7/18/2015

What is Aquaculture?
 The farming of aquatic organisms in inland and
coastal areas, involving intervention in the rearing
process to enhance production and the individual or
corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated
(FAO)

PRC Review Lecture

 Fishery operations involving all forms of raising and
Karen Grace S. Andrino-Felarca & Victor Marco Emmanuel Ferriols culturing fish and other fishery species in fresh,
Institute of Aquaculture brackish, and marine water areas (RA 8550)
College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences
University of the Philippines Visayas

Global aquaculture production in

million tonnes, 1950–2010, as reported by
FAO

Global harvest of aquatic organisms in million tonnes, 1950–2010, as

reported by FAO

What is Aquaculture?
 Aquaculture can be classified according to the
following:

 Aquatic Environment
 Freshwater Aquaculture
 Brackishwater Aquaculture
 Mariculture
 Aquasilviculture

The World Bank estimates that at the current trends of increasing

population and declining fish production, per capita fish consumption will
decrease to nearly 10 kg per person per year by 2010.

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What is Aquaculture? What is Aquaculture?

 Aquaculture can be classified according to the  Aquaculture can be classified according to the
following: following:

 Species Cultured  Systems/Structures Utilized

 Finfish Aquaculture  Ponds
 Shrimp Aquaculture  Raceways
 Seaweed culture  Pens
 Bivalve Culture  Cages
 etc.  Tanks
 Monoculture/Polyculture

What is Aquaculture?
 Aquaculture can be classified according to the
following:

 Level of Intensity
 Backyard Aquaculture
 Extensive Aquaculture
 Semi-Intensive Aquaculture
 Intensive Aquaculture
 Super-intensive Aquaculture

Productivity Productivity
 Rate at which energy/biomass is produced per unit  Measuring Primary Productivity
area over a specifide period of time (i.e. kcal/m2/year
or tons/hectare/year)  Chlorophyll Method
 Light and Dark Bottle Method (measuring oxygen
 Primary Productivity produced)
 Autotrophs (plants, algae)

 Secondary Productivity
 Heterotrophs (fish, shrimp, other consumers)

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Carrying Capacity Nutrients and Fertilizers

 The amount of a given activity that can be accommodated  Nutrients are added to aquaculture systems in order to
within the environmental capacity of a defined area augment the carrying capacity and increase productivity

 In aquaculture: usually considered to be the maximum  Nutrients are supplied via the application of fertilizers
quantity of fish that any particular body of water can (either organic or inorganic)
support over a long period without negative effects to the
fish and to the environment (maximum standing crop).  Major Nutrients
 Nitrogen (N)
 Can be increased through fertilization, supplemental  Phosphorus (P)
feeding, aeration, and maintenance of water quality.  Potassium (K)

Nutrients and Fertilizers Nutrients and Fertilizers

 Nitrogen  Organic Fertilizers
 Nitrogen gas (N2), ammonia (NH4), nitrite (NO2), and  Manure, composts, domestic sewage
nitrate (NO3)  Improves soil structure
 Phosphorus  Source of macro and micro nutrients
 present in natural waters as orthophosphate and  Promotes zooplankton growth
undifferentiated organic phosphates  Chicken manure is most commonly used in aquaculture
 In soil, most available between pH 5.5 and 7 (500-1000 kg/ha)
 Potassium
 Important in osmoregulation and other metabolic
processes in plants

Nutrients and Fertilizers Nutrients and Fertilizers

 Inorganic Fertilizers  Liming
 More precise concentrations of macro-nutrients  To neutralize acid sulfate soils
 Classified by percentage of weight of N, P, and K  As a prophylactic treatment
 Single element  Raise alkalinity and total hardness
 Urea (45-0-0)  Types
 Superphosphate (0-20-0)
 Agricultural Lime (CaCO3)
 Incomplete fertilizer
 Hydrated/Slaked Lime (Ca(OH)2)
 Ammonium phosphate (16-20-0)
 Quick/Burnt Lime (CaO)
 Complete fertilizer
 Triple 14 (14-14-14)

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Nutrients and Fertilizers Nutrients and Fertilizers

