RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH

ETHICS
Unit-I
Meaning, Objectives, Types of Research & Legal Research
Meaning of Research
‘Research’, in simple terms, can be defined as ‘systematic investigation towards increasing
the sum of human knowledge’.

Research is a process which includes some major questions such as – “What”, “Why”
“Where”, “When” and “How”. ‘What’ denotes ‘objectives’, ‘Why’ denotes purpose, “where”
denotes circumstances, “when” denotes the ‘time’ and ‘How’ denotes methods. Object,
purpose and methods are three major components of every research.

In the modern complex world every society today is faced with serious social, economic &
political problems. These problems need systematic, intelligent and Practical solutions.
Problem solving is technical process. It requires the accumulation of new knowledge.
Research provides the means for accumulating knowledge & wisdom. In other words,
research is a systematic effort of gathering analysis & interpretation of problems confronted
by humanity. It is a thinking process and scientific method of studying a problem and finding
solution. It is an in-depth analysis based on reflective thinking.

Term ‘Research’ is composed of two syllables “Re” and “Search”. ‘Re’, is a Latin term
which means again, afresh or repeatedly. Search means try to find out something by looking
or otherwise seeking carefully and thoroughly.

Definitions of Research

a) Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English- A careful investigation or inquiry

specifically through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.
b) Redman and Mory- Systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
c) Webster Dictionary- A systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of
knowledge.

Meaning of Legal Research

This is not an easy task to find the meaning of legal research as law is a vast mass of statutes
which are constantly amended and supplemented by rules regulations, orders, directives,
ordinances, judgment of courts, and bye-laws. Also for making advancement in the science of
law requires a systematic probe into the underlying principles of and reasons for law. Thus,
legal research has a broad ambit to it. It has to be continuously done by legislators, a judge, a
lawyer, a law student and a law teacher.
In this context, legal research may be defined as ‘systematic’ finding law on a particular point
and making advancement in the science of law. However, the finding law is not so easy. It
involves a systematic search of legal materials, statutory, subsidiary and judicial
pronouncements. For making advancement in the science of law, one needs to go into the
‘underlying principles or reasons of the law’. These activities warrant a systematic approach.
An approach becomes systematic when a researcher follows scientific method.

Generally, law is influenced by the prevailing social values and ethos. Most of the times, law
also attempts to mould or change the existing social values and attitudes. Such a complex
nature of law and its operation require systematic approach to the ‘understanding’ of ‘law’
and its ‘operational facets’. A systematic investigation into these aspects of law helps in
knowing the existing and emerging legislative policies, laws, their social relevance and
efficacy, etc.

Characteristics of Research
1. Research is a systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon.
2. It is not mere compilation of facts.
3. It adopts scientific method.
4. It is objective & Logical
5. It is based on empirical evidence.
6. Research is directed towards finding answers to questions
7. It emphasis the generalization of theories and principles.

Objective of Research
The main purpose of research is to discover answers to the meaningful questions through
scientific procedures and systematic attempt. The hidden truths which are not discovered yet
can easily come to light by research.

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights to it.

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual situation or a group.
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else.
4. To test a hypothesis or a casual relationship between variables.
5. To ‘know’ and ‘understand’ a phenomenon with a view to formulating the problem
precisely.
6. To ‘describe’ accurately a given phenomenon and to test hypotheses about
relationships among its different dimensions.

Purpose of Legal Research

1) To ascertain laws on a given topic or subject.
2) To identify ‘gaps’ and ‘ambiguities’ in law.
3) To critically examine consistency, coherence and stability of law and legal
propositions.
 4) To undertake ‘social auditing of law’ [i.e. auditing pre-Legislative ‘forces’ and post-
Legislative ‘impacts’ of law].
5) To suggest reforms/developments in law by undertakings research intended:
a. To investigate ‘gap’ between the ‘legal ideals’ and ‘actual practice’.
b. To understand ‘effectiveness’ or ‘impact’ of law in a given social set-up at a
given time.
c. To find out as to whether law is serving the needs of the society and has a
social value.
d. To make suggestions for improvements in the law on concrete formulations
and proposals.
e. To predict future trends of law.

Kinds of Research
Research can be classified on the basis of their nature. Specific nature of research is designed
by their objectives and purposes. On the basis of objectives research can be classified as:

a) Inventive Research: Invention of novel product which was not existed before. Such
invention is the outcome of consistent efforts made by the researcher for satisfying
any necessity. Usually, inventive researches are concern with the material things i.e.,
articles, instruments, machineries or devices etc. Theory or principle by which such
thing has been produced or it works is a knowledge searched by the researcher.
Inventive research is basically concerned with pure science. Produce of inventive
research depends on the personal skills of researcher as to his knowledge and
designing of the product.

b) Exploratory research: Exploration of unknown facts which though exists, but not
known by the society. Those facts which are mysterious or difficult to interpret are
searched and introduced before the society by the research is called exploratory
research. Usually those areas where no earlier studies have made or no preliminary
knowledge exists by which any general hypothesis can be formed to proceed ahead.

c) Explanatory research: Explaining any knowledge which already exists but social
awareness towards such knowledge or reality is incomplete, misleaded or
inconsistent. Such research is motivated so that the society can be made aware about
the real state of knowledge. The purpose behind such research is to protect the society
from suffering caused due to wrong perception towards any fact, phenomenon,
principle or theory. If social perception can be corrected the society can progress
further. Otherwise it may be static or degrading continually in any particular field of
life.

d) Diagnostic research: Where any problem exists, but their causes are not known, the
exercise towards finding such causes or variables responsible for origin, existence and
subsistence of problem are diagnosed is called diagnostic research. It is also known as
causal research. It shows the cause and effect relationship. Problem is always an
 effect of certain known or unknown variables. Study of such unknown variables is
known as diagnostic research.

e) Remedial research: Where the causes of any problem have already identified, but
how to prevent or control such problem still puts a question. Therefore, the remedies
are explored to control or eradicate such problem is called remedial research.

f) Comparative research: Where two or more groups, phenomenon, society, policy,

instruments, principles or theories are compared for certain objectives. Such
comparison is made according to objectives and purposes of study. If two or more
options are available for making any decision then comparing things is necessary for
going with better choice.

g) Experimental Research: Where effect of one variable is observed on another

variable in controlling and manipulative manner by the researcher. Experimental
research demonstrates the cause and effect relationship by manipulating factors. It is
the testing of variables in laboratory. These researches are rarely used in legal
research. Since, the law research is generally focused on exiting and ideal legal
principles, legislations and policies studied in real social condition without any
external control. Though, the pilot project schemes are basically experimental
methods used in social science. Experimental methods are more expensive for their
frequency of trails taken by the researcher for coming on reliable results so that
standard predictions can be made.

h) Historical Research: In historical research, past events are studied systematically and
chronologically so that a clear description can be given as to the happening of events
in past. In historical research scattered recorded facts are collected.

