of Informal Agencies: Education imparted through informal agencies is natural and incidental. It is imparted in a free atmosphere without any rigid control and direction. It leads to initiative, selfplanning, self: picking and self-choosing. It stimulates the curiosity and interest in children and avoids external force and stem discipline. Hence, the formation of character is quite smooth and natural. John Dewey has rightly remarked— “The child is informally educated by living with others and the very process it enlarges and enlightens experience, it stimulates and enriches imagination, it creates responsibility, accuracy and vividness of statement and thought.” Demerits of Informal Agencies: Informal agencies often impart vague knowledge. The accumulated knowledge of the race cannot be imparted through informal agencies alone. Duration and time limits are greatly essential in the preparation of citizens who are to lead their own lives successfully and guide the destiny of their nation. No planning is often no education. Much time and energy is wasted in random experiences. At the same time skills and techniques also cannot be developed through informal36 education. Sometimes © fa and habits which bring harm to the Difference Between Formal and ~_ Formal Agen igion, Museum, Z00, (School, Rel Planned entertainment, Organizations, Library, ete.) Controlled environment. Pre-planned achievement of narrow ends. Direct education. Place and duration of work are fixed. Guided and supervised by definite persons. Curriculum, time table and techniques are definite. ~ Their work is time bound. 8. Afier prescribed work examinations are conducted and certificates, diplomas and degrees awarded, Planned scheme and programmes of education Emerging Indian Socay ne ildren may go astray and develop harm) Ne individual as well as to the Society it Informal Agencies (Family, Community Centres, 4 TV, Radio, General games ang | sports, Market place, Fairs, etc) 1. Free and uncontrolled envi, 2. No pre-planned scheme nor determined aims and Objective, 3. Indirect education. 4. Neither fixed locations nor fixe duration of time. 5. No definite persons guide and supervise these. 6. No limitation of curriculum, tim table or techniques. 7. No such limits of duration and dozes of work. 8. Itis life long education. No certificate, diploma or degree is awarded. . No planning is often wastage of energy and time. eS 3. Balance Between Formal and Informal-Agencies of Education The truth is that none of the above discussed agencies is complete i itself, Each gives a certain type of education which is only a part of the whal Jn reality, both the agencies of education are mutually complementary a? supplementary for the complete and wholesome development of personalit} Thus, both the agencies should co-operate in educating the child. There mu be a balance of working by both the agencies for the total development of th child. No one is to be neglected as both complete the desired development.onms of aueation s Types of Education In order to understand the meaning of education even more fly, it is essary 10 glance at the various types of education also. Some of the main ne r jon are as follows: types of educa Formal and Informal Education Formal education is artificial whereas informal education is natural, unorganized and spontaneous, In the sphere of informal education, aims, plan, curriculum, methods of teaching, place, time and the teacher, etc. are not pre-determined, whereas in formal education, all these elements are clearly spect ied and known beforehand, Formal education has its own fimitations. The main medium of formal education is the school., whereas the sphere of informal education is far more comprehensive in fact, unbounded sphere, since it can be obtained in the family, the community, religious places and institutions, on the playground, etc. The main purpose of formal education is to bring about the development of the child’s theoretical knowledge, whereas informal education aims at the comprehensive and ractigal development of the child. The difference between the two can be heiter highlighted through the table given below: Formal and Informal Education—A Comparison Formal Education Information Education SSS SS Scope _| Narrower. Wider. Environment] Artificial. Natural and Spontaneous. Aim Emphasis upon the child’s | All round development of the intellectual development. | child; maximum development of his innate powers. Programme | Pre-determined; lacking in | Undetermined and accidental, variety. but full of variety. Agencies | School, library, etc. Family, community, religious institutions, peer group, state, etc. f Teacher —_| A specific professional Parents, brothers, friends, individual, members of the community, neighbours, etc.t Emerging Indian Society ang 8 & $$ ——————$_$§_—— cs Formal Education Information Eadueatiog ~* From birth till death, | Generally from the age of 4 | or 25 years. The four walls of the school Ma whole of society, Period Place Not pre-determined; expe of every aspect of life; lif itself is the curriculum Theoretical and practical knowledge of some chosen raditional subjects Curriculum Teaching Determined by subject and | No definite methods, methods _| class level. | Evaluation | Written/practical tests at the | No definite written/practicay end of the term or curriculum. | oral tests; tests continue throughout life. Certificates or degrees given | No written or published on achieving success in the _ | certificates given to the examination. individual Certificate Formal education, itself, may be of several kinds, such as Genera , Specialized education. General education is imparted to all learners where, specialized education is given to selected students, in selected subjects, 5, selected objectives and professions. Individual and Collective Education are also distinctions within th framework of formal education. The term individual education is applied that educational process in which the child is separated from other childre: and given education conforming to his personal interests, abilities, ay needs. On the other hand, collective education is a title referring to the kin, of education often seen being given to large groups of children collective Since these two forms of education fall within the sphere of form education, it is not desirable to go into a detailed consideration at this point. Nonformal Education In this age, another form of education which has become very popule is that of ‘Nonformal’ education, the background for which is provided by— — the explosion of knowledge consequent upon scientific and technologic: development, ~ introduction of modem scientific techniques in place of traditional techniques,ums of Education Fe ceil am 0 the identification between traditional culture and the modern scientific and technological culture In the parameters provided by this background, the aim of education is no longer to make a person literate, but to achieve his entire social and economic development. As already highlighted in the preceding sections, education has been accepted a a lifelong process, starting with birth and ending only with death. Hence, education is obtained not only through the school; in fact, the individual himself learns from his experiences of life. Ths situation existed at a time when there were no formal schools, and hence the individual acquired his learning through informal methods, Even today, many people steadfastly