 Pond Preparation  Pond Preparation
 Drain pond totally
 Apply lime if needed (for acidic soils)
 Dry for 1-3 weeks until soil cracks
 Repair gates and dikes; level the pond bottom  Fertilize with chicken manure and/or inorganic
 Eliminate pests and weeds fertilizers by broadcasting evenly across pond bottom
 Teaseed (Camellia dripisera)
 Let in water in increments from 5-60 cm depending on
 Contains 10-15% saponin
 200 kg/ha
natural food to be produced
 Tobacco Dust  Lablab – 5 to 30 cm
 Contains nicotine
 Lumot – 30 to 60 cm
 15 kg/ha
 Derris Root  Microalgae – 60 to 120 cm
 Contains rotenone

Site Selection
SITE SELECTION
&  Soil – clay or clay loam
 Water – adequate, free from pollution
POND PREPARATION
 Free from flood
 Peace and order
 Accessible (transportation/electrical connections)

Ideal Pond Design

•Ponds must be rectangular in shape.
Pond Preparation
•The shallow end should be 0.75 - 1 m deep and sloping to 1) Pond draining
1.5 - 2 m deep
•Dike should be trapezoidal in shape
- to eliminate
Water level
Dike-½ m over the
predators & unwanted
highest flood level species

0.75-1 m
Water inlet 1.5-2 m
Flow through pipe

Pond bottom

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2) Levelling the pond bottom 3) Pond Drying

 to slope towards the
drainage structure in  Help eliminate and
order to ensure
complete drainage
evaporate toxic
gasses
 To remove excess mud
and dirt

4) Application of Lime 5) Basal application of fertilizers

 lime application (as ORGANIC
needed) chicken manure

 100 g/m2 or 1000

- rate of application:
kg/ha
2,000 kg/ha – old pond
3,000 kg/ha - new pond
 Neutralize acid soil (soil
should have a pH value
of 6.5-9.0) - broadcast evenly during or after pond filling

6) Screening of water inlet and outlet and

INORGANIC
16-20-0 (ammonium phosphate)
gate boards
- rate of application
 To prevent the fish
100 kg/ha – old pond from escaping the
200kg/ha - new pond pond and entry of
unwanted fish
- apply through broadcasting, hanging sack method species
during or immediately after pond filling

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7) Filling the pond with filtered water 8) Stocking

- should be done early in
- filter all incoming the morning or late in
water with a fine the afternoon
meshed net

- maintain the water

level at a depth of 0.8
– 1.5 meter
Acclimatize
- to condition fry before
release

Routine Pond Activities Feeding

Fertilization/Dressing  Feed using commercial
feeds basing on feed rate
-hanging/broadcasting and body weight not on
days of culture (DOC)

broadcasting

with the use of feed tray

Water Quality Monitoring Sampling

- To know the
average body
weight of fish

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Weed Control Check Damaged Water Lines and Screen

Record Keeping Harvesting

Partial or Total – depending
 To enables the fish
on desired market size
farmers to know the
detailed record of his
inputs & outputs & - Stop feeding 2 days before
other activities harvest

Water Sources and Quality

 The availability of water appropriate quantity and quality
is important for all aquaculture systems.
Water Quality 1) Surface Water e.g rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, springs,
precipitation run off, estuaries, bays & open sea
- For ponds fed from streams or river, water flow is
diverted and ponds are filled by gravity.
- For brackishwater ponds, these are filled during high
tides and drained during low tides.
2) Underground or subsurface water

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 Water Movement What is water quality?

1) Static e.g earthen ponds  General term for all the physical, chemical and
2) Flowing e.g tanks, raceways and cages biological factors which influence the use of the water.

 In aquaculture water quality is important in terms of:

 Site selection
 Species to be cultured
 Optimum rearing conditions

Major Water Parameters pH

 pH and alkalinity  A logarithmic scale for expressing
the acidity of a solution
 Salinity
 Measure of the amount of hydrogen
 Dissolved oxygen ions (H+) in water
 Temperature  Affects the capacity of blood to carry
oxygen
 Nutrients
 In relation to photosynthesis in
 Nitrogen ponds, pH also fluctuates on a daily
 Phosphorous basis depending on the amount of
carbon dioxide in the system since
higher CO2 levels make water more
acidic

pH Salinity
 Measured using pH  The measurement of the total amount of salts in the
meters or pH paper water
 Expressed in terms of the weight of salts per volume of
water (usually parts per thousand – ppt)
 Variations in salinity can cause stress and acute or
chronic mortalities amongst fish stocks
 Organisms that can tolerate a wide range of salinities
are called euryhaline while those that can tolerate only
a narrow range are called stenohaline

