STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND ESCALATORS

PRESENTED D BY- PRESENTED TO-

13 ARB- 556 GUNJAN JAIN MOHD. KHALID HASAN

13 ARB- 557 PRABHANGINI VARSHNEY ZEESHAN AHMAD ANSARI
13 ARB- 564 NISHCHAY GOYAL
13ARB- 570 FARHAMAND ARSH
13ARB- 574 FATIMA TERMIZI

1
INTRODUCTION

What is a structural system..?

Structural system indicated how different structural elements are combined to form different
building types.
The term structural system or structural frame in structural engineering refers to load-resisting sub-
system of a structure.
The structural system transfers loads through interconnected structural components or members.
Structural system are classified as compressive or tensile and are geometrically as 2 – dimensional
or as 3 – dimensional and surface structure.
CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
ON THE BASIS OF TYPE OF PRIMARY STRESSES

Tensile structures Bending Structures:

Compressive structures Shear structures
Members of tensile
structures are subjects to Compression structures These are structures such Bending structures
pure tension under the develop mainly as reinforced concrete develop mainly
action of external loads. compressive stresses or wooden shear walls, bending stresses under
Because the tensile under the action of axial which are used in the action of external
stress is uniformly loads. Because multistorey buildings to loads. The shear
distributed over the compressive structures reduce lateral
stresses associated
cross-sectional area of are susceptible to movements due to wind
buckling or instability, loads and earthquake with the changes in
members, the material bending moments
of such a structure is the possibility of such a excitations. Shear
failure should be structures develop may also be significant
utilized in the most
considered in their mainly in-plane shear should be considered
efficient manner.
designs if necessary, with relatively small in their designs.
adequate bracing must bending stresses under
be provided to avoid the action of external
such failures. loads.
 COMPRESSIVE STRUCTURES

Post and beam A-frame Portal frame Arch

The simplest This structure
structure is where spans through A portal frame is An arch may be
two triangulation, with combination of curved or pointed.
vertical columns each side leaning a post
supports a beam and beam and
against the other
which spans A-frame
between them
 COMPRESSIVE STRUCTURES

Barrel vault Geodesic dome Ribbed dome Cast reinforced –

A barrel vault is A ribbed dome is concrete shell
formed by The geodesic formed by rotating structure
extruding an dome a These are
arched shape combines the set of identical traditionally made
structural arches about by pouring
advantages of central concrete into a
the sphere with
axis mould that
those of the contains
tetrahedron
the network of
reinforcement bars
 TENSILE STRUCTURES

Cable net Pneumatic Air supported Air inflated

A cable net structure structures structures
structure are -Less degree of -Higher degree of
optimum form A class of pressurization to pressurization to
under tension by membranes that achieve stability achieve stability
having adjustable obtain its
stability through -Greater span -Less span
nodes allow the
internal
cables to slide over
pressurization.
each other
wherever the
interconnect
TRUSSES
• A truss is essentially a triangulated system of straight
interconnected structural elements.
• Trusses are composed of straight members connected at
their ends by hinged connections to form a stable
configuration.
• Because of their light weight and high strength, are among
the most commonly used to span long lengths in the place of
solid
• Trusses provide complete flexibility in exterior cladding.

USE OF TRUSSES IN BUILDINGS

• Trusses are used in a broad range of buildings, mainly where there is a
requirement for very long spans, such as in airport terminals, aircraft
hangers, sports stadia roofs, auditoriums and other leisure buildings.
• Trusses are also used to carry heavy loads and are sometimes used as
transfer structures.
Trusses are widely used to serve two main functions:
• To carry the roof load
• To provide horizontal stability.
The main reasons for using trusses are:
• Long span
• Lightweight
• Reduced deflection (compared to plain members)
• Opportunity to support considerable loads.
TYPES OF TRUSSES
Planar Truss
• The simplest form of a truss is one single
triangle.
• A planar truss lies in a single plane.
• An optimum depth of the truss will
maximize the efficiency.
Space Frame Truss
• It is a three-dimensional framework.
• A tetrahedron shape is the simplest space
truss,
• Large planar structures may be
composed from tetrahedrons with
common edges
TYPES OF TRUSSES