hold to the view that the human beings of that period were far superior to the so-called educated individuals of today. In brief, then, it can be said that the individual teams, naturally and spontaneously, within the environment of his home and his family, far more than he can in the artificial atmosphere of the school. For example, a farmer’s child acquires skills pertaining to agriculture far more easily, efficiently and rapidly through his home than he ever can at the agricultural farm of his school. The foregoing analysis applies to the concepts of ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ education. Now, a third and a new concept has gained currency—the notion of ‘nonformal education’. This is a form of education free from the formalities and restrictions of the school and also the spontaneity and naturalness’ of the family and home. It is a hybrid form of both, in which the restraints of formal education—place, time, ete—are loosened, and the major part of the educational programme is implemented in natural surroundings. It is opposed to the imposition of predetermined formalities, but neither is it completely informal. It falls somewhere between the two mutually exclusive forms—the formal and the informal. In our country, the need for this kind of education was clearly perceived, and as @ consequence, many new programmes—adult practical literacy, correspondence education, open universities, nonformal education for dropouts, ete—have been taken up. Their objectives are—social and economic development of every section of society. Hence, under such schemes, various programmes of social and economic education are being implemented. Characteristics of Nonformal Education: The history of the respected status achieved by nonformal education is no more than a couple of decades old. Ee eee |iL Idealism Meaning of Idealisny [dealism is bom out of Plato's ‘Theory of Ideas" jocrine, the ultimate supremacy is of ideas. In this way, idealism’ but adding the letter ‘I’ for pronunciation facil dealism ‘As a philosophical doctrine, idealism Tecognizes ideas, feelings and deals more important than material objects and at the same time emphasizes pat human development should be according to moral, ethical and spiritual alues so that he acquires knowledge of unity in diversity. According to this ;, the real word is ity it is known as idealism holds that spiritual world is more important than material world. The chief reason is that material world is destructible and mortal, Hence itis untrue and myth, On the contrary, the spiritual world is @ world of ideas, feelings and ideals the knowledge of which reveals the reality of rind and soul. In this way, according to Idealism only spiritual world is the essence of reality which is undying, immortal and true. Nothing beyond the spiritual world or spiritual values is immortal and true. In this way, Idealism recognizing human ideas, feelings and ideals more importent than natural and scientific phenomena, emphasizes on the study of man and his mind. According to Idealism, the essential nature of man is spiritual which is | revealed in mental, religious and aesthetic areas. Animals are incapable of these multifarious expressions. Hence, human life is far superior to animal life. Idealism emphasizes the study of man more and more because man is endowed with higher intellectual powers and shows greater levels of intelligence and discrimination. Unlike animals who are slaves of situations ‘nd circumstances, man can mould and modify his surroundings and “rcumstances according to his needs and requirements. He can rise higher |i higher and can attain divinity by his own virtuous life dedicated to higher spiritual values of human life, By his own mental, moral and artisticEmerging Indian Society ang ‘tu 78 man has created the modern cultural, artistic and, el environment for his own good and good of the whole humanity. i Jealism identifies with spiritualism, with the ultinay whole world and Keeps the flame of "i es to come, Horne has vi 1 activities, In short, Id ervades the tness burning for tim tic philosophy of education, then, is an aceg,. of a universe of mind.” "int force which p goodness and real remarked—“An Idealist » finding himselfas an integral part re Socrates, Plato, Descartes, guj Hegel, Green, Schophenhaur, Geal Jhads to Aurobindo Ghosh, the " FFA man Protagonists of Idealism a Burkeley, Kant, Fitche, Schelling, Westem and from Vedas and Upnis philosophers Definition of Idealist he meaning of Idealism more clear we give below To make tl minent scholars: important definitions as given by e 1, “Idealism holds that ultimate reality is spiritualism.” —D.M, varied forms, but the pos 2, “Idealistic philosophy takes many and essential world stuff, that underlying allthis is that mind or spirit is the true reality is a mental character.” 3, “Idealists point out that i world, To them nothing gives a greater sense of reality than the activity mind engaged in trying to comprehence its world. For any thing to give greater sense of reality would be a contradiction in terms of because to kn any thing more real than mind would itself be a conception of mind.” —Bruba Growth of Idealism Idealism is an old philosophy. Its inception is taken from the very t! when man began to think. In the West, it was born out of the writing rations of Plato, Socrates, Aristotle and other Philosophers. In India, it born out of the holy scripts Vedas, Purans and Upnishads. Since then, i developing in all countries of the world in small or great measure. Fundamental Principles of Idealism The fundamental principles of Idealism are as under:ae Idealism and Aims of Evdcation : lowing are the aims of education“ he f0 cording to the philoso phy of _= ism: | ‘ self-realization or Exhaltation of Personal aire lity: Ac mnost beaut creation of God, Hence, the 9,1 delim, is the the advocates of . 7 es on! at stress 07 the exhalation of human Personality, By os lee WE .sonality, they mean self-realization, Self-realizatio ‘thaltation of an M involves full > of the self. Hence, the first aim of i ledge ° q Of educatioy gos deel the ‘Self of the inividul higher iigontG to ain i achieved: Inthe words of JS, Ross—The aim of eduese py aso with Idealism isthe exhalation of personaly ar al : i eae making acta or real the highest potentialities ofthe cet 3.To Ensure Spiritual Development: Idealists give greater importance sirius values in comparison with material attainments. Thus, according hom, the second aim of education is to develop the child mentally, sly and above all spiritually. Thus, the teacher should so organize cation as 10 develop the child spiritually. According to Rusk—‘Education enable mankind through its culture to enter more and more fully into spiritual realm, and also enlarge the boundaries of spiritual realm,” 4,To Cultivate Truth, Beauty and Goodness: Idealists assert that to elop spiritual values in the individuals, pursuit of highest ideals ly—Truth, Beauty and Goodness should be encouraged more and more. more an individual realizes these ideals, the more spiritually developed will become. Hence, education should strive its utmost in developing the iid morally and spiritually so that he achieves self-realization. 