INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Behaviour includes all
of our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as talking, facial expressions, and
movement. The term mental processes refer to all the internal, covert (hidden) activity of our
minds, such as thinking, feeling, and remembering (Ciccarelli & White, 2018)

We can define psychology as the scientific study of behaviour and the mind. The term
behaviour refers to actions and responses that we can directly observe, whereas the term mind
refers to internal states and processes—such as thoughts and feelings—that cannot be seen
directly and that must be inferred from observable, measurable responses. (Michael W.
Passer, 2009)

Goals of Psychology

As a science, psychology has five central goals:

1. DESCRIPTION
The first step in understanding anything is to describe it. Description involves
observing a behaviour and noting everything about it: what is happening, where it
happens, to whom it happens, and under what circumstances it seems to happen. For
example, a psychologist might wonder why so many computer scientists seem to be
male. She makes further observations and notes that many “nontechies”
stereotypically perceive the life and environment of a computer scientist as someone
who lives and breathes at the computer and surrounds himself with computer games,
junk food, and science-fiction gadgets—characteristics that add up to a very
masculine ambiance.

2. EXPLANATION
Finding explanations for behavior is a very important step in the process of
forming theories of behavior. A theory is a general explanation of a set of
observations or facts. The goal of description provides the observations, and the goal
of explanation helps build the theory. For example, the psychologist might try to
 come up with a tentative explanation, such as “women feel they do not belong in such
stereotypically masculine surroundings.” In other words, the psychologist is trying to
understand or find an explanation for the lower proportion of women in this field.

3. PREDICTION
Determining what will happen in the future is a prediction. For example, if we
want more women to go into computer science, we must do something to change
either the environment or the perception of the environment typically associated with
this field. This is the purpose of the last of the four goals of psychology: changing or
modifying behavior.

4. CONTROL
The focus of control, or the modification of some behavior, is to change a
behavior from an undesirable one to a desirable one. For example, changing the image
of computer science may help increase the number of women choosing to go into this
field. (Ciccarelli & White, 2018)

PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

The four values that all fields must employ to be considered scientific are:

1. ACCURACY
Refers to adopting a means of obtaining and evaluating information in a precise, exact
and correct manner.
2. OBJECTIVITY
Refers to obtaining and assessing information without any bias whatsoever. It implies
going to the field to collect data without any preconceived notions or ideas. Simply it
is the absence of subjectivity in the process of data gathering and analysis.
3. SKEPTICISM
Implies having a critical mind and a questioning attitude. Thus, the situation where
you don’t just accept things on face value but you question and ask for proof for facts
that are presented on any matter. It is accepting information only after consistent
verification of those facts.
4. OPEN-MINDEDNESS
 As the word implies suggests the absence of fanatical or myopic view of things. This
value implies that based on the availability of new evidence one is willing to change
his stance on a subject, until further evidence is available. (Robert, 2012)

WHAT IS EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY?

According to Sheridan (1979), "experimental psychology is that branch of psychology

where experimental methods are used". Raymond Corsini (1999) describes it as, "the
scientific study of behaviour, motives or cognition normally in a laboratory setting for the
purpose of predicting, explaining or controlling behaviour" in his book The Dictionary of
Psychology. According to American Psychiatric Association, experimental psychology is a
“Specific methodological approach to psychology.” It involves the collection of quantifiable
and reliable behavioural data. While stimulus-response connections are an important aspect
of study in the field of experimental psychology, it is the cause-effect relationship between
two variables that becomes the topic of key interest.
According to Sheridan (1979), "experimental psychology is that branch of psychology where
experimental methods are used". Raymond Corsini (1999) describes it as, "the scientific
study of behaviour, motives or cognition normally in a laboratory setting for the purpose of
predicting, explaining or controlling behaviour" in his book The Dictionary of Psychology.
According to American Psychiatric Association, experimental psychology is a “specific
methodological approach to psychology.” It involves the collection of quantifiable and
reliable behavioural data. While stimulus-response connections are an important aspect of
study in the field of experimental psychology, it is the cause-effect relationship between two
variables that becomes the topic of key interest.