Kinds of Legal Research

The basic types of research can be broadly classified in various subsets wherein they can be
understood in comparison with another kind of research. Those are:

1) Descriptive and Analytical Legal Research - The former describes the state of
affairs as it exists. It describes the phenomenon, reporting what has happened or what
is happening, without going into the reason or cause for the same. The tools used are
surveys, comparative and co-relational methods and fact-finding enquiries. But it does
not establish any relationship between the variables.

The analytical research however uses the facts and information available to make a
critical evaluation. In analytical research, the researcher uses his facts or information
already available and makes their analysis to make a critical evaluation of the
material.
2) Applies vs. Fundamental Research- Applied research or action research aims at
finding a solution for an immediate problem. Here the researcher sees his research in
a practical context. While in fundamental research or pure research or basic research,
the researcher is mainly concerned with generalization and with the formulation of a
theory. He undertakes research only to derive some increased knowledge in a field of
his inquiry. He is least bothered about its practical context or utility. Research studies
concerning human behavior carried on with a view to making generalizations about
human behavior fall in the category of fundamental or pure research. But if the
research (about human behavior) is carried out with a view to solving a problem
(related to human behavior), it falls in the domain of applied or action research.

The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem, while that of fundamental research is to find additional information
about a phenomenon and thereby to add to the existing body of scientific knowledge.
The ‘applied’ scientist is thus works within a set of certain values and norms to which
he feels committed. A sociologist, for example, when works with a social problem to
find solution therefore and proposes, through a systematic inquiry, a solution or
suggests some measures to ameliorate the problem, his research takes the label of
‘applied’ or ‘action’ research. But when he undertakes a study just to find out the
‘what’, ‘how’ of the social problem, his inquiry takes the nomenclature of ‘pure’ or
‘fundamental’ research.

3) Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research- Quantitative research is based on the

measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to a phenomenon that can be
expressed in terms of quantity. It is systematic scientific investigation of quantitative
properties of a phenomenon and their inter-relation. The objective of quantitative
research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and hypotheses
pertaining to the phenomenon under inquiry. The process of measurement, thus, is
central to quantitative research because it provides fundamental connection between
empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationship.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon,

i.e. phenomenon relating to or involving quality or kind. For example, when a
researcher is interested in investigating the reasons for, or motives behind, certain
human behavior, say why people think or do certain things, or in investing their
attitudes towards, or opinions about, a particular subject or institution, say adultery or
judiciary, his research becomes qualitative research. Unlike quantitative research,
qualitative research relies on reason behind various aspects of behaviour.

4) Conceptual vs. Empirical Research- Conceptual research is related to some abstract

idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to re-interpret the existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research
relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system or
theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions that are capable of being
 verified by observation or experiment. It is therefore also known as experimental
research. In empirical research, it is necessary to get facts firsthand, at their source. In
such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis
or guess as to the probable results. He then works to gets enough facts (i.e. data) to
prove or disprove his hypothesis.

Criteria of Good Research

1. Good research is anchored on a sound research question.

A sound research question is one of the most important characteristics of good research. A

good research question details exactly what a researcher wants to learn and defines a study’s
scope. By formulating a good research question, researchers can ensure that they stay on
track during the course of their study. 

2. Good research follows a systematic, appropriate research methodology.

The overall quality and success of a research study are largely determined by the research
methodology it uses. Choosing an appropriate research methodology helps ensure that
researchers can collect relevant data and use the right data analysis methods.

Research methodology refers to the systematic procedures or techniques a researcher uses to

ensure that his study achieves valid, reliable results.

3. Good research acknowledges previous research on the topic.

While good research leads to the discovery of new knowledge, it also means studying
previous research on the topic. By studying scholarly articles and other works related to your
subject of interest, you get an idea of what has already been studied and how your study fits
into existing research. 

4. Good research uses relevant, empirical data and proper data analysis methods.

One of the most important qualities of a good research study is that it deals with empirical
data. Empirical data is data that has been collected by researchers themselves through
observation, experience, or experimentation.  The data collected must be analyzed properly as
well.

5. Good research is representative and generalizable.

Criteria of good research include being representative. In research, representativeness refers

to a sample’s ability to represent a larger group. This means the characteristics of the subjects
(people) being studied closely match those of the study’s target population.
 6. Good research is guided by logic.

One of the distinguishing characteristics of research is that the entire process is guided by
logic. Using logic, for instance, can help researchers determine what kind of data they need
for answering their research question.

The logical processes of induction and deduction can also prove to be valuable in the research
process.

7. Good research has external validity.

Good research has external validity if its results or findings can be applied to the real world.
There are two types of external validity for researchers to consider: population validity and
ecological validity. Research with findings that can be generalized from the sample to the
larger population has a high population validity. Meanwhile, you can achieve ecological
validity if you can apply your study’s findings to real-world situations and settings.

8. Good research is replicable, reproducible, and transparent.

Replicability, reproducibility, and transparency are some of the most important characteristics
of research. The replicability of a research study is important because this allows other
researchers to test the study’s findings.

Good research is also reproducible. Though replicability and reproducibility are often used
interchangeably, research is reproducible if researchers achieve consistent results using the
same data and analysis methods.

For research to be replicable or reproducible, it must also be transparent or available to other

researchers. Research must be written or presented in such a way that it provides
comprehensive details on how data was collected and analyzed and how conclusions were
reached.

Importance of Research

#1. Research expands your knowledge base

The most obvious reason to do research is that you’ll learn more. There’s always more to
learn about a topic, even if you are already well-versed in it. If you aren’t, research allows
you to build on any personal experience you have with the subject. The process of research
opens up new opportunities for learning and growth.

#2. Research gives you the latest information

Research encourages you to find the most recent information available. In certain fields,
especially scientific ones, there’s always new information and discoveries being made.
Staying updated prevents you from falling behind and giving info that’s inaccurate or doesn’t
paint the whole picture. With the latest info, you’ll be better equipped to talk about a subject
and build on ideas.