4, Conservation, Promotion and Transmission of Cultural Heritage: is the only being endowed with a keen and penetrating intellect, ligence and an enormous capacity of assimilating knowledge of the ld. Hence, his mental and intellectual capacities develop cultural, social ‘atistic values in human life in all its aspects. Man’s achievement in the of science, art and culture are of great intrinsic value. His creativity is ic and working since the very early times. Our cultural heritage is of nse value and worth. This cultural treasure belongs to the whole nity and it is the purpose of education to preserve, develop and transmit Hall comers of the world, Thus the fourth aim of education according toEmerging Indian Soggy ang di ism is t0 acquaint the child with the cultural heritage ‘ leal a promotes and transmits it f0 the rising generation, & const 5, Conversion of Inborn Nature into itt Nature: de : she view tat te inborn instincts and inte tnd ofthe iy be sublimated into spiritual qualities and as ) is is real deve dividuality. Only then, it will be possible for the individual fullest and highest development of personality. Hence, the fit ‘ education according t0 Idealism is to sublimate the inborn raw ing the child into spiritual qualities, y 6, Prepar create such condition and pI the development of spiritual V good ideals will lead natural the in ation for a Holy Life: Idealists uphold that education rovide an environment which are cong b alues in a child. A holy life full of p, " y towards spiritual development ad realization. Hence, the sixth aim of education according to j de philosophy is to prepare the child for a holy life. In this connection p rightly remarks—“The object of education Is the realization of a fj pure, inviolable and hence holy life.” f Intelligence and Rationality: Adams has def education from the point of view of an Idealist. According to him ther purpose in all objects ‘and natural phenomena. Man can_understang purpose as well as the plan and organization. There are set prin working in this creation. An Idealist always tries to discover and un these principles so that on the basis of moral elements the world r organized, Hence, according to ‘Adams, the seventh aim of education is develop the intelligence and rationality of the child. Out of these prin the Idealists lay great importance on the principle of Unity in Diversity principle of unity underlies the working of all creation as it is the impi force in the whole cosmos. A highly developed mind and intelligence perceive and understand this all pervading force. Frobel in his famous ‘Education of Man’ aptly remarks—“In all things there reigns an et Jaw._.this all pervading energetic, self-conscious and hence eternal This unity is God. Education should lead and guide man to face with and to unity with God.” Idealism and Curriculum While structuring curriculum, Idealists give more importanc® thoughts, feelings, ideals and values than to the child and his activities. 7, Development 0Emerging Indian 4 0 . Activities of Man Ny ral and Religious Literary and, Physical, Social, Mo : psa : Physical, Culture, Sociology, Lica : Ethics and Religion, etc ion, i eography, Scie 4, Views of Ross About Curriculum: Ross has divide i activities into two categories—(1) Physical or related to healthy ra 2) Spiritual. Ross holds the view firmly that man can devely be \ only when he is physically healthy. His chart of classification js as und Activities of Man Physical Spiritual Skills and Health Education Intellectual Moral Aesthetic Religious Literature, Language Ethics Fine Arts Religion History, Geography, and So Science and Maths Metaphysics Idealism and Methods of Teaching The aims of Idealism are concrete and definite. But there is no specific method for achieving them. Socrates used Question-Answer method Plato emphasized Discourse Method and Aristotle advocated Inductive-Deductive method. In the works of Hegel, Logical Measuring is evident. Descartes employed the device of Simple to Complex. Pestalozzi laid stress 0 education of the physical organs and allied activities. Herbart advocated Instruction Method. Froebel insisted upon Play-way Method. Not only these, _ , seawees Jdealists advocated many more methods in groups. In this way, according to Idealists np er . to. In their opinion any and every fheihad at method is to be adr e deals sel and detemined before, Bute fas teh cea” S righ ‘emarked alists consider themselves as creators and determiner f some one method.” 'ers of methods not 85 oleh lamely Discussion, Lecture. gevotees Idealism and Teacher in the realm of Idealism, the role of teacher is v pos. Helse philosophy believes that his planned eration hos two atts _{1) The teacher and (2) The child as student, Both ai meee, “The development of the indivi Ths one tatget idual child i iri Bion of this great aim is possible only through iter ie ial agent, the teacher. In reality an Idealist teacher is imbued ful ie high degree of self-knowledge, self-dynamism and essential Hae of statism. By his own model of life, he tries to shape the individuality of the child to @ life of purity, virtue and great achievements. He create a wholesome conducive atmosphere by his own activities and. planned Mpwrenes for the child. He guides the child with such genuine love ection and sympathy that he attains his full mental and. spiritual joselopment. JS. Ross aptly remarks—“The Naturalist may be content with priars, but the Idealist wants fine roses. So the educator by his efforts assists the educand, who is developing according to the laws of his nature to attain s that would otherwise be denied to him.” level Idealism and Discipline Naturalism provides unrestricted freedom to the child whereas Idealism wants to keep the child under discipline. Idealists believe that there can be ro spiritual development of the child without discipline. But what type of discipline? Idealists attach importance to impressionistic discipline in comparison with Repressionistic discipline. Thus, they assert that the teacher should first gain respect from the child by his affectionate and sympathetic | behaviour and then, motivating him by his praiseworthy ideals sublimate his | basic instincts, keeping into control his undesirable activities, into desirable | qualities of head and heart in such a way that he begins to exercise and maintain self-discipline fully realizing that this self-discipline in for his own good and development, In this way, on one hand, Idealism emphasizes sympathetic control on the undesirable activities of the child whereas on the ciber hand it grants regulated liberty for his spiritual development. | || g of Naturalism erialism According to this philog form of matter or an ¢f a) of both. Naturalistic philosophy defines life ne of material and chemical laws and emphasizes the relationship bety, power, speed ‘and matter as of the nature of casual relationship. Accor din Nature is every thing. Nothing is before and beyon4 truths of nature by scientific mer i) Id investigate the i with all his capacities and resourcefulness. Naturalists believe that due - 7 advancement of human civilization and development of society, man ty arer to Nature, his development gone away from Nature. If he comes ne t to Naturalists, the ultimate rea} be natural and normal. Thus, according of Nature or matter. It may be noted that Naturalists do not believe iy spiritual development, They deny the existence of any such things ay supremacy of God, immortality ‘of soul and the freedom of will. To 4 there is nothing else than matter, which is ultimate reality and the ultim, cy truth. C, Protagonists of Naturalism i 2 turalism are Aristotle, Comte, Hobbes, Bac