HISTORY OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

The history of psychology can be traced back to the footprints of philosophy. Many
great Greek, Indian and Chinese philosophers tried to observe, examine and explain human
behaviour and mind withdrawing themselves from the stringent rules of religion and society.
Some of them were Plato, Aristotle and Buddha. Though these approaches were largely
subjective in nature they provided a base to the development of experimental psychology
The history of psychology can be traced back to the footprints of philosophy. Many great
Greek, Indian and Chinese philosophers tried to observe, examine and explain human
behaviour and mind withdrawing themselves from the stringent rules of religion and society.
Some of them were Plato, Aristotle and Buddha. Though these approaches were largely
subjective in nature they provided a base to the development of experimental psychology.

The first historical evidence of experimental psychology can be traced to the

nineteenth century when father of experimental psychology Wilhelm Wundt established the
first laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879. Human consciousness was studied through the
methods of physiology. With this several laboratories were established across the
world giving a strong message to other scientists, universities, governments on a
whole that psychology was a natural science on its own. This gave psychologists a standard
location to study, collect data and conduct experiments. Sensation, perception and behaviour
being the physical elements were the main focus of experimental psychology at that time.
Following this psychologist got interested in the functions of the brain. Animals were
extensively used for studies and experimentation. Slowly and eventually psychology
expanded its horizon to include all possible research areas of human and animal behaviour. In
addition to this the techniques involved in experimental psychology have also undergone
several changes.

Unlike the experimental psychologists of early and middle nineteenth century modern day
experimental psychologists not only focus on study and research but also stress on the
application of the retrieved knowledge. Today experimental psychology is an ever-expanding
and inclusive natural science that directly deals with the common masses to make life better
at home, offices, schools’ organizations, hospitals and so on.

Pioneers of experimental psychology

WILHELM WUNDT

Wilhelm Wundt is famously known as the father of experimental psychology. He established

the first experimental laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879. Under his guidance a lot of
scholars whose primary interest was experimental psychology gained their doctorate and
went on to establish other programmes and laboratories of similar kind. Institutes and
departments all over the world took his Institute of Psychology at the University of Leipzig as
a working model. He was also the editor of the first experimental psychology journal which
also contained few works of philosophy known as 'Philosophische Studien (Philosophical
Studies). Wundt began to study perception under Helmholtz however he believed that higher
mental processes like thought, memory and creativity could not be studied experimentally.
According to him, experimental methods could only be applied to sensation and perception.
He asked his subjects to look within and reflect how they felt. This process was known as
'introspection'. The subjects had to be trained in order to observe their own feelings.
Introspection was established as psychology's characteristic procedure. In years to come
sensation and perception, reaction time, feelings, association became the prime focus of
study.

ERNST WEBER AND GUSTAV FECHNER

An anatomist and physiologist Ernst Weber (1795-1879) was among the founding fathers of
psychology. His area of study was mainly the sense of touch. He observed that when weights
were placed on a person's palm the person was able to sense the weight. The sensation is
increased or decreased with the increase and decrease in weights. Only a small difference
between the standard weight and comparison weight was necessary to feel the difference
when the weights used were small. On the contrary if the weights were large, the difference
to acknowledge change has to be higher. This difference was called "just noticeable
difference". It was observed by Weber that the amount of difference necessary to produce a
just noticeable difference has to be increased with the increase in size of the standard in a
systematic way. This is called the Weber's law. In his publication "Elements of
Psychophysics", Gustav Fechner introduced a new discipline of psychology establishing it as
a natural science called psychophysics. He made it possible to measure the strength of
sensation. He worked on Weber's law and his contributions to this particular field is called
the Fechner's law. His works in psychophysics contributed immensely to qualitatively study
mental events. It was Fechner's work that influenced Wundt and others to apply
experimentation methods to the field of experience

HERMANN VON HELMHOLTZ

Helmholtz (1821-1894) was a German physicist and physiologist who experimented

extensively in the field of sensation. He was among the founding fathers of modern
psychology (even before Wundt) and was successful in turning psychology's ancient
approach from philosophical to experimental. He is best known for visual perception of
space, colour vision research, sensation of tone and perception of sound. At that time, he tried
to study the speed of neural impulses in frogs and did this by stimulating the nerve of a frog
at two different points in the brain and calculated the difference in time it takes for the frog to
respond to the stimulation. Franciscus Cornelius Donders and Galton studied the speed of
reaction time in human beings based on this experiment. Helmholtz invented an instrument
that can be used to look into the human eye in the year 1851 called the ophthalmoscope. The
"Handbook of Physiological Optics" showcases his work in the field of senses in physiology
and contains empirical theories on spatial and colour vision. He revolutionized the concept of
vision by amalgamating both physical and psychological aspects of it and later introduced
"accommodation". He revised the three-colour theory of vision given by Thoman Young in
1801 only to be called as the Young-Helmholtz principle of colour vision.