Pratt truss ('N' truss)

• Pratt trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 100 m in span.
• The design uses vertical members for compression and horizontal members to respond to tension.
• In a conventional Pratt truss, diagonal members are in tension for gravity loads.
• This type of truss is used where gravity loads are predominant .
• An alternative Pratt truss is where the diagonal members are in tension for uplift loads.
• This type of truss is used where uplift loads are predominant, which may be the case in open buildings
such as aircraft hangers.

PRATT TRUSS (GRAVITY LOADS)

PRATT TRUSS (UPLIFTED)

KING POST TRUSS

• Consists of two angled supports leaning into a common

vertical support.
• The spacing of king-post truss is limited to 3 m centre to
centre and it is suitable for spans varying from 5 to 8 metre.
• A king post extends vertically from a crossbeam to
the apex of a triangular truss. The king post connects the
apex of the truss with its base, holding up the tie beam
(in tension) at the base of the truss.

QUEEN POST TRUSS

• A queen-post bridge has two uprights, placed about one-third of

the way from each end of the truss.
• They are connected across the top by a beam and use a diagonal
brace between the outer edges.
• The central square between the two verticals was either unbraced
on shorter spans, or had diagonal braces from the bottom of each
queen post to the centre of the upper cord. The deck is supported
by a king post, which is held up by a triangular truss.
 MANSARD TRUSS
• This truss is named after its designer and is a combination of
king-post and queen-post truss.
• It is a 2-storey truss, with the upper portion consisting of king-
post truss and lower portion of queen-post truss.
• Mansard truss has two pitches. The upper pitch varies from
30⁰-40⁰ while that of lower pitch varies from 60⁰ - 70⁰.
• The use of this truss results in economy in space but it has now
become obsolete because of it odd shape.

BEL FAST ROOF TRUSS

• It is also called bow-string roof truss since it is in the
form of a bow, with its top chord being curved.
• This can be used up to a span of 30 m if the roof
covering is light.
NORTH LIGHT TRUSS
• North light trusses are traditionally used for short spans in
industrial workshop-type buildings.
• They allow maximum benefit to be gained from natural
lighting by the use of glazing on the steeper pitch which
generally faces north or north-east to reduce solar gain.
• On the steeper sloping portion of the truss, it is typical to have
a truss running perpendicular to the plane of the North Light
truss, to provide large column-free spaces.
SPACE FRAME

• A space frame is a truss-like- lightweight rigid structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric
pattern.
• Take a form of a flat surface or curved surface. Designed with no intermediate columns to create large open
area.
• Space frame is strong because of the inherent rigidity of the triangle; flexing loads (bending moments) are
transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of each strut.
 LOAD DISTRIBUTION

• Load distribution the simplest form of space frame is a horizontal slab of interlocking square pyramids and
tetrahedral built from aluminium or tubular steel struts.

• Space frames can be used to span large areas with few interior supports. Like the truss, a space frame is
strong because of the inherent rigidity of the triangle; flexing loads (bending moments) are transmitted as
tension and compression loads along the length of each strut.
TYPES OF SPACE FRAMES
According to curvature

FLAT COVERS
These structures are composed of planar substructures. The plane
are channelled through the horizontal bars and the shear forces are
supported by the diagonals.

BARREL VAULT
This type of vault has a cross section of a simple arch. Usually this type of
space frame does not need to use tetrahedral modules or pyramids as a
part of its backing.

SPHERICAL DOMES
These domes usually require the use of tetrahedral modules or
pyramids and additional support from a skin.
According to Number of Grid Layers
1- Single-Layer
All elements are located on the surface to be
approximately.