#3. Research builds your credibility

People will take what you have to say more seriously when they can tell you’re informed.
Doing research gives you a solid foundation on which you can build your ideas and opinions.
You can speak with confidence about what you know is accurate. When you’ve done the
research, it’s much harder for someone to poke holes in what you’re saying. Your research
should be focused on the best sources. If your “research” consists of opinions from non-
experts, you won’t be very credible. When your research is good, though, people are more
likely to pay attention.

#4. Research helps you narrow your scope

When you’re circling a topic for the first time, you might not be exactly sure where to start.
Research helps you identify the most unique and/or important themes. You can choose the
themes that fit best with the project and its goals.

#5. Research teaches you better discernment

Doing a lot of research helps you sift through low-quality and high-quality information. The
more research you do on a topic, the better you’ll get at discerning what’s accurate and
what’s not. You’ll also get better at discerning the gray areas where information may be
technically correct but used to draw questionable conclusions.

#6. Research introduces you to new ideas

You may already have opinions and ideas about a topic when you start researching. The more
you research, the more viewpoints you’ll come across. This encourages you to entertain new
ideas and perhaps take a closer look at yours. You might change your mind about something
or, at least, figure out how to position your ideas as the best ones.

#7. Research helps with problem-solving

Whether it’s a personal or professional problem, it helps to look outside yourself for help.
Depending on what the issue is, your research can focus on what others have done before.
You might just need more information, so you can make an informed plan of attack and an
informed decision. When you know you’ve collected good information, you’ll feel much
more confident in your solution.

#8. Research helps you reach people

Research is used to help raise awareness of issues like climate change, racial

discrimination, gender inequality, and more. Without hard facts, it’s very difficult to prove
that climate change is getting worse or that gender inequality isn’t progressing as quickly as it
should. The public needs to know what the facts are, so they have a clear idea of what
“getting worse” or “not progressing” actually means. Research also entails going beyond the
raw data and sharing real-life stories that have a more personal impact on people.

#9. Research encourages curiosity

Having curiosity and a love of learning take you far in life. Research opens you up to
different opinions and new ideas. It also builds discerning and analytical skills. The research
process rewards curiosity. When you’re committed to learning, you’re always in a place of
growth. Curiosity is also good for your health. Studies show curiosity is associated with
higher levels of positivity, better satisfaction with life, and lower anxiety.

Problem of Researchers in India

1. Cultural problems
2. Structural and procedural problems (for example, unsympathetic attitude of
authorities.)
3. Lack of resources, (for example, Access, money etc.)
4. Incompetence (For example inadequate planning etc.)
5. Lack of networking and forums

Doctrinal & Non-Doctrinal Research

a) Doctrinal Legal Research- The central question of enquiry here is ‘what is the law?’
on a particular issue. It is concerned with finding the law, rigorously analyzing it and
coming up with a logical reasoning behind it. Therefore it immensely contribute to the
continuity, consistency and certainty of law. The basic material can be found in the
statutory material i.e. primary sources as well in the secondary material. However, the
research has it own limitations, it is subjective, that is limited to the perception of the
researcher, away from the actual working of the law, devoid of factors that lie outside
the periphery of law, and fails to focus on the actual practice of the courts.

b) Non-doctrinal Legal Research- Also known as socio-legal research, it looks into

how the law and legal institutions moulds and affect the society. It employs methods
taken from other disciplines in order to generation an empirical data to answer the
questions. It can either be answering a problem, like to find the gap between idealism
and social reality, could be tracing the results legal decisions, also can assess impact
of non-legal factors upon legal processes or decisions, or may be a reform based
approach. It is about viewing law from the perspective of a different discipline to keep
it organic and growing, that is, to put things in a context. Being empirical it is vital
and valuable in revealing and explaining the legal practice and procedures and their
impact on range of social institutions, like family, businesses, citizens, consumers.
 Unit II
Research Formulations and Designs
Hypothesis: Role
1. Hypothesis facilitates the extension of knowledge in an area. They provide tentative
explanations of facts and phenomena, and can be tested and validated. It sensitizes the
investigator to certain aspects of the situations which are relevant from the standpoint
of the problem in hand.

2. Hypothesis provide the researcher with rational statements, consisting of elements

expressed in a logical order of relationships which seeks to describe or to explain
conditions or events, that have yet not been confirmed by facts. The hypothesis
enables the researcher to relate logically known facts to intelligent guesses about
unknown conditions. It is a guide to the thinking process and the process of discovery.

3. Hypothesis provides direction to the research. It defines what is relevant and what is
irrelevant. The hypothesis tells the researcher what he needs to do and find out in his
study. Thus it prevents the review of irrelevant literature and provides a basis for
selecting the sample and the research procedure to be used in the study.

4. Hypothesis implies the statistical techniques needed in the analysis of data, and the
relationship between the variables to be tested. It also helps to delimit his study in
scope so that it does not become broad or unwieldy.

5. Hypothesis provides the basis for reporting the conclusion of the study. It serves as a
framework for drawing conclusions. In other word, we can say that it provides the
outline for setting conclusions in a meaningful way. So, Hypothesis has a very
important place in research although it occupies a very small place in the body of a
thesis.
Hypothesis: Definition
Hypothesis is usually considered as an important mechanism in Research. Hypothesis is a
tentative assumption made in order to test its logical or empirical consequences. If we go by
the origin of the word, it is derived from the Greek word- ‘hypotithenai’ meaning ‘to put
under’ or to ‘to suppose’. Etymologically hypothesis is made up of two words, “hypo” and
“thesis” which means less than or less certain than a thesis. It is a presumptive statement of a
proposition or a reasonable guess, based upon the available evidence, which the researcher
seeks to prove through his study. A hypothesis will give a plausible explanation that will be
tested. A hypothesis may seem contrary to the real situation. It may prove to be correct or
incorrect. Hypothesis need to be clear and precise and capable of being tested. It is to be
limited in scope and consistent with known or established facts and should be amenable to
testing within the stipulated time. It needs to explain what it claims to explain and should
have empirical reference.

Goode and Hatt defined it as "a proposition which can be put to test to determine its
validity".

Rummel defines it as "a hypothesis is a statement capable of being tested and there by
verified or rejected".