JAMES MCKEEN CATTELL

James Cattell contributed immensely to the field of experimental psychology. He published

his dissertation "Psychometric Investigation" after working under Wundt. He worked
primarily in the fields of perception and reading, psychophysics, reaction time, association,
determination of rank according to merit and so on. He focused on the need for a practical,
test-oriented approach to study mental processes. Cattell was interested in conducting tests
where he noted the time subjects took to perform acts like naming an object or colour. He
also focused on the impact of substances such as hashish, morphine, caffeine and chocolate
on mental processes. He invented the 'gravity chronometer' which was useful in presenting
the material for controlled periods of time for reaction time studies. He established a
psychology laboratory at Pennsylvania and the University of Columbia. He started
administering tests to students and coined the term 'mental tests'. However, Alfred Binet's
intelligence tests soon replaced his tests on account of reliability. He was also associated with
the American Psychological Association (APA).

HERMANN EBBINGHAUS

While Wundt claimed that higher mental processes could not be studied experimentally,
Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first psychologist to study these processes such as learning and
memory via experimental methods. Several of his experiments were done on himself
including the one with a set of nonsense syllables. Nonsense syllables are a set of consonants
and vowels that do not make sense when put together. He believed that installing information
to the memory would enable the formation of new associations and that by repetition these
associations could be strengthened. In simpler words, memory can be strengthened by
learning something and repeating it over time and again. This led to the graphic
representation of the learning process of nonsense syllables which is famously called the
learning curve. Due to his experiments on memory, it was proven that whatever is learnt is
forgotten within the first few hours rapidly and then at a slower pace over days and months.
He is also lauded for the establishment of two psychology laboratories in Germany.

Experimental psychology in India

Philosophy gave birth to psychology in India. Philosophical approach of psychology has

always had its root in Indian culture but today experimental psychology has become an
inseparable organ of India. The year 2016 marked 100 years of experimental psychology In
India since the establishment of the Department of Psychology in 1916 at Calcutta
University. There were a bunch of firsts with the and the Department of Applied Psychology
in 1938. However, experimental psychology first set its foot in India when the Department of
Philosophy in Calcutta University introduced the first-ever syllabus of experimental
psychology and the first psychology laboratory was established in 1915. Some Indian
psychologists who greatly influenced the commencement and growth of modern psychology
in India were Dr. N. N. Sengupta, Professor G. Bose and Durga Nand Sinha among others.
Seal (1864–1938) introduced psychology as an independent study in India and established the
importance of Indian scientific knowledge through ancient Hindu philosophical concepts.
Bose (1886–1953) had a keen eye for magic and hypnotism and immensely contributed to
psychology and psychoanalysis wherein he highlighted the source and cure of mental
disorders and formed new insights into the unconscious mind. Sengupta (1889–1944) started
the first psychology journal in India, the Indian Journal of Psychology and also made
psychological instruments. However, psychology started gaining relevance in Indian society
post 1960s gaining a momentum of problem-oriented research. This was modified to
indigenisation of psychology in India in the 1970s.

WHAT IS AN EXPERIMENT?

The American Psychological Association defines an experiment as "a series of observations

conducted under controlled conditions to study a relationship with the purpose of drawing
causal inferences about that relationship. An experiment is an observation under controlled
conditions (Chapin, 1917). It is a method of testing hypotheses (Jahoda, 1949). An
experiment is the planned manipulation of variables; the independent or experimental
variable is affected under predetermined conditions during the experiment (Eysenck, 1951).
The essence of an experiment may be defined as observing the effect on a dependent variable
of the manipulation of an independent variable (Festinger & Katz, 1953). An experiment
usually consists in making an event occur under known conditions where as many extraneous
influences as far as possible are eliminated between phenomena can be revealed (Beveridge,
1957).

An experiment is an investigation in which the independent variable is manipulated or

changed in order to cause a change in the dependent variable (McLeod, 2019). An experiment
involves the manipulation of an independent variable, the measurement of a dependent
variable, and the exposure of various participants to one or more of the conditions being
studied. Random selection of participants and their random assignment to conditions also are
necessary in experiments".

