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JDWUAH Optoelectronics Ch6
JDWUAH Optoelectronics Ch6
EE/OPE 451, OPT 444
Fall 2009 Section 1: T/Th 9:30‐ 10:55 PM
John D. Williams, Ph.D.
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
406 Optics Building ‐ UAHuntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899
Ph. (256) 824‐2898 email: williams@eng.uah.edu
Office Hours: Tues/Thurs 2‐3PM
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
PHOTOVOLTAIC DEVICES
• 6.1 Solar Energy Spectrum
• 6.2 Photovoltaic Device Principles
• 6.3 pn Junction Photovoltaic I‐V Characteristics
• 6.4 Series Resistance and Equivalent Circuit
• 6.5 Temperature Effects
• 6.6 Solar Cells Materials, Devices and Efficiencies
Prentice‐Hall Inc.
© 2001 S.O. Kasap
ISBN: 0‐201‐61087‐6
http://photonics.usask.ca/
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Blackbody Radiation
Blackbody Radiation
• Definition of a black body: An object that T = 100 K
absorbs all radiation incident upon it λmax = 10.2μm T = 200 K
• The energy absorbed by a blackbody is then T = 300 K
emitted in a temperature dependent spectrum of T = 400 K
light, called thermal radiation which is primarily T = 500 K
Intensity (arbitrary)
in the infrared spectrum
• Blackbody radiation is characterized by three
fundamental equations λmax = 12.8μm
– Plank’s Law – blackbody absorption curve
8πhν 3 1
U (ν , T ) = hν
c3 λmax = 17.0μm
e kT
−1
– Wien’s Law ‐ characteristic wavelength of
λmax = 25.5μm
the blackbody −3
5.1⋅10 m ⋅ K
λmax = 0
T 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Wavelength (um)
– Stefan‐Boltzmann Law ‐ energy radiated
from the blackbody as a function of J(100K)=5.67 W/m2
temperature j* = σT 4 J(200K)=90.7 W/m2
J(300K)=1450 W/m2
W
σ = 5.67 ⋅10 −8 J(400K)=3540 W/m2
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
m2 K 4 J(500K)=17900 W/m2
Photovoltaic Basics
• Photovoltaic cells convert incident solar
radiation energy into electrical energy
• Thus these devices are used as energy
harvesters and converters
• The goal is to convert as much incident
photon energy as possible into electrical
energy
• To do this, one must have a measure of
what incident energy is available
• The figure presented shows three curves
– First, is the ideal blackbody spectrum of a 6000K
heat source that such as the sun
– The red curve represents the actual available solar
energy above the earth’s atmosphere
– The green curve represents the actual available
solar energy at the earth’s surface
– Absorption of radiation in the atmosphere
constitutes the difference between AM0 and
AM1.5
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Solar Energy
• Light intensity variation with wavelength is generally represented by Spectral Intensity which is Iλ = I/λ
(intensity/wavelength) λ2
•
∫λ
The total intensity over a spectral range is given by I = Idλ
1
• The integrated intensity above the earths atmosphere, gives the total power flow through a unit area
perpendicular to the direction of the sun. This quantity is called the solar constant (air‐mass zero) or AM0
radiation and is approximately 1.353 kW/m2
• Actual intensity on the earth’s surface depends on absorption and scattering in the atmosphere. The
effects of water vapor (clouds) in the air provide a general value of solar intensity at the surface that is
approximately 70% of AM0 with specific bands that are reduced significantly due to water and nitrogen
absorption. The received spectrum is called Air Mass 1 ( AM1)
• Generically, Air Mass m (AMm) is defined as the
ratio of actual radiation path to shortest possible
path through an atmosphere. So for light
AM0
entering an atmosphere at angle θ
h
m = h / ho = (h0 sec θ ) / h0
h0 Atmosphere
θ
α α
m = sec θ Earth
AM1 AM(secθ) Tilted PV device
Direct Diffuse
• However, diffusive scattering plays a significant (a) Illustration of the effect of the angle of incidence θ on the ray path length and the
role as well, and the ratio of scattered light and definitions of AM0, AM1 and AM(secθ). The angle α between the sun beam and the horizon
scattering angles should also be taken into is the solar latitude (b) Scattering reduces the intensity and gives rise to a diffused radiation
account
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Example: Solar Energy Conversion
• Suppose that a particular household consumes 500 W of electrical power daily
• If the average solar intensity incident per day is 6kW h/m2, a photovoltaic device that converts
solar energy into electrical energy has a 15% efficiency, then what is the required device area
to meet the electrical needs of the home.