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Salinity Dissolved Oxygen

 Measured using conductivity probes, hydrometers, or
refractometers
 Oxygen gas which is in solution
 Important factor in the respiration of aqautic
organisms
 Low levels of DO (below 2 ppm) could cause stress and
death in fish due to asphyxiation
 Too much DO could also cause gas embolisms (gas
bubble diseases)

Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved Oxygen

 Measured in terms of parts per million (ppm) using
DO meters or the Winkler titration method

Temperature Nutrients
 Measure using ordinary thermometers or temperature  Play a major role in the overall productivity of an aquatic
probes system
 Example of major nutrients are nitrogen (NO2, NO3, NH4)
and phosphorous (PO4)
 Sources of nitrogen in water can be the atmosphere and the
decomposition of fish waste and excess feeds
 Main source of phosphorous in fishponds would be the
pond soil.
 Ammonia – Phenol-hypochlorite method
 Nitrate-nitrite – cadmium column reduction
 Phosphorous – Ascorbic Acid Method

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Nutrients
 Generally measured using
colorimetric/spectrophotometric methods
NUTRITION and FEEDING

Nutrition and Feeding Nutrition and Feeding

 Cultured aquatic organisms obtain their nutritional  Proteins
requirements for growth, maintenance, and reproduction
 Mainly required for growth but also plays a role in other
either from natural food or artificial diets
metabolic functions
 Nutritional requirements will vary depending on
 Fish size/age  Fibrous protein – muscles and connective tissues
 Reproductive condition  Collagenous protein – skin and membranes
 Feeding habits  Globular protein – blood
 Enzymes and hormones – metabolic processes
 Nutrient requirements could be grouped as proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins and minerals

Nutrition and Feeding Nutrition and Feeding

 Proteins  Proteins
 Made up of amino acids
 In formulated diets protein is sourced from fishmeal,
 Essential amino acids in fish (i.e. cannot be synthesized by
fish) shrimp meal, poultry meal (feathers), and other animal
 Arginine proteins
 Histidine
 Isoleucine
 Leucine  Plant proteins such as soybeen, corn, cottonseed, wheat,
 Lysine copra, and peanuts have also been used to reduced
 Methionine
 Phenylalanine productions costs
 Threonine
 Tryptophan
 Valine  Measured using the Kjedahl method

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Nutrition and Feeding Nutrition and Feeding

 Carbohydrates  Carbohydrates
 Most abundant and cheapest source of energy in  Used in formulated feeds to provide texture and to act as
aquaculture a binder for other feed components

 Comes in the form of sugars (monosaccharide) and  Carbohydrates used in formulated feeds could be in the
starches (polysaccharide) form of corn starch and flour from different plants.

 Many marine species cannot properly digest  Measured using Phenol-chloroform method or
polysaccharides due to the lack of enzymes necessary for Anthrone method
digestion

Nutrition and Feeding Nutrition and Feeding

 Lipids (Fats)
 Also a source of energy (more energy compared to
carbohydrates) and essential fatty acids needed for
maximum growth
 Helps in the absorption of other nutrients such as fat-
soluble vitamins
 Lipids
 Some types of lipids are:
 Triacylglycerides – for storage
 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) – for membrane permeability
and enzyme activiationi
 Phospholipids – cell membrane component
 Sterols – for the production of hormones
 In formulated feeds, dietary lipids are added in the form of
fish or squid oil.

 Measured using the Soxlhet method

Nutrition and Feeding Nutrition and Feeding

 Minerals
 Chemical elements that are not produced or destroyed as a
 Minerals  Micronutrients – required in
result of their functions in life processes  Macronutrients – required in minor quantities
larger quantities
 Cobalt
 Comprise the inorganic dry weight component of animals and  Calcium
 Copper
feeds  Phosphorus
 Fluorine
 Sulfur
 Iodine
 Required for skeleton formation, respiration, digestion, and  Sodium
osmoregulation  Iron
 Chlorine
 Manganese
 Potassium
 In marine waters, mineral concentrations are generally at or  Molybdenum
above the nutritional requirements of fish while in fresh  Magnesium
 Selenium
waters, mineral concentrations are below those required by
fish.  Zinc

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Nutrition and Feeding Nutrition and Feeding

 Vitamins  Natural Food (algae)
 Organic substances not synthesized or insufficiently
 Microalgae
synthesized by organisms
 Green Algae
 Tetraselmis sp., Chlorella sp., Nanochloropsis sp.,
 Needed for metabolic and physiological processes
Nanochlorum sp.
 Brown Algae (Diatoms)
 Added to formulated feeds especially in intensive cultures
 Chaetoceros sp., Skeletonema sp., Isochrysis sp.