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTS

ON THE BASIS OF THE SETTING

Experiments can be classified into two different types on the basis of the setting in which
they are done:

1. Laboratory Experiments
Laboratory experiments are experiments that are conducted in the controlled settings
of a lab to understand the impact of the manipulation of an independent variable on
dependent variables. Many times, a researcher might need to control certain factors/
extraneous variables that determine behaviour but cannot be controlled in a natural
setting. In such conditions laboratory experiments are conducted. For example- sound
or smoke in a room. Lab experiments have a test-retest reliability which makes it fit
for a scientific approach. But some scholars have raised doubt whether this is the best
tool for scientific enquiry as the correspondence of results in an inside lab setting and
an outside lab setting or a naturally occurring environment is bleak. This leads to the
concern of high chances of artificiality in a lab, the pattern of sampling and the
scrutiny of the conductor.
2. Field Experiments
Sometimes an experiment cannot be conducted in a lab because it is difficult to build
such an apparatus that completely resembles a natural setting. The experimenter still
manipulates the independent variable and studies its impact on the dependent variable.
However extraneous variables become difficult to control in real life settings. For
example, Charles K. Hofling conducted an experiment on obedience in the nurse-
physician relationship. Another example is when a researcher wants to study the
impact of teacher-student interaction on grades. In the control group the teacher does
 not interact with students and in the experimental group the teacher interacts with
students. This ensures that real life is reflected better in a field experiment. Such
experiments have high external validity but low reliability. Sometimes organismic
variables and the "experimenter effect" can be ruled out like in the case of Hofling's
hospital study and Milgram's experiment.

ON THE BASIS OF DEGREE OF CONTROL

Experiments may be of two types when it comes to the degree to which the experimenter can
assign subjects to conditions:

1. True Experiments
A true experiment is an experiment in which random assignment of participants takes
place. Random assignment is one of the methods of distributing the samples among
control and experimental groups. It means that the sample has a fairly equal chance of
going into an experimental or control group. It works like a lottery system which
functions on fair probability. This ensures that the experiment has a high internal
validity. This means that the cause-effect relationship between the variables can be
trusted and there is least impact of other variables on dependent variables. With this
manipulation of independent variables also takes place in this type of experiment. The
independent variable is controlled and changed by the experimenter. For example, a
researcher wants to study how chocolate influences a person's mood. So, one group
would be asked to eat 1 chocolate, second group given 2and the 3rd given none. All of
them are asked how they feel after whether there is a change in mood after eating
chocolates. Here chocolate is an independent variable.
2. Quasi Experiments
There are some conditions when it is impossible to conduct a true experiment. For
example, a researcher wants to study the impact of food shortage on the mental
wellbeing of people in flood affected areas. Here the independent variable is food
shortage and the dependent variable is people from flood affected areas. In this case
the independent variable cannot be manipulated as it would be highly inhumane to
starve people who survived a flood. So, the independent variable will not be
manipulated but selected. The control group will have people who were supplied with
ample food during flood times and the experimental group will contain people who
faced a shortage of food during flood. Hence it is clear that random assignment is not
 a characteristic feature of quasi-experiments. Quasi experiments have low internal
validity but high external validity as they reflect real-life scenarios instead of artificial
settings.

STEPS IN AN EXPERIMENT
a. Identifying the research problem
Psychologists across the world go through instances wherein they would like to have
an explanation for an event or behaviour. Some of Freud's patients had begun to
develop physical implications because of psychological disorders. He was intrigued
by this phenomenon and went on to explore this. Thus, the process of experimental
research begins when a researcher chooses a topic of study and then constricts a
specific problem or question for the research. The very first step of finding a solution
is to have a question. For example, a researcher comes across several articles stating
that more and more gamers are committing suicides. They might want to conduct
research to find out whether gaming is a reason for increased suicides.
b. Formulating a hypothesis
The second step after observing the behaviour is to form an explanation, moulding it
into a statement and then testing it. So, after selecting the problem/issue the
experimenter forms a tentative statement proposing a cause-effect relationship
between two variables. This statement is called hypothesis. For example, if you get
more sleep, then your skin will glow. A hypothesis is a testable statement based on
theories that have been proposed after observation by different people. The purpose of
scientific research is to find the truth even if it proves the hypothesis wrong. A
hypothesis should be falsifiable which means there should be a way of proving the
hypothesis wrong as there is a way to prove it right. This is what testable means. To
overcome confirmation bias that is a kind of selective perception on the part of the
researcher the hypothesis is put through a test-retest method.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES:
a. Null vs. Alternate Hypothesis
A null hypothesis is the hypothesis of negation which is always put to test
before an experiment to rule out any biases. This means that no relation exists
between the two variables. On the other hand, in an alternate hypothesis a
relationship exists between the two variables. For example, Handwriting does
 not have an impact on marks in boards(null), Good handwriting improves
marks in boards(alternate).
b. Directional vs. Non-Directional Hypothesis
A directional hypothesis clearly states the way independent and dependent
variables are related. For example, both of them increase, both decreases, one
increases the other decreases, one decreases the other increases. While on the
other hand a non-directional hypothesis simply tells that there exists a
relationship between the independent and dependent variables but does not
clarify what kind of relationship persists. For example, humidity affects
rainfall.