Darwin, Lamark, Huxley, Herbert Spencer, Bernard Shay Rousseau, etc. ae Put Meanin\ also termed as mat Naturalism 1S Jd is matter Mind is also 4 the basis of the wor of matter or @ synthesis Naturalism, only Hence, man shoul! To make the meaning of Naturalis i ee ig ralism more clear, we give som: 1. “Naturalism is system whose salient characteristic is the exclusion o! whatever is spiritual or indeed whatever is transcendental of experience— i from our philosophy or Nature and man.” —Voytt 2. “Naturalism is not sci j ura science but i it pee t an assertion abi Bete Ny ty t the assertion that scientific knowledge if ae a cientific or philosophical knowledge.” e "AB Pepatra 3, Nawal : a term loosely applied in educational theory to stems of Traini that are not dependent on schools and books bu oe the manipulation of the actual life of the educated.” ISR e J.S, Ross 89 vw Growth of Naturalism The development of Naturalism ma The material clements of the Nature ing think. Hence, Thailles thought water ‘Anaksimader accepted fire, water and also, from the very earliest times, Vedic elements very seriously. As such, Indian these elements of fire, earth, water, air Indian philosophy reflect in more or | Naturalism, Though Naturalism is a very old philosophy, yet the credit of introducing it into the realm of education goes to the revolutionary changes in physical sciences in the eighteenth century. In that age despotism and absolutism reigned supreme in whole of Europe with the result that there was almost no freedom for the individual at all, Corruption and falsehood were a strong rampart. The aristocracy had its hands red with the blood of common people, Everywhere there was exploitation, make-believe and deceit, But the advancement of science began to change the scene and old foundations began to quake under its impact. People began to realize that man is essentially free and his ultimate good lay in the lap of Nature. Hence, revolutionary fire began to spread in whole of Europe to free the common man from the strangle hold of dictatorship and absolutism. These revolutionary ideas took their. roots from the 13" and 14* century as movements of Reformation and Renaissance which often took the shape of Pietism, Realism, Puritanism and other reformatory movements. The main aim of all these movements was to end absolutism in the field of religion and Formalism in the social field. This revolution broke out in France in all its full fury and its main actors were Voltire and Rousseau. These philosophical thinkers raised a banner of revolt against the despotic rule of Louis XIV. Voltire raised his voice aloud against intellectual repression and imposed discipline. Rousseau inspired people's cry of liberty, equality and fraternity in the field of political rights. Voltire’s Rationalism eventually tured into formal movement but Rousseau’s voice spread like a jungle fire. Rousseau exhorted people to know that there was no inequality in Nature and thus it ay be traced from the earliest times. Pired man from the very beginning to as the original source of all world. air as immortal elements. In India Seers thought about these immortal People began to worship as divine and sky. In this way, Greek and less degree the fundamentals ofEmerging Indian Soci J nd 90 chouted—“Man is born free and I find him e. 4 e who aati serfdom must end and to achieve this we must ee ce, litical institutions on the principles of equal i cial and poll transformed the face of whole Europe and ty, ty cry ay This cry - and wide throughout the world. Forms and Principles of Naturalism were heard f For Naturalism: 1. Physical Naturalism: 2, Mechanical Naturalism. 3. Biological Naturalism. ms of Naturalism: The following are the three ee q 4, Physical Naturalism Physical naturalism studies the processes of matter and Phenom, the external world. It explains human activities and experiences in tern, material objects and natural laws. In other words, Physical Naturalism ‘more stress on the external material phenomenon than he conscious hua being. According to this view, the external Nature has complete hold on jy life of human beings. In the field of education, Physical Naturalism with i great stress on physical sciences has not got much importance. The sinpl reason is that education is a conscious human process of development ay not mere a physical science process. 2. Mechanical Naturalism According to mechanical Naturalism, this universe is a lifeless hug machine which gets its form through matter and motion. In the movement) of this machine no mind or mental activity is required, nor any spirit! power is needed, According to this form of Naturalism, ignoring th consciousness of man as an individual entity, he is considered as a mere pat of this huge machine and is himself a small machine. This is also set motion by external stimuli and forces of nature. This form of Naturalism hi contributed a singular characteristic to the process of education. In ot words, Mechanical Naturalism has given rise to. modem Psychology “ Behaviuorism which emphasizes the importance of conditioned resp" and the effective principle of Learning by Doing.yal ” iological Naturalism iological Naturalism is based upon the Darwinian olution: According to this theory, man has ev al process of development, Man is su phution. The advocates of this schoo! uph jnfluence on the nature and temperament of an individual human being, This umines the principle of "Man of Nature’, according to which thie influence es on from generation to generation. In this Way, Biological Naturalism emphasizes the development of man’s natural impulses, natural propensities and inborn tendencies, This doctrine has Put forward three following principles of evolution: ], Adaptation of Environment. 2, Struggle for Existence, 3. Survival of the Fittest. Theory of animals by Process of olved from lower Preme product of this old that heredity has a powerful Acbording to the first principle each specie has to gain adjustment in ‘order to live, the second principle indicates that for life one has to struggle, The third principle clearly emphasizes that only the fittest survive, others deeay and die out. This form of Naturalism exerts most prominent influence ‘on the process of education. Principles of anaere The following are the main principles of naturalism: 1. The universe is a huge machine. Man is also a part of this machine and a complete machine in himself also. 2. Life comes out of dead matter and is a sum total of physical and chemical reactions. 3. All the capacities of an individual human being are delimited by his nature. Those are his innate and inherent tendencies and basic instincts. 4, Man, because of his own nature, is the supreme creation of Nature. He may be termed as the supreme and superior most animal. 5. The present life is the real life. Except this world, there is no other world beyond it, neither any other life beyond this. Hence, man should try to make this life happy and comfortable,Emerging Indian Society 92 he external Nature only. All objects ae 0 6, Reality is of t j ¢ by this Nature and ultimately disappear in Naty," re, Lay ou re never change. external Natu Unchanging laws of Nature explain all the events ang ; ey of the world 8. The true explanati physical sciences. 