Criteria of a workable hypothesis

1. Conceptual Clarity- A hypothesis should be conceptually clear. It should consist of
clearly defined and understandable concepts.
2. Specificity- A hypothesis should be specific and explain the expected relation b/w
variables and the conditions under which these relations will hold.
3. Testability- A hypothesis should be testable and should not be a moral judgement. It
should be possible to collect empirical evidences to test techniques.
4. Avalibility of Techniques- Hypothesis should be related to available techniques.
Otherwise they will not be researchable therefore the research must make sure that
methods are available for testing his proposed hypothesis.
5. Consistency- Hypothesis should be logically consistent. The propositions derived
should not be contradictory.
6. Objectivity- Scientific hypothesis should be free from value judgment. The researcher
system of values has no placing Research.
7. Simplicity- A hypothesis should be as simple as possible. Simplicity demands insight.
The more in insight the researcher has into a problem, the simpler will be his
hypothesis.
Hypothesis: Sources
A hypothesis may be formulated through a number of is sources. Following are the main
sources of hypothesis.

1. Personal Experience
2. Imagination & Thinking
3. Observation
4. Scientific Theory
5. Previous Study
6. Culture
Previous Study
Previous study is also a source of developing a concrete hypothesis. If a researcher uses
previous knowledge about a phenomenon for a particular place, then another researcher
followed his techniques and formulates his own.

Personal Experience
On the basis of his personal experience he uses his mind and suggests some points for the
eradication of a social problem through developing a good hypothesis. Greater the researcher
experience lead to higher degree of formation.

Imagination & Thinking

Creative thinking and imagination of a researcher sometimes help in formulating a
good hypothesis. Personal ideas and the thinking capabilities of a researcher would lead
to greater number of hypothesis formulation as well as control over the problem.

Observation
In consideration and undertaking a research problem, observation is necessary. The
collection of previous facts and current facts related to the problem lead to the
formulation of a good hypothesis.

Scientific Theory
Theory is capable in explaining all the facts relating to the problem. Scientific theory is
a fertile source of hypothesis formulation. The theory which is used by a researcher may
satisfy the needs of making it, because theory explains the known facts.

Culture
Culture is the accumulation of ways of behaving and adoption in a particular place and
time. While formulating a hypothesis for a problem, culture should be studied. If we
want to study trends towards female education in a particular area, for this purpose we
will study, traditions, family system, Norms, Values, region and education system of
that area.

Identification and Formulation of Research Problem

Every research problem has to be screened on following steps as
1. Realization of Problem
2. Identification of problem
3. Analysis of Problem
4. Statement of Problem

1. Realization of Problem- This is the first stage when researcher realizes the existence
of problem. If researcher undertakes any research without his realisation of problem,
he may undergo with the research but cannot formulate the research objectives and
purposes pin pointed towards the satisfaction of objectivity of research. Even he
cannot test veracity of solutions suggested on the basis of results.
 Interest of researcher is also an important aspect for establishing relation of researcher
with such problem. Since the researcher has to spend a long time with research study
if he would have interest in the subject of research only then he can continuously
work on it otherwise not.

2. Identification of Problem- After realisation of any problem next necessary step or

process is the identification of problem. Before formulation of problem, there must be
corroboration of opinion as to the existence and nature of problem. Researcher should
discuss his observation regarding problem with stakeholders and experts, and to invite
their opinions on such problem. The researcher must at the same time examine all
available literature to get himself acquainted with the selected problem. He may
review two types of literature – the conceptual literature concerning the concepts and
theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are
similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge
as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which will
enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context.
After this the researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms.

3. Analysis of Problem- In easy way of addressing any research problem contains three
major steps – description of problem, understanding of problem and explanation
thereof. While selecting any research problem, researcher must see that problem
should not be of temporary nature it should be of permanent nature which requires
human interception.

No problem comes from the vacuum. Every problem has its history and components
which constitute such problem. Researcher has to search and analyse all those facts
which are the part of any problematic incidence, phenomenon or transaction. This
process is called ‘crystallisation of problem’

In Legal research, analysis is used in a broad sense to refer the process of identifying
the issue or issues in given facts and to determine rules, principles and theories of law
to be applied. It is an organized approach that helps to develop research skills. It
makes legal research easier, saves time, and establishes reliability and validity of
results. The most common approach to legal analysis involves a four-step process:
Issue,, Rule, Analysis/ Application and Conclusion. It is important to keep in mind the
crucial role the facts play in analytical process. The four steps of the analysis process
involve the facts in each step:
a) Issue: The key facts are included in the issue. The issue is the precise question
raised by the specific facts.
b) Rule: Determination of which the law governs the issue is based on the
applicability of the law to the facts in issue.
c) Analysis / Application: This step is the process of applying the rule of law to
the facts. Without the facts, the law stands in a vacuum.
 d) Conclusion: The conclusion is a summation of how the law applies to the
facts, a recap of the first three steps. It too requires the facts.

4. Statement of Problem- This is the final stage when research problem comes into the
shape of statement. Whatever be the understanding and perception made by researcher
after crystallisation and keen analysis of problem thereafter he makes the statement
regarding existence of problem. Statement must convey the real nature of problem as
it is as realised and felt by researcher. While formulating research problem, researcher
has to be very careful as to the use of language and grammar. Language should be
clear, easy and unambiguous. A research problem must be identified without any
ambiguity and each selected research problem must be clearly defined. There may be
a situation in which the researcher is fully aware of the symptoms relating to certain
problem in achieving his goal. Statement of problem should convey the major
objective of research and type of research objectives. Topic should be little known,
important for group, public, society, nation or world. It should contain specific,
unsolved practical or theoretical problem; or phenomenon not yet adequately
understood.

Hypothesis and Research Design (Characteristics and Contents)

Research design denotes the research planning. A blue print of whole research work is
designed by the researcher. A research design is a general plan or strategy for conducting a
research study to examine specific testable research questions of interest. The nature of the
research questions and hypotheses, the variables involved, the sample of participants, the
research settings, the data collection methods, and the data analysis methods are factors that
contribute to the selection of the appropriate research design. Thus, a research design is the
structure, or the blueprint, of research that guides the process of research from the
formulation of the research questions and hypotheses to reporting the research findings.

Characteristics-
a) It is a plan that specifies the objectives of study and the hypothesis to be tested.
b) It is an outline that specifies the sources and types of information relevent to the
research question.
c) It is a blueprint specifying the methods to be adopted for gathering and analysis of
data.
d) It is a scheme defining the procedure involved in a research process.