 Cultured in indoor or outdoor vessels by using culture media

 Water soluble vitamins: B complex, C, choline, inositol
(TMRL, Conwy, F and F/2 medium) or commercial fertilizers
(16-20-0, urea, etc.)
 Fat soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K

Nutrition and Feeding Nutrition and Feeding

 Natural Food (algae)  Natural Food (zooplankton)
 Filamentous Algae (Lumot)  Rotifers
 Chaetomorpha, Enteromorpha, Lyngbia  Brachionus plicatilis (L-type; 130-340 um)
 Brachionus rotundiformes (S-type; 100-210 um)
 Benthic Algae (Lab lab)
 Cultured by feeding with microalgae
 Algal mat complex with some species of zooplankton grown
 Brine Shrimp
on the pond bottom
 Artemia salina
 Hatched from commercially produced cysts
 Green water technique- sufficient concentration of
 Freshly hatched nauplii are usually fed to shrimp larvae
phytoplankton is maintained in the culture tanks of the
aquaculture target species to provide a green color the presence  Other zooplankton
of the algae has been found to enhance growth and survival in a  Moina
number of cultured species  Daphnia

Nutrition and Feeding Feeds based on composition

 Formulated Feeds 1) Purified
 Should be low cost, nutritionally balanced, palatable, - Made with synthetic amino acids, fatty acids,
efficient carbohydrates of known composition and
 No single feed ingredient contains all required nutrients chemically pure vitamins and minerals
in adequate amounts 2) Semi- purified
1) Complete feeds – meet all the nutritional needs of - Contain natural ingredients in a pure form as
possible like casein, corn starch, corn oil
the cultured animal
3) Practical diets
2) Supplementary Feed- to augment the major - Composed of natural and readily available
nutritional elements ingredients such as fish meal, soybean meal, cereal
 Formulated depending on grains
 Species cultured - Used to satisfy the nutritional needs of the animal
 Feeding habit
under culture at a minimum cost
 Stage of development
 Nutrient requirement

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Nutrition and Feeding Nutrition and Feeding

 Formulated Feeds  Formulated Feeds
 Comes in various forms  Pearson’s Square formulation
 By size  Used for simple formulation using 2 ingredients
 Mash  Computes for specific percentage of each ingredient to be
 Crumble used depending on the desired final percentage of the
 Pellets required nutrient
 By buoyancy
 Floating

 Sinking

Nutrition and Feeding Nutrition and Feeding

 Formulated Feeds  Formulated Feeds
 Pearson’s Square formulation  Pearson’s Square formulation
 Draw a square
 Write target concentration in the middle
 Write nutrient concentration in ingredient 1 on upper left
corner and ingredient 2 on the lower left corner
 Get the difference between the nutrient concentrations and
the target concentrations (write the one for ingredient 1 on the
lower right corner and ingredient 2 on the upper right corner;
ignore negative values – just get the absolute value)
 Add up the upper and lower right values and compute for the
percentage of each ingredient to be used

Nutrition and Feeding Nutrition and Feeding

 Formulated Feeds  Formulated Feeds
 Feeding rate  Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)
 Usually based on % body weight of cultured species  Ratio of total feed given over total gain in body weight
 Ex.  The lower the FCR, the better (more efficient feeds)
 1000 pcs tilapia  FCR = total amount of feed given (g or kg)
 Average body weight: 50 g total gain in body weight (g or kg)
 Compute for amount of feed needed for 1 month (30 days) if
the feeding rate is 10% body weight
• Ex.
• 50 pcs of tilapia at 10g each were stocked in a pond

• Fed a total of 20 kg of feed throughout the culture period

• Harvested all tilapia at 250 g each

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 Method of Feed Dispensing Fish Growth and Production Cost

1) Hand feeding  Metabolism- the result of all the chemical and
2) Demand feeders energy transformations that occur within a living
3) Automatic feeders organism
a) Anabolism
b) Catabolism

 Optimum harvest size for many aquaculture

animals occurs at or near the size where growth
 Cost of Production
rate begins to decrease significantly 1) Variable cost
 It is accompanied by a decrease in food conversion 2) Fixed cost
efficiency
 Energy requirements increase during periods of
gametogenesis and spawning thus aquaculture
species are harvested before reaching adulthood
 Small animals generally have higher metabolic
rates than larger ones and the growth rate of young
animals is more rapid than that of older
individuals

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