9, The changes in th to scientific discov x ‘on of reality can only be done jn ; sm ¢ life of man and his physical condition eries and inventions of machines and iia devices which promote all sorts of comforts. Hence, know [ physical inventions and discoveries is very essential. “ ity is of Matter. God, Soul, Mind, The He, The ultimate Reali Will, Moral Values, Prayers and Super and Hell, Freedom ©: Wonders are all illusions. Thoughts depend on physical circumstances. They are acti only when some external stimuli affect the body organ of individual. S Naturalism in Education In the field of education, Naturalism means the development of according to his inherent nature. The credit of introducing Naturalism i education goes to Comenius and Bacon, but Rousseau brought movement to the Zenith. Herbart Spencer and Basedow, Salzman Campe of Germany are its notable protagonists. e has two interpretations—(1) Physical Nature gy of child. Physical Nature is external and Nature ‘ch means the basic instincts, impulses, tendet i born potentialities of the child. According laws of Nature should correspond and ©0-\ with the internal Nature of the child for his full natural development. During the period of Renaissance, the humanistic movement grad lapped ni mex forall, verbs and auch oe ‘el controls. As a result, education came to mean only bookish knowledg? Jinguistic jugglery. ‘This hindered the natural development of the child. 8 ae to all this, Naturalism advocated the reor; oe to Ne ot rea yay that all shackles of formalism, verbaie cae aa ve The word Natur (2) Nature of psycholo; the child is internal whi capacities and other in! Naturalism, the external‘s of the child % - gevelopment of the child goes on acc ; ia inborn propensities. Not only Wiens nfs his inherent nature, wes ind ofthe child from above, the educations reins knowledge 4 Ma selF-acquring and self-learning, Foljon ero We education The great philosopher Rou fe ficial and snobbish and exhorted th gs? Faken down and education shold a iors tndencies and propensities oft pt gonality fully and completely, In his ts tio” he declares Nature as the best teacher ast development Further, he insists that edu perpent an shouldbe followed wih al 4 from above. Rousseau kept his imaginary cial restraints and provided him free experi develop himself by his own free wi ts and tendencies, Not only this, Rousseau Propagated Negatiy ation als0 which means that the teacher should not compel the shld c something preplanned and predetermined. Emile’s education meant Reelopment of his sense and: inborn capacities. In short, Rousseau sasized that education i8 otto prepare a child for future adult life, but develop him in the present according to his own nature. This will be self. Jopment and all Jeaming is ‘self-learning. Thus, more and more ences should be provided to the child for his fullest development rt Spencer also insisted upon the natural education of the child with the “ge aim of ‘self-preservation’ which only science can provide. Viewing this point, education according to Nature is a sort of revolution against traditional aims, ideals, curriculum and methods of teaching for the sole «se of achieving the natural and normal development of the child which |d be the real aim of any educational process. lat all bonds of artificiality be wiven according to the he child so that he develops famous book ‘Emile and and natural development as ication is a natural process ncerity, and not something child ‘Emile’ away from all fences of natural life so that Il according to his natural se ~™ Both Rousseau and Herbart Spencer put the child at the central position educational process and emphasized that Nature should be regarded as the tes teacher ad natural facts are the agencies and means of education of the iid according to Nature. Thus, the view of child-centred education and entific tendency in education are the two important contributions of ralism to modem education. Characteristics of Naturalistic Education The following are the characteristics of Naturalistic education:Emerging Indian Society and r, 94 1. Back te Nature: Out of three essential factors of education nay Nature, man an objects Naturalism gives prime importance to Nature, He ‘4 its call is k to Nature’. According to Naturalists, the best teach." child is Nature, Hence, to develop the child according to his pay 4 education should provide natural environment. In the 18” centy environment of educational institutions was very much artificial. Roy, \ rebelled against formalism, verbalism and the artificiality of education exhorted one and all to return to education which brings about the rang and normal development of the individuality. Rousseau firmly believed a life became artificial by coming in contact of social institutions, Thy," decided to educate his imaginary child ‘Emile’ in the laps of Nature, yy first sentence of his famous books ‘Emile and Education’ Roya. emphatically declares—“All things are good as they came from the hang," the author of nature, everywhere they degenerate in the hands of man” 2. Opposition to Bookish Knowledge: The second characters, | Naturalistic education is its opposition to mere academic knowledge verbalism of books. The prevalent education meant mere cramming of and Latin literature. Naturalists opposed this education calling it artificia snobbery and mere show. They emphasized real education to be According the nature of the child through natural interests and activities. Rousseay ve such a staunch supporter of education by nature that he did not pres anything for mental development of the early childhood except the reaej of ‘Robinson Cruso’ because this novel narrates the exploits of the hero atural surroundings guided by his own natural tendencies. To him gj ni education, even the early childhood should be self-learning or learning jj $e = doing. 3. Progressive: The child characteristic of Naturalistic education is ty education should be progressive. Prevalent education prepared the child fy his future adult life. It believed the gospel—‘Child is the father of man’. such, more and more knowledge used to be forced down into the mind of i child to prepare him to face the problems of adult life. This, the Natural thought as cruel and unjust behaviour towards a child. Naturalistic ducati} believes that a child is a child and not an adult in the making as a child, he! dynamic individual who develops gradually. This development p through four stages namely infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulth All these stages have their own needs and problems. Education should m these needs and develop the capacity to solve those problems particulat each stage. Any other process will be to strangle the natural needswww Rousseau has clearly exh jrements: 'Y exhorted—“Natur ed te children before they are men. If we seek to nla ti * th a order, w flavour.” 