Elements- The essential elements are:

 The method applied for analyzing collected details

 Type of research methodology
 Accurate purpose statement
 Probable objections for research
 Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
 Timeline
 Measurement of analysis
 Settings for the research study
Types of Research Design

1. Exploratory Research Design (Formulation Research)- Exploratory Research studies

are also termed as formulative research studies.

Exploratory Research is preliminary study of an in familiar problem about which the

researcher has little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor initial investigation of
patient suffering from an in familiar malady for getting some clues for identifying.

2. Descriptive Research Design- Descriptive study is fact finding investigation with

adequate interpretation. It is the sample type of research. It is more specific than the
exploratory study. As it has focus on particular aspects or dimensions of the problem
studied. It is design to gather descriptive information and provides information for
formulating more sophisticated studies. Data are collected by using of appropriate
methods.

3. Experimental research- Experimental research is a type of research design in which

the study is carried out utilising a scientific approach and two sets of variables. The
first set serves as a constant against which the variations in the second set are
measured.  Experimental research collects data to assist you in making better
judgments. Experimentation is used in any research undertaken under scientifically
appropriate settings. 

4. Correlational Research- A correlational research design looks into correlations

between variables without allowing the researcher to control or manipulate any of
them. Correlational studies reveal the magnitude and/or direction of a link between
two (or more) variables. Correlational research design is great for swiftly collecting
data from natural settings. This allows you to apply your results to real-world
circumstances in an externally legitimate manner. 

5. Diagnostic research design- Diagnostic research design is a type of research design

that tries to investigate the underlying cause of a certain condition or phenomena. It
can assist you in learning more about the elements that contribute to certain
difficulties or challenges that your clients may be experiencing. 

Database for Legal Research- Legislations, Judicial Decisions, Juristic

Writings, Traditional and Online Database

L-81

Jd- 83

Jw-
 Unit III
Research Techniques
Tools & Techniques for collection of data
In every research work, it is essential to collect factual material or data unknown or untapped
so far. It can be obtained from many sources, direct or indirect. It is necessary to adopt a
systematic procedure to collect essential data so that the appropriate data relevant in research
to be collected in quantity and quality and it should also be reliable and valid….For each and
every type of research we need certain instruments to gather new facts or to explore new
fields. The instruments thus employed as means for collecting data are called tools.

Techniques and Tools are the ways and means to conduct research and it could only be
justified through the use of appropriate methods and techniques meant for it, and Thereby
collected evidence is called data and the tools used for this are called data collecting devices
or tools, which is a common phenomenon in the behavioral researches. These tools help to
realize, analyze and interpretation of data related to research. A researcher needs many data
gathering tools and devices which may vary in their complexity, design, administration and
interpretation.

The selection of suitable instruments or tools is of vital importance for successful research.
Different tools are suitable for collecting various kinds of information for various purposes.
The researcher may use one or more tools in combination for his purpose. Researchers should
therefore familiarize themselves with the verities of tools with their nature, merits and
limitations. They should also know how to construct and use them effectively. The systematic
way and procedure by which a complex or scientific task is accomplished is known as the
technique. Techniques are the practical method, skill or art applied to a particulate task. So,
as a researcher, one should aware of both the tools and techniques of research.

Collection of case materials and juristic literature

Two prominent methodologies that are employed in legal research are doctrinal and non-
doctrinal. The former one is more inclined towards theoretical aspects and academics, hence
also known as “library” or “arm-chair” research. While the latter is more practical and takes
an interdisciplinary approach to observation. Hence it is also called “empirical” research. 

1. Doctrinal research- Doctrinal research has the root word “doctrine” which means a
principle or a basic governing tenet. That means, the legal doctrine would include
legal principles and tenets that would govern the legal world. Therefore, it implies
that doctrinal legal research would involve digging deeper into the legal principles
and concepts from various sources like cases, precedents, statutes and others; to
analyze them and reach valid conclusions. 

The focal point of doctrinal research is answering the question “What is law?”. It is
library-based research, i.e. we try to find out definite answers to legal questions
 through a thorough investigation from the law books, statutes, legislation,
commentaries and other legal documents. All of these sources fall under the category
of “Secondary Sources”. As stated earlier, it is theoretical research that does not
involve any kind of experimentation or fieldwork. 

Here, we are basically checking the validity of existing laws in light of a changing
society. It begins with one or more legal propositions taken as a starting point and the
entire research is directed in finding the validity of that hypothesis. It simply means
reviewing and studying different legal documents and other sources and then
deducing a complete answer to the question asked at the beginning by the means of
rational interpretation and logical reasoning. Most often, the starting point in any
research is doctrinal, i.e. library-based and then we move forward to other
methodologies once our base is set by doctrinal research. This is the reason that
doctrinal research is very famous among students and academicians.

2. Non-doctrinal research- Non-doctrinal research, also known as social-legal research,

is research that employs methods taken from other disciplines to generate empirical
data that answers research questions.

Non-doctrinal research takes a multi-disciplinary approach towards legal research. It

employs methods and information available from other disciplines to make a
comprehensive approach towards law. It employs primary sources of legal
information to reach a conclusion. Primary sources may include observations,
experiments, questionnaires, surveys, etc. With the help of these sources, we analyze
the practical aspects of law like the effect of its implementation in non-legal fields and
society as a whole. Basically, we take a legal variable which could be a law along
with a non-legal variable like economic, social, political, etc. and study their
relationship by data collected, which could be qualitative or quantitative. Its area of
focus is how the law works in the real world. 

Role of Computers in Research

There are five major phases of the research process where computer plays different vital
roles. They are:
1. Role of Computer in Conceptual phase;
2. Role of Computer in Design and planning phase;
3. Role of Computer in Empirical phase;
4. Role of Computer in Analytic phase; and
5. Role of Computer in Dissemination phase.

1. Role of Computer in Conceptual Phase

The conceptual phase consists of formulation of research problem, review of
literature, theoretical framework and formulation of hypothesis. Computer helps in
searching the existing literature. It helps in finding the relevant existing research
papers so that researcher can find out the gap from the existing literature.
Bibliographic references can also be stored through World Wide Web (www). In the
 latest computers, references can be written automatically in different styles like APA,
MLA etc. This saves time of researcher. The researcher needs not to visit libraries and
wastes his time. It helps to know how theoretical framework can be built.