2- Double-Layer
• Elements are organized in two parallel layers with each
other at a certain distance apart.
• Each of the layers form a lattice of triangles, squares or
hexagons in which the projection of the nodes in a layer
may overlap or be displaced relative to each other.

3- Triple-Layer
• Elements are placed in three parallel layers, linked
by the diagonals.
• They are almost always flat.
• Practically used for larger spans.
SPACE FRAMES COMPONENTS

JOINT
MEMBERS

1- MEMBERS
Tubes
• Circular Hollow sections and Rectangular Hollow sections
• Members are axial elements with circular or rectangular sections
• All members can only resist tension or compression.

2- JOINTS
• In a space frame, joints play an important role, both functional and
aesthetic
• Since joints have a decisive effect on the strength and stiffness of the
structure and compose around 20 to 30 percent of the total weight.
ADVANTAGES OF SPACE FRAMES

Lightweight Material is distributed spatially in such a way that the load transfer
mechanism is primarily axial; tension or compression.

Mass Productivity Prefabricated units, which are often of standard size and shape.
Such units can be easily transported and rapidly assembled on site.

Stiffness A space frame is usually sufficiently stiff in spite of its lightness.

Versatility Space frames possess a versatility of shape and form and can
utilize a standard module to generate various flat space grids,
latticed shell, or even free-form shapes
SURFACE STRUCTURE

Surface structures are structural elements that are able to transfer load basically through membrane stresses.
Surface structures have small thickness compare to their other dimensions. .Sometimes the material is very
flexible and can take the form of the tent or air-inflated structure . In both cases the material acts as
a membrane that is subjected to pure tension. Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as
reinforced concrete.
TYPES & CHARACTERISTICS OF SURFACE STRUCTURES:
Generally, surface structures consider the nature and tensile or compressive strength of
their member since they support load primarily in tension or compression. They are usually shaped
like cylinders or folded plates and are basically called thin plates or shells. Their shapes hence give
rise to the types of these structures now determined namely:
I.MEMBRANE OR THIN STRUCTURES: these usually referred to structural members made of thin membrane fibres
made of fibre glass. Membrane structures carry load primary through tensile stresses.
They are use mostly for roof structures since they are economical and can greatly improve the aesthetics of a
building and span over large areas.

II.SHELL STRUCTURES: these are thin rigid, curved & lightweight elements similar to those of thin structures but are
made of other materials like steel, wood, concrete etc. These structures have different element types like
hyperboloid structures, geodesic domes, etc.

III.PLATE STRUCTURES: plate structures are also light weight and thin elements that are curved. They are made of
thin plate elements that are assembled to form large structures.
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
As earlier stated membrane structures are thin layer
structures that have flexible surface. They primarily
transmit load through tensile stresses. In modern
construction today, the two main types commonly use
are:
1. pneumatic structures
2. tent structures.

Pneumatic structure:
A class of membranes that obtain its stability through internal pressurization.
- There are two primary classes of pneumatic structure :
Air supported structures: Less degree of pressurization to achieve stability
-Greater span
• Air inflated structures: Higher degree of pressurization to achieve stability
-Less span
Tent structures:
These structures on the other hand use mast or poles or tensile membranes
enclosures. Examples of these are animal skin or fabrics. Tent structures are
pre-stressed by externally applied forces so that they are held taut under
anticipated load conditions.
PLATE STRUCTURE
A plate structure is one of the most difficult
surface structure to analyses. Analysis of their
bending or buckling abilities is use to determine
their structural capabilities. An example of a plate
structure is a flat concrete slab. Plate structural
usually bend in two directions. Plates are commonly
used as cover plates on wide-flange beams, as the
flanges and webs of plate girders, and as the sides
of tube-shaped beams and columns.

TYPE OF PLATES
Sill plate:
A sill plate or sole plate in construction and architecture is the bottom
horizontal member of a wall or building to which vertical members are attached.