Since we know that the avg. light intensity incident ,
Total energy available per day
= incident solar energy in 1 day per unit area X area X efficiency
Which must be equal to the total energy consumed in the household per day
Area = energy per house / (incident solar energy per unity area X efficiency)
NOTE: This solution does not account for heavy clouds, rain, or excess consumption!!!!
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Photovoltaic Device Principles
• Consider a pn junction with a very narrow and heavily doped n‐
region at the top surface
• Light passes through the n‐region and is absorbed in the
depletion region which can take up a vast majority of the
thickness of the device.
• The built‐in Field, Eo in the depletion region drives EHP to their
respective electrode
• Finger electrodes are often used to optimize surface area while
still providing uniform contact across large areas of the
photovoltaic
• Thin antireflection coatings on the surface are also used to
prevent excess reflection and improve efficiency
• The open circuit voltage in the system driven by the built‐in
field and photoabsorbed EHP carriers provides a bias that one
can draw off the device
Bus electrode
• Mobility in the device Finger electrodes
for current collection
– Long wavelength photons generate electrons in the p‐
type neutral region that must drift diffuse using the
diffusion coefficient of the material to n‐type region
– Medium wavelength photons generate EHP in the
depletion region yielding electron transit times based on n
carrier mobility in the electric field
p
– Short wavelength photons generate holes in the n‐region
that must drift diffuse to the depletion region where they
are driven by hole carrier mobility to the neutral p‐type Finger electrodes on the surface of a solar cell
region reduce the series resistance
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Photovoltaic Device Principles
• In steady state, there can be no net current through an
open circuit solar cell. Thus the number of carriers of
each type must be balanced. (conservation of charge)
• To insure against recombination losses, N is very short
(0.2 um or less)
• For λ = 1‐ 1.2 um in Si, the penetration depth is typically EHPs
larger than 100 um and p‐side thicknesses are 200‐ 500
exp(−αx)
um. This gives a long minority carrier diffusion length
and a wide depletion zone for mid wavelength x
absorption
• Si bandgap = 1.2 EV which corresponds to a cutt‐off of
1.1 um, so energy at lambda greater than 1.1 um is
wasted, which is about 25% of the thermal energy
Lh W
available at room temperature Le
• Furthermore losses to do EHP recombinations at the
surface can be as high as 40%. Iph
• In addition the antireflective coating is never perfect, Photogenerated carriers within the volume Lh + W + L e give rise to a photocurrent I ph. The
reducing the total number of collected photons down by variation in the photegenerated EHP concentration with distance is also shown where α is th
absorption coefficient at the wavelength of interest.
about 9% © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
• Now including limitations of the photovoltaic device
itself that will be discussed throughout the chapter, the
efficiency of a Si solar cell is no higher than 26%
Example: Photocurrent
• Consider a photovoltaic device that is illuminated with light of such wavelength that
photogeneration occurs over the device thickness.
– Assume an EHP photogeneration rate of Gph which decays spatially as Goexp(‐αx), where Go is the
surface photogeneration rate and α is the absorption coefficient.
– Let us suppose that the device is shortened to allow carriers to flow around the external circuit. Also
suppose that Lh is greater than the n‐layer thickness, ln so that all EHPS generated within the volume
of the device contribute to photocurrent.