2. Role of Computers in Design and Planning Phase

Design and planning phase consist of research design, population, research variables,
sampling plan, reviewing research plan and pilot study.Several software’s are
available to calculate the sample size required for a proposed study. The standard
deviation of the data from the pilot study is required for the sample size calculation.

3. Role of Computers in Empirical Phase

Computer helps in collecting data and in data analysis. After collecting data, it is
stored in computers in word files or excels sheets. The important applications used in
scientific research are data storage, data analysis, scientific simulations,
instrumentation control and knowledge sharing. Necessary corrections are made or
edited whenever it is required. Otherwise it will be a time consuming process.
Computers help in referring, editing and managing of data. Computer allows for
greater flexibility in recording the data and made the analysis of data easy. In
research, preparation and inputting data is the most labour intensive. It consumes
much time Data is being converted in a form which is suitable for the computer. It can
be coded on the excel sheet. These excel spread sheets can be directly opened with the
statistics software for analysis.
Empirical phase consist of collecting and preparing the data for analysis.
Data Storage: The data obtained from the subjects are stored in computers as word
files or excel spread sheets. This has the advantage of making necessary corrections or
editing the whole layout of the tables if needed, which is impossible or time-
consuming in case of writing in papers. Thus, computers help in data entry, data
editing, data management including follow up actions etc. Computers also allow for
greater flexibility in recording the data while they are collected as well as greater ease
during the analysis of these data.
In research studies, the preparation and inputting data is the most labour-intensive and
time consuming aspect of the work. Typically the data will be initially recorded on a
questionnaire or record form suitable for its acceptance by the computer. To do this
the researcher in conjunction with the statistician and the programmer, will convert
the data into Microsoft word file or excel spread sheet. These spread sheets can be
directly opened with statistical software’s for analysis.

4. Role of Computers in Data Analysis

This phase consist of statistical analysis of the data and interpretation of results.
Data Analysis: Much software is now available to perform the ‘mathematical part ‘of
the research process i.e. the calculations using various statistical methods. Software’s
like SPSS, NCSS-PASS, STATA and Sysat are some of the widely used. They can be
like calculating the sample size for a proposed study, hypothesis testing and
 calculating the power of the study. Familiarity with any one package will suffice to
carry out the most intricate statistical analyses.
Computers are useful not only for statistical analyses, but also to monitor the accuracy
and completeness of the data as they are collected.

5. Role of Computers in Research Dissemination

This phase is the publication of the research study.
Research publishing: The research article is typed in word format and converted to
portable data format (PDF) and stored and/or published in the World Wide Web
(www).
Effective use of Internet in Research
More and more students are turning to the Internet when doing research for their assignments,
and more and more instructors are requiring such research when setting topics. However,
research on the Net is very different from traditional library research, and the differences can
cause problems. The Net is a tremendous resource, but it must be used carefully and
critically.

The printed resources you find in the Library have almost always been thoroughly evaluated
by experts before they are published. This process of “peer review” is the difference between,
for example, an article in Time magazine and one in a journal such as the University of
Toronto Quarterly. Furthermore, when books and other materials come into the University
library system, they are painstakingly and systematically catalogued and cross-referenced
using procedures followed by research libraries the world over. This process is the basis for
the way materials are organized in the Library, and it makes possible the various search
functions of the Web catalogue.

On the Internet, on the other hand, “anything goes.” Anyone can put anything they want on a
Web site, there is no review or screening process, and there are no agreed-upon standard
ways of identifying subjects and creating cross-references. This is both the glory and the
weakness of the Net – it’s either freedom or chaos, depending on your point of view, and it
means that you have to pay close attention when doing research on-line. There are a great
many solid academic resources available on the Net, including hundreds of on-line journals
and sites set up by universities and scholarly or scientific organizations. The University of
Toronto Library’s Electronic Resources page is one such academic source. Using material
from those sources is no problem; it’s just like going to the Library, only on-line. It’s all the
other stuff on the Net that you have to be cautious about.

Here are a few basic guidelines to remember:

 Don’t rely exclusively on Net resources. Sometimes your assignment will be to do

research only on the Net, but usually your instructors will expect you to make use of
both Internet and Library resources. Cross-checking information from the Net against
information from the Library is a good way to make sure that the Net material is
reliable and authoritative.
  Narrow your research topic before logging on. The Internet allows access to so
much information that you can easily be overwhelmed. Before you start your search,
think about what you’re looking for, and if possible formulate some very specific
questions to direct and limit your search.
 Know your subject directories and search engines. There are several high quality
peer-reviewed subject directories containing links selected by subject
experts. INFOMINE and Academic Info are good examples. These are excellent
places to start your academic research on the Internet. Google, Bing, Yahoo and other
search engines differ considerably in how they work, how much of the Net they
search, and the kind of results you can expect to get from them. Spending some time
learning what each search engine will do and how best to use it can help you avoid a
lot of frustration and wasted time later. Because each one will find different things for
you, it’s a good idea to always use more than one search engine. For specialized
search engines and directories you might also like to try Beaucoup which includes
2,500 + search engines and directories or the Search Engine Colossus International
Directory of Search Engines that includes search engines from 230+ countries
around the world.
 Keep a detailed record of sites you visit and the sites you use. Doing research on
the Net inevitably means visiting some sites that are useful and many that are not.
Keeping track is necessary so that you can revisit the useful ones later, and also put
the required references in your paper. Don’t just rely on your browser’s History
function, because it retains the Web addresses or URLs of all the sites you visit, good
or bad, and if you’re using a computer at the University the memory in the History
file will be erased at the end of your session. It’s better to write down or bookmark the
sites you’ve found useful, so that you’ll have a permanent record.
 Double-check all URLs that you put in your paper. It’s easy to make mistakes with
complicated Internet addresses, and typos will make your references useless. To be
safe, type them into the Location box of your browser and check that they take you to
the correct site.

Sampling: Meaning
As the name suggests, ‘sampling’ is the procedure ‘to sample’ something. In layman terms, a
sample is a part of a thing and it has the ability to display the qualities and features of the
thing, of which it is a part. In other words sample is a part of a thing that acts as a specimen
or an example for that thing.

A sample is defined as a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a larger
population by using a pre-defined selection method. These elements are known as sample
points, sampling units, or observations. Creating a sample is an efficient method of
conducting research. In most cases, it is impossible or costly and time-consuming to research
the whole population. Hence, examining the sample provides insights that the researcher can
apply to the entire population.
In order to answer the research questions, it is doubtful that researcher should be able to
collect data from all cases. Thus, there is a need to select a sample. The entire set of cases
from which researcher sample is drawn in called the population. Since, researchers neither
have time nor the resources to analysis the entire population so they apply sampling
technique to reduce the number of cases.