Folded plate:
Folded plates are assemblies of flat plates rigidly connected together
along their edges in such a way that the structural system capable of
carrying loads without the need for additional supporting beams along
mutual edges.
SHELL STRUCTURES
A shell structure is a thin curved membrane or slab usually of reinforced concrete that functions both as
structure and covering. The term “shell” is used to describe the structures which possess strenght and rigidity
due to its thin, natural and curved form. A primary difference between a shell structure and a plate structure
is that, in the unstressed state, the shell structure has curvature as opposed to plate’s structures which are
flat.
TYPE OF SHELL STRUCTURES

Long Span Domes

Constructions of spherical domes by using inflated membranes have
proven to be a viable solution to many problems. The largest shells
constructed are now less than 300 feet in diameter. Some uses, such
as sports facilities demand greater spans, perhaps as much as 1000
feet. The design and construction of such a shell is a challenge, and
using inflatable forms and a uniform depth may not be possible. For
very large spans, a grid constructed with pans is necessary so that
the dome will be stiff enough and still weigh less than a uniform.

Vaults
A vault may be defined as a single barrel shell, supported on its side
by walls or columns. The Virtue of the vault is that half of the load on
the shell is carried by the walls, and the other half is carried to the
ends and at that point the usual arch and tie are required. The
thickness of a shell can be much less that for a normal arch of the
same span because the shell carries loads as a space structure.
ARCHES
• Arches are convex structures that are designed primarily to resist compression, as a result of their shape and
the uniform loading acting on them.

• Arches can be used to reduce the bending moments in long-span structures.

• It provides a structure which eliminates tensile stresses in spanning a great amount of open space.

• All the forces are resolved into compressive stresses. By using the arch configuration, significant spans can
be achieved. This is because all the compressive forces hold it together in a state of equilibrium
• In particular, if the arch has a parabolic shape and it is subjected to a uniform horizontally
distributed vertical load, then only compressive forces will be resisted by the arch. Under these
conditions the arch shape is called a funicular arch because no bending or shear forces occur
within the arch.

• Depending on its uses, several types of arches can be selected to support a loading.

• Different end conditions are preferable with respect to different phenomena.

tied arch
Fixed Arch

• A fixed arch is often made from reinforced

concrete. Although it may require less material
to construct than other types of arches, it must
have solid foundation abutments.

• Consequently, additional stresses can be

introduced into the arch due to relative
settlement of its supports.

Two Hinged Arch

• A two hinged arch is commonly made from
metal or timber. Although it is not as rigid as a
fixed arch, it is somewhat insensitive to
settlement.
Three-hinged arch

• A three hinged arch which is also made

from metal or timber, is statically
determinate. Unlike statically indeterminate
arches, it is not affected by settlement or
temperature changes.

Tied arches

• If two and three-hinged arches are to be

constructed without the need for larger
foundation abutments and if clearance is
not a problem, then the supports can be
connected with a tie rod.
• A tied arch allows the structure to behave
as a rigid unit, since the tie rod carries the tied arch
horizontal component of thrust at the
supports. It is also unaffected by relative
settlement of the supports.
CABLE STRUCTURES
• A cable structure is a type of structure that utilizes tensioned cables
to support or transmit the major loads of the structure. When used to
support suspension bridges, cables form the main load- carrying
element in the structure.

• Cables can be of mild steel, high strength steel (drawn carbon

steel), stainless steel, polyester .

• Structural cables are made of a series of small strands twisted or

bound together to form a much larger cable
ADVANTAGES OF CABLE AS STRUCTURAL ELEMENT

• Stability is an added benefit of tensile structures. The tension in

the cables cause the resulting structure to be stable. This is
commonly demonstrated in tents which are held together by guy
wires.

• They allow you to displace loads from one part of a structure to

another part of the structure. The roof load of a stadium which is
located at the center of the structure is displaced to the
extremities of the structure.

• The loads from a structure can be displaced from its extremities to

a central pillar as in suspensions bridges and cable stayed
bridges.