1 4, Negative Education: The fourth chara education. J.S. Ross is right when he sa 5 ‘all produce forward fruits without ripeness and 3 ‘teristic of Naturalism is vegative at ays—“A negative oes not mean time of idleness, far from it. It does aH ie a pre's from vice. It does not inculcate truth, it Protects from error, poses the child 40 take the path that will fad hi rexched to understand it, and goodness, when he hh cognizing and loving it.” im o truth when e has 8 acquired the faculty 0 re Central Position of Child: The fifth characteristic of Naturalistic education is to put the child at the centre of the educational Process. Naturalists believe that education is meant for the child. Thus, it should be so organized that child learns by his own activities, , if observations and experiences without any guidance, 6.Freedom of the Child: The sixth characteristic of Naturalistic education is to allow full freedom to the child to develop himself according to his natural tendencies. The school, the time table, the books and the teacher should not condition his experiences in any way as pre-planning or re-conditioning spoils his natural growth and stunts his normal development. The child should be put under no restraints, no interferences, no difficulties and no confusions. He should be completely free to structure his own plans, activities, observations and experiences. Rousseau emphatically exhorts— “God makes all things good. Man meddles with them and they become evil.” 7.Emphasis on the Training of Senses: Naturalistic education emphasizes the training of senses. Nothing is acquired by force from outside. Our senses are the gateways of knowledge. These senses need training to discharge their function with efficiency. In this connection Rousseau has well said—“Education should prepare the way for reason by the proper exercise of senses.” Naturalism and Aims of Education All Naturalists do not agree on the formulation of educational aims. Different Naturalists have expressed different views about the aims of education. Yet; the main aims as propounded by all Naturalists are as under:Emerging Indian So ie 96 Sieh NEGA "Yang 1, To Perfect the Human machines: Naturalists. re, 0 ‘ 2 To Pirige machine. Man is a part of this huge moh wy ne in himself also. Hence, the first aim of cat it dual work very efficiently as a part of the huge maa Py) very efficient machine himself. In the words fag ts ‘make the human machine as good a maching aie “Education should m € a8 titution, by elaborating it and making j , constitu it mm universe 4 complete mac hi make the individ also work as a V by attending to itso b ae and more complicated tasks. 2, Attainment of Present and Future Happiness. Biola Naturalism advocates the attainment of happiness of the indivi dug ey should be in the present life as well as in the life to come. Education , co-operative in this process and bring it to success. But Mc Dougal that happiness and misery come according to the natural consequenes as such no voluntary seeking after them will be of any use, Heres the emancipation, moulding and guiding of the basic impulg,* of be chil tain natural progress and S ani Naty the child and a synthesis of all these to a development. 3. Preparation for the Struggle of Existence: Darwin believed jy the principle of struggle for the existence and survival of the fittest. Accordiy to this principle man has evolved from the lower forms of animal life. Qn, has to struggle constantly with the environment for survival. Those who lose decay and disappear. Hence, education should develop the capacities Of the individual so that he comes out victorious in the struggle of life ang existence in this world. 4, Adaptation to Environment: New Lamarchians also believe in the Darwinian theory but assert that a human being, unlike the other animals, has a power to adapt himself to the ever changing environment. This is a natural capacity. Thus, the aim of education should be to strengthen this capacity of adaptation of the individual. Reinforcement by education will give the individual added capacity and efficiency to this task of adaptation 5, Improvement of Racial Gains: Some Naturalists believe that the racial heritage of cultural and civilizational achievements cannot be transferred from generation to generation by a mere natural process of inheritance, As such, education should conserve and preserve this cultur! heritage and develop it further. J.S. Ross aptly remarks—“Education, thet, is the preservation, the handling and the enhancement of the racial gaits generation by generation.” :yr a” 7 yet ; yatural Development: Rousseau has emphatically declared th: ne child physically healthy and strong, and in view of the individ ii gine “education should develop the child according to his a gif?" rests, nctiations, aptitudes and capacities ina fre env add tom svelopment will be a development according to Nature WC Ta sof tet 4, Autonomous Development: T.P. Nunn has insisted that while ving the aim of education according to the Naturalistic lat philosophy scientific point of view, one must keep in mind that the development is ee, fly autonomous and self-acquired. In other words the aim of a ation should be to develop a self-developed and. self-realized juc aio Naturalism and Curriculum. Naturalists regard religious education as useless, According to them, pahould consist of subjects and items hich reflet the inbor ural interests, natural activities, individual differences and sex Toys of children s0 that they develop their individuality naturally and ey. ‘As such, curriculum should contain Games, Sports, Physical 2 , Biology, Physics, Nature study, Language, History, Geography and ier allied subjects. Herbart Spencer, a staunch Naturalist advocates ‘Complete Living Aim’ geicion and 10 achieve tis aim, curriculum should contain Physiology, fring, Phsicel culture, Chemistry, Arithmetic, Home-Soience and other entific subjects as main subject whereas Language, Literature, Art and ‘her cultural subjects as subsidiary subjects. jul encies nat Naturalism and Methods of Te: 9 In the field of methodology, Naturalism’ has made very significant costbution. In the traditional system of education, the same type of docation was imparted to a group of individuals at a time, Naturalistic education opposed this traditional system and advocated the system of developing inherent tendencies by providing conducive experiences and the children imbibing knowledge according to their interests and aptitudes by ther own efforts, observations and experimentation. Discarding the old system 4s stagnant Naturalism prescribed—(1) Learning by Doing, (2) Learning by Experiences and (3) Learning by play as the bases of teaching.: Emerging indian gq, et a To the Naturalists book reading 18 unpsychological, Th “ himself in those activities and experiences whey appear to him! hp, and joyful. He does all Tearing by his own interest and effort. Siena Rousseau used 10 do. "nie rhe principles advocated by Naturalists Ihave roughing modem methods of teaching which are—Observation Methog hy . Method, Dalton Plan, Montessori Methog’ lay q a Method, Heuristic fc nental methods. All these methods are self-learning Method oi, Ss ang very effective and purposeful. They give full xpression which leads to creative and cons experi such they are child for free e? ictive acing Naturalism and Teac Rousseau thought the child as pure inherently. His natural devely takes place only when he is allowed to develop freely without any hing ny or interference from outside. Naturalists do not like that children shou taut in classes by teachers who are spoiled bythe artificial atmospha, society, To them, Nature is the only Supreme teacher, in whose close con the child develops normally and naturally. In the process of education, y. place of the child is more important and central than the teacher. The tea, Should not impose upon the child any thing under his own authority supremacy. The teacher should so sympathetically and affectionately behay, towards the child that he feels full freedom to develop himself according y this natural qualities, interests and capacities. The teacher is only to set the stage and allow the child to act freely according to his inherent capaci and the teacher is only to act as a sympathetic observer and guide, Naturalism and Discipline In the field of discipline also, Naturalists depend upon Nature and advocate the theory of ‘discipline by Natural consequences’. According to them, Nature will punish the child if he contravenes the law of Nature and thus he will learn by the consequences of his own actions. Thus, no body should interfere in this process of Nature. The child should be allowed full freedom to indulge in the activities of his choice. The teacher should provide such experiences for free activity. Any interference is likely to create mental ‘complexes in the sub-conscious mind of the child, Thus, the Naturalists decry all kinds of external interference and allow full freedom to the child to think and act according to his interests, inclinations, aptitudes and capacities.