3. Identifying the variables

A variable is defined as “characteristic that may take on different values” (King &
Minium, 2008). Examples of variables include intelligence test scores, height, marital
status, level of noise etc. In an experiment, the experimenter aims to understand the
cause-effect relationship between two variables.

TYPES OF VARIABLES:
a. Independent vs. Dependent Variables
The variables that are subject to manipulation in an experiment are called
independent variables. The variables that are affected by the manipulation of
independent variables are called dependent variables. For example, the impact
of head massage on sleep; here head massage is independent variable and
sleep dependent variable.
b. Control Variables
A control variable is anything that is held constant or limited in a research
study. It’s a variable that is not of interest to the study’s aims, but is controlled
because it could influence the outcomes. Variables may be controlled directly
by holding them constant throughout a study (e.g., by controlling the room
temperature in an experiment), or they may be controlled indirectly through
methods like randomization or statistical control (e.g., to account for
participant characteristics like age in statistical tests). Control variables can
help prevent research biases like omitted variable bias from affecting your
results.
 c. Extraneous Variables
All the other variables except independent variables that can indirectly affect
the results are called extraneous variables. For example, impact of head
massage on sleep; amount of stress, workload, noise, interpersonal relationship
with family, acute or chronic health issues might enter as extraneous variables.
d. Confounding Variables
These are similar to extraneous variables but they can directly affect
dependent variables. The difference being that they affect two variables that
are not related to each other. They hide the impact of another variable which
makes it difficult to recognize which one of it was a determinant. For example,
the amount of stress might affect health as well as sleep (dependent variable).
e. Intervening Variables
It is the intermediate variable also known as a mediating variable that bridges
the space between independent and dependent variables. For example,
increased salary leads to good health; here intervening variables would be
better nutrition and medication.

4. Preparing the research design

Once the research problem has been formulated, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within
which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates
research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. It is the blueprint
or structure of the entire research.
a. Within subject design vs. between subject designs
A specific design of an experiment or test that deals with random assignment
of subjects to control and experimental groups is called 'between subject
design' and one where the same subject is assigned to both control and
experimental groups is called 'within subject design'.
b. Pre-test vs. post-test design
A pre-test is a test in which measurements are taken before a quasi-
experiment. The post test is a test in which measurements are taken after a
quasi-experiment. This design uses only one group of participants. For
example, patients undergoing a treatment.
c. Counter balancing design
 To counterbalance the 'practice effect' produced by 'within subject design'
subjects or samples are divided into two groups and face the experimental
conditions in different orders. The most famous being 'abba' where
a=condition 1, b=condition 2.
d. Longitudinal vs. Cross-sectional design
It studies the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
over a long period of time for the same set of people. For example, the effects
of Corona vaccine on the age group of 12-18. The same people who were
subject to experiment and test will be approached after some time, say six
months.
Cross-sectional design studies the comparative impact of a factor on two
different groups of people at the same given time. For example, the impact of
corona on the basis of ethnicity.
e. Quasi-experimental
Like a true experiment, a quasi-experimental design aims to establish a cause-
and-effect relationship between an independent and dependent variable.
However, unlike a true experiment, a quasi-experiment does not rely on
random assignment. Instead, subjects are assigned to groups based on non-
random criteria.
f. Ex-post facto design
The researcher examines and measures the effects of independent variables
that are already present in the participant. It is not manipulated. For example,
how age influences battling corona.