• Cables weigh significantly less and they can generally hold

materials such as Kevlar vinyl and other 'soft materials'. These soft
materials act like a sheet or blanket being pulled out at each
corner, tension in the material opens it up and gives it structure.
Cables supply the required tension to keep these ‘soft materials’
open and rigid.
APPLICATION OF CABLE AS STRUCTURAL ELEMENT
• Cables are mostly used as tension member in any part of the
building.
• Though most of the application can be seen the designing
and construction of the bridges.

BRIDGES
There are 3 main types of bridges which use cables as structural
elements
• Arch bridges Zakim Hill Bridge, Boston
• Cable-Stayed
• Suspension

Independent arches, Toome bypass,

Cold Spring Arch Bridge, Santa Barbara
Northern Ireland
Arch bridges

• Thrust arches rely on horizontal restraint from the foundations. The vertical and horizontal reactions resolve into
a force along the arch members – the horizontal component is of significant magnitude.

• The most satisfactory solution when the arch bears onto good foundation material such as competent rock.
The ends of the arches are normally pinned.

Thrust arch bridge Bow String Tied arch with cross hangers

Single arch member ( Barquetta, Seville ) Inclined arches (Košická Bridge, Bratislava)
Cable Stayed Bridges

• Cable stayed bridge is a bridge which consists of a superstructure

of steel or reinforced concrete members that is supported at one
or more points by cables extending from one or more towers.

• The cables transfer their tensile load to the towers as shown. This
load is then transferred to the main column on which the tower is
constructed.

• The most common type of materials used for the superstructure of

these kind of bridges are either concrete or steel. And each of
them have their advantages and disadvantages.

Suspension Bridges

• It is a beautiful combination of ropes, steel and concrete.

• In a suspension bridge there is a suspender cable which runs the

entire length of the bridge and is supported by two or more towers.
From this suspender cable, vertical or radiating rods or suspension
cables are suspended which hold up the deck of the bridge.
Zubizuri ( tied arch) bridge by Santiago Calatrava, Bilbao Spain
Margaret Hunt Hill (cable stayed) Bridge by calatrava , Texas
Golden gate(suspension) bridge, by Joseph Strauss California, United States
Examples of Combination of Arches with cables and other elements

Cable and membrane tensile structure

Milwaukee Museum of Art building, Santiago Calatrava, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
ESCALATORS
• Power-driven, continuous moving stairway.

• Transport passengers up and down.

• Principal areas of usage include shopping centers, airports,

transit systems, trade centers, hotels, and public buildings.

• The stairs are pulled around in a loop by a pair of chains.

• Escalators are powered by constant-speed alternating
current motors
• Standard transportation speed ranges between 0.5 to
0.65m/s
• For a speed of 0.5m/s the theoretical capacity is:
600mm step width -4500 persons / hour
800mm step width -6750 persons / hour
1000mm step width -9000 persons/ hour

REFERENCE http://www.electrical-knowhow.com
 COMPONENTS OF ESCALATORS

THE ESCALATOR CONSISTS OF THE

FOLLOWING COMPONENTS:

• LANDING PLATFORMS.
• TRUSS.
• TRACKS.
• STEPS.
• HANDRAIL.
• BALUSTRADE.
• DRIVE SYSTEM.
• BRAKING SYSTEM.
• SAFETY DEVICES.
• ELECTRICAL & CONTROL SYSTEMS.
LANDING PLATFORMS
• The top platform contains the motor
assembly and the main drive gear.
• The bottom holds the step return idler
sprockets.
• These sections also anchor the ends of the
escalator truss.

FLOOR PLATE
• The floor plate provides a place for the
passengers to stand before they step onto the
moving stairs.