Sampling: Types
1. Probability Sampling: Where the sample is chosen in such a manner that all the
elements present in the universe have an equal chance of being represented in the
sample, then it is called as ‘Probability Sampling’. The sampling techniques that come
under ‘probability sampling’ are used in the cases where population is homogeneous.
In probability sampling, all the units of the universe have an equal chance of being
included in the sample; and when the population is homogeneous, there is no risk of
missing out on any aspect of the population. For conducting probability sampling it is
imperative to know the size of the universe and the complete list of units in it. Also
the researcher must decide the size of the desired sample beforehand.
2. Non-probability Sampling: In ‘Non-probability sampling’, all the units do not stand
a chance to be included in the sample. Non-probability sampling does not guarantee
representativeness. It is also called as ‘decisive sampling’ or ‘purposive sampling’ as
the basis of sampling is the free will of the researcher. Purposive sampling is used
where the size of the universe is unknown or indefinable. It is an oft repeated and
established practice to use purposive sampling where the objective of research is
qualitative analyses and descriptive or exploratory.
3. Mixed Sampling: There are some sampling techniques which do not fall under the
above two mentioned categories strictly. These techniques display some
characteristics of a ‘probability sampling’ and some characteristics of a ‘non-
probability.

Sampling: Merits
1. Economical: It is economical, because we have not to collect all data. Instead of getting
data from 5000 farmers, we get it from 50-100 only.
2. Less Time Consuming: As no of units is only a fraction of the total universe, time
consumed is also a fraction of total time. Number of units is considerably small, hence the
time.
3. Reliable: If sample is taken judiciously, the results are very reliable and accurate.
4. Organisational Convenience: As samples are taken and the number of units is smaller,
the better (Trained) enumerators can be employed by the organisation.
5. More Scientific: According to Prof R.A. Fisher, “The sample technique has four important
advantages over census technique of data collection. They are Speed, Economy, Adaptability
and Scientific approach.”
It is based on certain laws such as:
(a) Law of Statistical Regularity
(b) Law of Inertia of Large numbers
(c) Law of Persistence
(d) Law of Validity.
6. Detailed Enquiry: A detailed study can be undertaken in case of the units included in the
sample. Size of sample can be taken according to time and money available with the
investigator.
7. Indispensable Method: If universe is bigger, there remains no option but to proceed for
this method. It is specially used for infinite, hypothetical and perishable universes.

Sampling: Demerits
1. Absence of Being Representative: Methods, such as purposive sampling may not provide
a sample, that is representative.
2. Wrong Conclusion: If the sample is not representative, the results will not be correct.
These will lead to the wrong conclusions.
3. Small Universe: Sometimes universe is so small that proper samples cannot be taken not
of it. Number of units are so less.
4. Specialised Knowledge: It is a scientific method. Therefore, to get a good and
representative sample, one should have special knowledge to get good sample and to perform
proper analysis so that reliable result may be achieved.
5. Inherent defects: The results which are achieved though the analysis of sampling data
may not be accurate as this method have inherent defects. There is not even a single method
of sampling which has no demerit.
6. Sampling Error: This method of sampling has many errors.
7. Personal Bias: As in many cases the investigator, chooses samples, such as convenience
method, chances of personal bias creep in.

Observation
Observation method of data collection deals with the recording of behavior of the
respondents or sampling units. In this technique researcher has to observe the required
phenomenon by himself. By involving himself, researcher will be able to keep his eye on the
entire activity for the accurate data and certain direct inferences. Observation provides an
opportunity for empirical study that is first hands collection of facts and there is scientific
precision in this method as facts and related information is collected in a natural situation.
From observation, researcher can very well relate cause and effect relationship.

Observation technique can be further classified as participating and non participating

observation. Observation technique is rarely used in legal researches.

The purpose of observation technique is to study the existing phenomenon of human

behavior. Though, to control human behavior is not easy, yet it is studied simply by control
and uncontrolled observation. In uncontrolled observation, researcher, studies phenomenon
without any interference in natural occurrence of phenomenon.

Classification-
 1. Participant Observation - Here researcher himself being actively remains associated
with other members of the group and observes behavior and activities of the group of
study.
2. Quasi participant Observation – In this kind of observation researcher does not
remains all present to study group activities. He has to believe on his fellow
researchers of the phenomenon when he is not present. In quasi participant
observations the researcher takes parts in festivals, sports, in group fooding etc.
3. Non participant Observation – In this observation though the researcher remains
present with observe persons but he studies their activities and behavior as a neutral
person. He does not take part himself in the group. He remains limited to the causes of
observation, environment, population or social life of the observed group.

Interview
Interview is commonly accepted technique of data collection where researcher enters into
face to face interaction with any person or group for the purpose of seeking certain
information as to the facts, idea or observation relevant to his research. Components of the
interview are the researcher, the interviewer, interviewee and the interview environment.
Where Researcher or any other person in his behalf enter in the role of interviewer and other
person whose opinion, behavior and responses are observed logically for research objectives
is called interview. Expected research data is synthesized from internal views of other person.

The purpose of the interview is to probe the ideas of the interviewees about the phenomenon
of interest. Even terms abstractly related to the search are helpful, in that they may pull up
documents that would otherwise not be found.

Interview is the process to know the opinion, information or observations of other person
through verbal and non-verbal conversation initiated for specific purpose and focused on
certain planned content areas. This method is preferred if such information cannot be
adequately observed by other methods without entering into conversation only. Information
cannot be easily obtained by this method, because the process depends on the interest and
attentiveness and personal qualities of the interviewee. Though, apparently, it seems verbal
communication but it is not mere verbal communication between interviewer and
interviewee. But, more then that, involving even the study of body language. Mead opines
that, gestures, glances, facial expressions, pauses, even a flick of an eye or mere silence can
speak more than verbal exchanges. Behaviour can be judged and attitude can be estimated
based upon blush in the face, or laugh, visible happiness or anger. The term itself denotes it is
inter viewing, an interpersonal interaction.