5. Sample and Sampling Technique

A sample is a subject of the experiment in general terms on whom the experiment is
being conducted. Sampling is the process of obtaining information about an entire
population by examining only a part of it. Sample design refers to the plans and
methods to be followed in selecting samples from the target population and the
estimation technique formula for computing the sample statistics. These statistics are
the estimates used to infer the population parameters.
Population is the total number of items about which the information is desired in
research. It can be classified into two categories- finite and infinite. The population is
said to be finite if it consists of a fixed number of elements so that it is possible to
 enumerate the total items. For example, the number of workers in an organization, etc.
An infinite population is that population in which it is theoretically impossible to
observe all the elements. In an infinite population the number of items is infinite. For
example, the number of animals in a rainforest (Kabir, 2016).

6. Data Collection
Data collection involves deciding what to observe in order to obtain information
relevant to the questions whose answers are required, and then making the
observations. Statistical methods can be contrasted with deterministic methods, which
are appropriate where observations are exactly reproduced. Data summarization is the
calculation of appropriate statistics and the display of such information in the form of
tables, graphs, or charts. Data may also be adjusted to make different samples more
comparable, using ratios, compensating factors, etc. In an experiment the data (facts
produced by a measurement) is collected during the conduction of experiment while
on the other hand data of a test can be collected anytime depending on the whims of
the administrator (Kabir, 2016).

7. Analysis of data and drawing Conclusions

Once the data is collected the next step is to analyse data and deduce the results. The
analysis of data should be quantitative in nature as the whole purpose of experimental
methods is to have a scientific approach. This includes objectivity which means that
the data collected is not subject to individual interpretation on experimenter level. If a
researcher decides to conduct the same experiment, then the results should be the
same as well. Hence, the process of organizing and refining data using different
statistical methods is called analysing data. After an inference the hypothesis is either
accepted or rejected.

EVALUATION

Advantages
1. In an experimental method the experimenter has a high degree of control. This
accounts for high internal validity.
2. Several theories can be tested in real life conditions.
3. It has high reliability as the test-retest approach makes sure that every time the
experiment is conducted the same results come out.
 4. Helps establish a relationship between independent and dependent variables.
5. Allows for application of solutions to real life problems once a relationship between
the variables is established.
Disadvantages
1. It has a more generalised approach which does not have room for the unique
characteristics of a particular subject. It is not idiographic like a test.
2. Sometimes extraneous variables get difficult to control.
3. Excessive control might lead to artificial situations. This means that there will be low
external validity.
4. It consumes a lot of time and resources.
5. Organismic variables might affect dependent variables.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

1. Informed Consent
The researcher needs to explain the process to the participants before anything is done
to them or with them. They also need to tell the participants about any involved risk.
The terms of explanation have to be put in a way that the participant understands. If
the researchers include infants or children in research, they must inform the parents
and take their permission, a legal term known as informed consent. In case of single-
blind or double-blind experiments the participants should be told that they may be a
part of either experimental or control group prior to the experiment. After the
experiment they will get to know which group they were a part of.
2. Minimising Harm
If a researcher uses an instrument or equipment that could harm the physical or mental
being of the participant then it is the responsibility of the researcher to prioritise the
safety of the subject. The Ethics Code Standard 3.04 of APA on minimising harm
says that “psychologists take reasonable steps to avoid harming their clients/patients,
students, supervisees, research participants, organizational clients, and others with
whom they work, and to minimize harm where it is foreseeable and unavoidable.
Psychologists do not participate in, facilitate, assist, or otherwise engage in torture,
defined as any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is
intentionally inflicted on a person, or in any other cruel, inhuman, or degrading
behavior that violates 3.0’’ (American Psychological Association, 2020).
3. Confidentiality
 Personal data of an individual should not be revealed in public domains. Instead, false
names or references could be used. Freud used to refer to his patients in his books
with false names to maintain the confidentiality of the people. Psychologists today
make official group results rather than individual results so that no one can be
recognized with the help of data available.
4. Use of deception
In some experiments it is necessary to keep the participants uninformed for the
experiment to function properly, otherwise it won't. This is called deception.
Deception should be used as the last resort when there is no option available.
Deception is used in an experiment to maintain the internal validity of the results (by
minimising organismic variables). The participants must be informed as to why
deception had to be used in the end.
5. Debriefing
The APA guidelines state that whenever a researcher uses deception, he/she must
inform the subjects as soon as possible about the experiment. At the university,
college and clinic level all experiments proposed are investigated by the committees
called Institutional Review Boards. The process of informing the participants about
the experiment to avoid any ill-effects is called debriefing. In the case of Milgram's
experiment, the person administering the shock had to go through an emotional roller-
coaster. It is the responsibility of the experimenter to make sure that the subject
carries no emotional burden/guilt/trauma due to the experiment. Therefore, debriefing
involves a detailed interaction between the subject and the experimenter.
6. Sharing the results
Once the results have been calculated the researcher must inform the participants
which way the experiment went. Sharing of results is an important procedure to make
the experiment more inclusive. This allows participants to know what they were a part
of and what contribution did they make to the research. Sometimes the measurements
taken and calculated help the participant understand herself better. It is the right of a
participant to get access to the result because of the time and effort that person
invested in the experiment.
7. Use of animal subjects
Use of animals such as monkeys, rats, pigeons for experiments has been an ethical
issue for long. It is found easier to use animals as subjects because of their simple
nervous system and a large number of individuals can be studied under controlled
 settings. It is also not possible to insert electrodes in humans to study the brain. When
dealing with animals the researcher needs to avoid exposing them to any unnecessary
pain or suffering. Anaesthesia should be administered while a surgery is being
conducted. If it were to die for the research of a valuable project necropsy should be
conducted and the death should be accomplished in the most humane manner.