™ a lesbat Spee ead om DeuSTa theory supports the theory of “ine PY natural Consequence of Naturalistic school of thinki so or pain are the twin teachers who will discipline the child fe sable and undesirable betiviies according to the Consequences, Ths ME spencer opines—"When a child fll or runs is head against the a tues ai the remembrance of which tends to make it more ble, nd by reflection of such experiences, it is eventually disciplined into ful at . i Piper euaance of its movements. Naturalism and School According to Naturalists, the organization of school is rigid, controlled ficial and 8S such the growth and development of children is stunted wed. Thus, they assert that school environment should be completely flexible and without any rigidity. There should not be any fixed time or and no forcing from above the ready made dozes of knowledge into the 4s of children. Nature will do all the planning and processing for the in evelopment of children, Not only tis, Nature itself structures al the and desired experiences and also develops the feeling of self-learning 7 self-discipline. The Summer Hill School of Neel and Tagore’s Vishwa are models of such free schools where children are given full freedom plan their own thinking and activities according to their own interests and sgtural tendencies: ‘These creative and self-creative activities go to develop pe character and the personality of the individual through self-discipline and sejom to experiment. All modern and progressive schools adopt this soncept of self-discipline to promote self-development. Evaluation of Naturalism Correct evaluation of Naturalism will be possible only when we review ‘gsmerits and demerits. First we discuss its demerits and then merits in the 1,One-sided and Unsatisfying Aims of Education: Naturalism opcentrates about natural environment and natural development by Nature. cholars hold that if the child is developed according to his nature in the lap of Nature only, the child will become unsocial with no feeling of social enice 0; social good. He will develop into a pure animal. In fact, the child las animal instinct at the time of birth. If his animal tendencies are to be ‘“ciclized through education, then social environment is greatly essential. us the aims of naturalistic education are one-sided and unsatisfying. .Emerging Indian Soci i) r ig on Present Needs: Naturalism lays stress i nd problems of an individual. It advocates moh the remote future Actually life and educay \ goal Unless there 1s a goal before a child, hj im tual thirst cannot be quenched. This will leaq tal nan life. Thus no education worth thet for future life. Mia 2, Emphas! of present needs a! spiritual values and have an ultimate aesthetic and spiritual 7 ck of satisfaction In au vial values and preparation 3. Igno should be based on his riences cannot ensure 4 res Books: Naturalism emphasizes that education of activities and life experiences. But only ‘ct ha expe! the total development of the child’, e Hal How can we leave those books which contain valuable knovey Ma, experiences of others forming the cultural treasure of humanity Net can afford to neglect or be indifferent to books. Natural activities a. pooks all contribute their share in the development of total Personality l, 4, Undue Emphasis on Physical Education: Naturalism lays too emphasis on the development of the physique and the physical senses for this reason that Rousseau advocates natural education for twelye ey be given to a child, only then moral education may be imparted, This i, unbalanced process of education. Social, moral and spiritual developmen, as important and essential as physical development. According , Pestalozzi—Specialized development of one side of human nature unnatural and false...to consider any one capacity exclusively is to deyp, ‘man’s natural equilibrium.” 5. More Importance to Scientific Subjects in Curriculum: Naturaliy emphasizes scientific education. Herbart Spencer, a staunch Naturalist h; given prime importance to scientific subjects and secondary place | humanities in the curriculum. In fact the curriculum should show a balan, of the two categories of subjects as both are equally important and essenti in the development of a child’s personality. 6. Unlimited Freedom of Child: Naturalism provides - unrestricie freedom to the child to develop himself naturally. This may lead to sti assertion and stand in the way of self-realization. Self-assertion general results in arbitrary behaviour without any consideration of others. This | undesirable, All have equal rights to develop themselves. Hence, freeda! should be enjoyed equally by all and not by a particular individual only. | this connection, the needs of society and social conditions must have' als something to say and plan for the freedom of an individual,q yis™ 101 4, Unappealing Principle of Discipline by Natural Con ‘of discipline by natural consequences, as emy sequences: The iphasized, according to ul. A child may Teap a 4 apse on his part. For Je, lightening of a match stick without proper guidance May start a 2 aration of a gigantic magnitude. Thus, this Principle appears very Bo, hazardous ash and unconcucive gusts . 8, No Importance to Teacher: Naturalism assigns to the teacher the eof mere guide and observer. He is to be-a sympathetic guide and jn structuring experiences for the child and observe the activities Jergone. He is not to interfere or plan any teaching directly. This attitude considered very healthy and desirable in modern democratic counties me various social, moral and spiritual qualities are to be inculcate by the sional process in children. Without these qualities, it will not be Fecble to become a dynamic citizen promoting good to the self and welfare e nation. 49, Anti-Social: Naturalists emphasize individuality development ignoring which is as essential as individual, Both are interdependent. The ent of one may be achieved with the close co-operation and ent of the other. Thus, they are like the two sides of the same coin anciple © p han is quite unsuitable and very often harmfi ls I ature sble consequence of a very insignificant I We discuss the merits of Naturalism in the field of education as under: 4. Development of Child Psychology: Naturalism is a child-centred ‘process of development. It emphasizes the development of the child according to his natural interests, inclinations, aptitudes and capacities. This view gave an impetus to the development of child psychology and ntroduction of psychological and sociological tendencies in the field of ‘moder education. 