Questionnaire Method Interview Method

1. Data is gathered indirectly. 1. Data is gathered directly.

 2. There is face to face contact between
2. No face to face contact between two.
interviewer and interviewee.

3. Interviewer should have the general

3. Skillful interviewer is needed.
knowledge of the topic.
4. Some confidential information can also be
4. Interviwee will hesitate to write it.
obtained.
5. We get written and oral both type of
5. We get written information only
information

Questionnaire
Questionnaire is a most popular method of data collection for empirical legal research. It is a
physical or electronic document consists of predetermined set of questions printed, typed or
digitalized distributed sent to various persons for their response on such questions.
Questionnaire is useful where observation and interview is not possible and in the opinion of
researcher it would be just to collect information for objective and purposive satisfaction of
research. He may design certain questions in the light of objectives, hypothesis and indicators
of research. On each indicator there must be Question/s is/are designed and their language
should be free from ambiguity, easy to understand and grammatically correct because
responses are not made in presence of researcher so that any guidance and assistance can be
provided if any difficulty arises in understanding them this is the limitation. Even it is not
useful if respondents are illiterate or week in language used in questionnaire. Therefore,
before designing questionnaire researcher must select expected target group on whom it
would be administer and design accordingly.

Questionnaires may be supplied to respondents personally, by mail or internet. It works as

mean and method both. Information from distant places can be easily accessed by the
researcher economically.
 Unit IV
Publication Ethics
Publication Ethics: Meaning

Publication Ethics: Importance

 Publication Misconduct: Definition
Publication misconduct is one of the serious problems in connection with the research ethics
which arise due to disrespect of intellectual property right of others who genuinely working
for raising the academic and living standards. It includes plagiarism, fabrication, falsification,
inappropriate authorship, duplicate submission/multiple submissions, overlapping
publication, and salami publication.

1. Plagiarism: Plagiarism is the adoption of another person's thoughts, ideas, data,

figures, research methods, or words without giving proper credit to the work, or the
over-citation of another person's published work. Plagiarism is the failure to ensure
accurate citations which refers to 'the use of someone else's ideas or words without
properly acknowledging the source, turning in an assignment verbatim for a class that
you've already used for another class, borrowing ideas or work from others, and
cutting and pasting information from a site without citing the source. When one
person takes the credit for the original ideas or thoughts of someone else is called
plagiarism.
The Harvard Guide to Using Sources divides plagiarism into six categories:
1. Verbatim plagiarism: this is given when the writer copies word by word in
an academic paper.
2. Mosaic plagiarism: that occurs when the writer copies pieces of information
from a source or different sources and changes some words of the original one
without paraphrasing or quoting properly.
3. Inadequate paraphrasing: this is given when the writer does not use his/her
own words to relate the information or when his/her words are very similar to
the source.
4. Uncited paraphrase: this occurs when the writer uses his/her own words to
describe another writer's ideas, but the former does not cite the latter.
5. Uncited quotation: this happens when the writer uses quotation marks but
does not credit the author of that source.
6. Using material from another student's work: this occurs when a student
uses ideas that were given in discussions in groups and do not cite the group or
classmate in a footnote.
Plagiarism is a hindrance to the goals of academic freedom, which is the pursuit of
disseminating unblemished research. Plagiarism is one of the academic misconduct
and it is found to be increasing due to a variety of reasons. Students seemingly have
the notion that Internet-based information is public knowledge and thus, is free from
intellectual property rights. As such, they do not seem to think that the information
taken off the Internet needs to be cited for academic purposes. Due to the lack of
knowledge and understanding of citing requirements, there have been high levels of
unintended plagiarism, bogus referencing, and collusions.
To avoid plagiarism, researchers should adhere to proper citations and referencing to
give credit to the original author and articles they cite. Text matching software, such
as Turnitin can be of help, up to a point, in checking for potential plagiarism.
2. Fabrication: Without properly performing the research work, if a researcher is
manipulating the data and result, it is called fabrication. It will mislead the readers
about the findings.
3. Falsification: Falsification is the practice of changing data or results intentionally
such that a misleading conclusion is drawn. It is the practice of changing the data or
results intentionally such that a misleading conclusion is drawn. It is the changing or
omission of research results to support claims, hypotheses, and other data. It includes
the manipulation of research instrumentation, materials, or processes. Manipulation of
images or representations in a manner that distorts the data or reads too much between
the lines can be considered falsification. Fabrication and falsification of data are
considered one of the most common unethical behaviors. Falsification of data
includes: data creation, selective publication of results, the omission of conflicting
data, and the conscious exclusion or modification of data.
4. Duplicate submission/multiple submissions: Duplicate submission/multiple
submissions refers to the practice of submitting the same manuscript or several
manuscripts with minor differences (e.g., differences only in title, keywords, abstract,
author order, author affiliations, or a small amount of text) to two or more journals at
the same time, or submitting to another journal within an agreed or stipulated period.
5. Overlapping publication: Overlapping publication refers to the practice of
publishing a paper that overlaps substantially with one already published.
6. Salami publication: Salami publication refers to the practice of slicing data from a
large study, could have been reported in a single paper, into different pieces and
publishing them in two or more articles, all of which cover the same population,
methods, and question.
7. Inappropriate authorship: Authorship is not appropriately assigned based on the
author's contributions. The person who takes intellectual responsibility for the
research results is called the author(Day, 1998). Authorship is the process of deciding
whose names belong on a research paper. In many cases, research evolves from
collaboration and assistance between experts and colleagues. Some of this assistance
will require acknowledgment and some will require joint authorship. Responsible
authorship practices are an important part of the research. Reporting and analyzing
results is the key to applying research findings to the real world. Despite its vital role,
authorship remains a murky and vague area for many scientists who frequently run
into difficulty when deciding which colleagues should be listed as authors or co-
authors, and which colleagues should instead receive an acknowledgment. Despite the
challenges, researchers should familiarize themselves with proper authorship practices
to protect their work and ideas while also preventing research fraud.
8. Text recycling /Self-plagiarism: Text recycling involves reproduction in part or
whole of one's own previously published work without adequate citation and proper
acknowledgment that is republishing the same paper already published elsewhere
without full citation. It includes publishing excerpted work from a longer and
previous without due and full citations, reusing data already used in a published work,
or communicated for publication in another work without due or full citation.
Breaking up a longer or larger study into small sections and publishing them
altogether new work without due or full citation is also called self-plagiarism. It
includes paraphrasing one's own previously published work without due or full
citation of the original.

Violation of Publication Ethics

Intellectual Honesty and Research Integrity