REFERENCES

According to Sheridan(1979),
"experimental psychology is
that branch of psychology
where experimental methods
are used". Raymond
Corsini(1999) describes it as,
"the
scientific study of behaviour,
motives or cognition normally
in a laboratory setting for the
purpose of
predicting,explaining or
controlling behaviour" in his
book The Dictionary of
Psychology. According to
American Psychiatric
Association, experimental
psychology is a
“specific methodological
approach to psychology.” It
involves the collection of
quantifiable
and reliable behavioural data.
While stimulus-response
connections are an important
aspect
of study in the field of
experimental psychology, it is
the cause-effect relationship
between
two variables that becomes the
topic of key interest.
According to Sheridan(1979),
"experimental psychology is
that branch of psychology
where experimental methods
are used". Raymond
Corsini(1999) describes it as,
"the
scientific study of behaviour,
motives or cognition normally
in a laboratory setting for the
purpose of
predicting,explaining or
controlling behaviour" in his
book The Dictionary of
Psychology. According to
American Psychiatric
Association, experimental
psychology is a
“specific methodological
approach to psychology.” It
involves the collection of
quantifiable
and reliable behavioural data.
While stimulus-response
connections are an important
aspect
of study in the field of
experimental psychology, it is
the cause-effect relationship
between
two variables that becomes the
topic of key interest
According to Sheridan(1979),
"experimental psychology is
that branch of psychology
where experimental methods
are used". Raymond
Corsini(1999) describes it as,
"the
scientific study of behaviour,
motives or cognition normally
in a laboratory setting for the
purpose of
predicting,explaining or
controlling behaviour" in his
book The Dictionary of
Psychology. According to
American Psychiatric
Association, experimental
psychology is a
“specific methodological
approach to psychology.” It
involves the collection of
quantifiable
and reliable behavioural data.
While stimulus-response
connections are an important
aspect
of study in the field of
experimental psychology, it is
the cause-effect relationship
between
two variables that becomes the
topic of key interest.
According to Sheridan(1979),
"experimental psychology is
that branch of psychology
where experimental methods
are used". Raymond
Corsini(1999) describes it as,
"the
scientific study of behaviour,
motives or cognition normally
in a laboratory setting for the
purpose of
predicting,explaining or
controlling behaviour" in his
book The Dictionary of
Psychology. According to
American Psychiatric
Association, experimental
psychology is a
“specific methodological
approach to psychology.” It
involves the collection of
quantifiable
and reliable behavioural data.
While stimulus-response
connections are an important
aspect
of study in the field of
experimental psychology, it is
the cause-effect relationship
between
two variables that becomes the
topic of key interest.
According to Sheridan(1979),
"experimental psychology is
that branch of psychology
where experimental methods
are used". Raymond
Corsini(1999) describes it as,
"the
scientific study of behaviour,
motives or cognition normally
in a laboratory setting for the
purpose of
predicting,explaining or
controlling behaviour" in his
book The Dictionary of
Psychology. According to
American Psychiatric
Association, experimental
psychology is a
“specific methodological
approach to psychology.” It
involves the collection of
quantifiable
and reliable behavioural data.
While stimulus-response
connections are an important
aspect
of study in the field of
experimental psychology, it is
the cause-effect relationship
between
two variables that becomes the
topic of key interest