5 2. Scientific Study of Society and Sociology: Naturalism gave birth to scientific study of society and social processes. We see that sociology is ing ground day by day as a scientific study of moder times. This has tributed much to the aims and processes of development in all areas and9 Pragmatism ~ Meaning of Pragmatism riymologically the word Pragmatism is derive fro 4 a” which means activity or the work done, Some surat reek Mord i n ome other so} ‘i the word Pragmatism has been derived from the coe Rs spragmatikos” which means practicability or utility. Thus, according ee , is srjogy great importance is laid upon practicability and wil fl) hold that first the activity or experiment is don ‘esl principles or ideas are derived, Hence, Pra & Exparimentalism ot consequentialism. It is called. Experimentaion pecaus? Pragmatists believe experiment as the only criterion of Truth, To them Truth, Reality, Goodness or Badness are all relative terms. These ancepts are not predetermined and absolute. They are proved by man’s own riences. Further, Pragmatists believe that truths are many and they are gil in the making, Man researches these areas only by means of his own experiments and experiences. Hence, only those things are true which can be yeified by experiments. Pragmatists also hold that whatever was true yesterday, need not be the same today. Under these circumstances no definite nd determined principle of current use can stop the world from moving forward on the path of progress. Pragmatism is called consequentialism because any human activity is evaluated in terms of its consequences or results, If the activity results in some utility, then it is true otherwise not. It may be noted that the fundamental start of Pragmatism is ‘Change’. In this sense no truth is absolute and permanent. It is always changing from time to ‘ime, from place to place and from circumstances to circumstances. Thus, those ideas and values which are useful in one set of circumstances, times and places, need not prove to be the same in changed circumstances, places and times. Hence, Pragmatists, unlike the Idealists, do not believe in fixed, ciemal and absolute values of life to be followed in all times, places and circumstances. They also do not uphold any predetermined philosophy of lift. To them, only those ideals and values are true which result in some utlity to mankind in a certain set of circumstances, places and times. ity. Pragmatists re and then on the basis gmatism is also knownEmerging Indian Socigty And ty 104 ‘ + clearly lays down that Pragmatign by Jiscussion The above dieith human life and human welfare, 1g cted philosophy of life also, In a nutshell one gay i it, ‘uro-centric, Idealism is psycho-centric, pra » ty 10 which, man’s OWN experiences ding 8 a intimately conne called a humanistic yralism is net where Natu accord js anthropo-centric centres of reality and truth. 3 if Pragmatism are—C.B. Pearce, Wy, William James has called Pragrati mn ‘ddle stage between Idealism and Naturalism. Idealism also empp,*t a aeveloprit as Pragmatisin does. The only cities bet a two is that while Idealism emphasizes the pursuit of pre-determineg ity and values for human growth, Pragmatism stresses ne and Values rot predetermined and absolute, but they are in the making through 2 og, of change. As such, each individual has to decide about his own idea values to pursue for his own development. Hence, like dynamic Id lng Pragmatism lays emphasis upon man made ideals and values which ae fy results of some human activities and experiments. | It may further be that there are points of similarity between Pragmatism and Naturalism Both emphasize the study of child and his nature and both hold the view that creative powers and constructive propensities in a child are i, gifts of his inherent nature. Here ends the similarity between the two by both widely differ in their approach to human growth and developmen, While Naturalism tries to develop the individuality of a child in the company of Nature, far away from all human society, Pragmatism emphasizes ip develop the child in and through human society. To conclude the discussion, we can say that Pragmatism and dynamic Idealism speak the same language about man-made ideals-and values whereas Pragmatism and Naturalism hold similar views about the study of a child and his inherent nature. The trth is that both Pragmatism and Idealism will come very close to each other if the former becomes dynamic Idealism, the difference will be much lessened in their former becomes dynamic Idealism, the difference will be much lessened in their approach to life and the humanistic philosophy of life. The chief propounders 0 james, Shiller and John Dewey. Definition of Pragmatism ___ The following definitions of Pragmatism by various scholars are being given to make the meaning more clear: 1. “Pragmatism offers us a theory of meaning, a th of , a theory of truth Knowledge, and a theory of realty.” : a james B. Prettis 105 + «pragmatism is essentially a humanistic ges his 7 vals in the couse of at and awaits its part of completion jnable extent our truths are manmade Philosophy, maintaining that Vity that reality is still in the Tom the future, that to an Products,” —J.S. Ross Growth of Pragmatism ‘Those who have written about Pragmatism hold the view that Sophist sosaets of Greek wrote about this ideology for the first time. These jst philosophers asserted—“Man is the measure of all things,” Not i, in the writings of Socrates, Hume and Bacon the reflection of any asm is reflocted John Locke also insisted that a man should en » a only in hose activites which are Hkey tobe useful to self and “He said, “It is not necessary for us to acquire knowledge of all things semed with our life.” Berkeley also took the approach of Pragmatism i efrs of aiving and identifying Truth and Reality ing nase Ze jn modem times, the introduction of Pragmatism to human life was dove by American philosopher C.S, Pearce in 1878 A.D. He asserted mie belie are really the rules for action.” After him another American shilosopher William James popularized this ideology. Later on, John Dewey in America and Shiller in England made it more and more important. Thus, vemaiism is definitely a foreign ideology. To understand its implications sly well, we should glance at the past history of America, because saomatism mirrors the American history to a great extent. In the 16" and 17° centuries, in many countries more specially in England, Catholics perpetrated inhuman cruelties upon the protestants and he reformists. The result was that thousands of the oppressed people migrated from their native countries in Europe and England to the newly fred territories, more particularly America. The purpose of this antic migratory movement was to escape from brutalities and oppression to lead a life of freedom, safety and joy. Some years after the spirit of ‘Industrial Revolution in Europe reached the shores of America also and the migrants had to confront newer and newer difficulties and problems due to changed circumstances. They all found that old predetermined ideals and lues were quite incapable to meet and solve the new problems which fronted them from time to time. This situation initiated a new type of ing to solve the merging problems of life. This new way of thinking led hem to new types of activities and new ways of learning by doing and by consequences and experiences. The Sole criteria of any activity was its utility