COMB PLATE
• The comb plate is the piece between the
stationary floor plate and the moving step.
• IT minimize the gap between the stair and the
landing.
• prevent objects from getting caught in the
gap.
TRUSS
• the structural frame of the escalator
• consists of three major areas:
The lower section, Incline section
and Upper section.
• a hollow metal structure, bridges
the lower and upper landings.
• The structural steel truss members
are designed to carry the entire load
of the escalator equipment and the
steel covering
STEPS
The steps are solid, one piece, die-cast aluminum or steel. The front and
back edges of the steps are each connected to two wheels. The rear
wheels are set further apart to fit into the back track and the front wheels
have shorter axles to fit into the narrower front track.
HANDRAIL:
The handrail provides a convenient handhold for passengers while they
are riding the escalator. In an escalator, the handrail is pulled along its
track by a chain that is connected to the main drive gear by a series of
pulleys.
BALUSTRADE:
The side of an escalator extending above the Steps, which includes Skirt
Guard, Interior Panel, Deck Board and Moving Handrails.
TRACK
The track system is built
into the truss to guide the
step chain, which
continuously pulls the
steps from the bottom
platform and back to the
top in an endless loop.
WORKING OF ESCALATORS

The escalator machinery is hidden

beneath the truss.

At the top of the escalator, is an electric

motor which runs the four gears , two
drive gears on either side at the top,
and Two return gears on either side at
the bottom.

the gears have chains that loop around

the gears and run down each side of
the escalator
Then they are connected to each step,
these chains help the steps make their
way up, or down.

Finally at the handrails are essentially

long rubber loops connected to the two
drive gears at the top of the escalator
and powered by the same electric
motor that powers the steps.

http://science.howstuffworks.com
ESCALATORS
CONFIGURATIONS:
1- PARALLEL
seen often in metro stations and
picture theaters.
These type of escalator go up
and down simultaneously.
a. Speed: 0.5m/s
b. Inclination: 30, 35
c. Step width: 800 / 1000
3- CRISSCROSS 4. SPIRAL TYPE ESCALATORS:
(Minimizes structural space These are used to enhance the
requirements by "stacking" architectural beauty and to save the
escalators that go in one space.
direction, frequently used in a. Inclined Angle : 30⁰
department stores or shopping b. Number of Persons : 6300 per hour
centers) c. Vertical Rise ( m ) : 3500 ~ 6600
Step width: 600 / 800 / 1000

MULTIPLE PARALLEL

Two or more escalators together

that travel in one direction next
to one or two escalators in the
same bank that travel in the
other direction.

a. Speed: 0.5m/s
b. Inclinations: 30, 35
c. Step widths: 800 / 1000

https://en.wikipedia.org
 ADVANTAGES
LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS • Have the capacity to transport large
PHYSICAL FACTORS number of people at shorter time.
• The vertical and horizontal distance to be spanned determine the • Faster mode of transportation for short
length and pitch of the escalator. vertical distances.
• The building infrastructure must be able to support the heavy • Their speed can be adjusted which is
components. helpful in managing the crowd.
• When turned off they can be used a
LOCATION staircase.
• The escalator should be located where it can be easily seen by the • No waiting interval except during
general public. heavy traffic.
• up and down escalator traffic should be physically separated. • May be weather – prove for outdoor
• Staircases should be located adjacent to the escalator if the use.
escalator is the primary means of transport between floors.
• Lift may also be provided near the escalator for wheelchairs and THE DISADVANTAGES
disabled people.
• Only convenient for short vertical
TRAFFIC PATTERN distance, better to use lifts for
• The carrying capacity of an escalator system must match the lengthier vertical distance
expected peak traffic demand. • Takes up space to install
• Higher risk of injuries
AESTHETICS • Waste of energy when not in use.
Color can be applied to any surface of your escalator including • Possible injuries when stopped
handrails, steps, skirt panels, decking, end caps and more. Handrail or suddenly
skirt illumination can add visual appeal, as well as increase the overall
safety of the escalator.
ESCALATOR STEP WIDTH AND ENERGY USAGE

PSMZA Course Note (Chapter 6)

Ver. 1 (MSH-Jun2013): CC608 Building Services
http://www.slideshare.net/