– Finally assume that recombination near the surface of the crystal is negligible. Silicon Example
A = 5 cm X 5 cm
• Find the photocurrent in the system Ln = 0.5 μm
x =l n +W + Le W =2 μm
EHP _ per _ unit _ time _ in _ ln + W + Le = A∫ Go e −αx dx Le =50 μm
x =0 Go = 1 x 1018 cm3/s
α= 2000/m (δ = 500 μm)
dN EHP Go A
dt
=
α
{
1 − e[−α (ln +W + Le )]} λ= 1.1 μm
Iph = 20 mA
dN eG A
{
I ph = e EHP = o 1 − e[−α (ln +W + Le )]
dt α
} α= 105/m (δ = 10 μm)
λ= 0.83 μm
Iph = 40 mA
λ < 0.45 μm
For _ long _ wavlengths, _ α _ is _ small Then
α= 1X106/m (δ = 0.5 μm)
JDW, ECE Fall 2009 ⇒ I ph = eGo A(ln + W + Le ) Iph = 0.2 mA
Pn junction Photovoltaic I‐V
Characteristics
• Consider an ideal pn photovoltaic • The photocurrent does not depend on a bias
connected to a resistive load across the junction, because there is always
some internal field to drift EHPs across the
• If the circuit is short circuited, then only diode.
current generated by incident light is • Note: we exclude the secondary effect of
present. We define this as photocurrent. voltage modulating the width of the device
• The greater the light intensity, the more and assume a large spectral bandwidth
EHPs generated, the higher the • Therefore photocurrent flows without a
forced bias as long as light is present
photocurrent
• IF R is not a short, then a positive bias appears
• The short circuit current is found to be across the junction resulting from the built in
I sc = I ph = − KI potential, Vo of the pn junction.
where K is a device constant
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
I‐V Characteristics
• In addition to the photocurrent in the device,
there is a forward current developed across
the resistor, Id I (mA)
⎛ nk T
eV
⎞
⎜
Id = Io e B
− 1⎟
⎜ ⎟ 20
⎝ ⎠ Dark
• Where Io is the reverse saturation current and Voc
n is the ideality factor that depends on both 0 V
the material and the fabrication Iph 0.2 0.4 0.6
characteristics (n=1‐2) Light
• In an open current, the net current is equal to
zero and Id=Iph
• Thus the total current in a solar cell is –20
Twice the light
⎛ nkeVT ⎞
⎜
I = − I ph + I o e B
− 1⎟
⎜ ⎟ Typical I-V characteristics of a Si solar cell. The short circuit current is Iph
⎝ ⎠ and the open circuit voltage is Voc. The I-V curves for positive current
requires an external bias voltage. Photovoltaic operation is always in the
• The IV characteristics in a solar cell negative current region.
correspond to a negative shift in amplitude of
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
the dark current in the system as the optical
intensity of the light is increased
• For silicon the total current in the system is
canceled between a light induced voltage
value of 0.4 – 0.6V.
The Load Line
• Consider again a solar cell connected to a resistive load, R.
– R maintains the same voltage as the solar cell
– R carries the same current as the solar cell
– However the current through R travels in the opposite
direction of conventional current. The current in this
circuit passes from low to high potential
I = ‐V/R
• The actual current and voltage in the circuit must satisfy
both the solar cell IV curve and that of the load. A graphical
solution is presented here
– Easiest method of solution is to construct a “load line”
with the slope = ‐1/R
– The load line intercepts the solar cell IV curve at point
‘P’ where the load and the solar cell have the same
voltage and current
– Point ‘P’ satisfies both governing conditions and
represents the operating point of the circuit. – One figure of merit is the fill factor (FF) which gives
– The power delivered to the load is Pout =I’V’ the designer a quick measure of the closeness of the
– The goal of any circuit design is to optimize R within Isc solar cell IV curve to a square shape and thus allows
and Voc such that when illuminated, one generates the one to quickly identify the optimal resistive that
maximum power output available from the load need be applied
– One figure of merit is the fill factor (FF) which gives the I mVm
designer a quick measure of the closeness of the solar FF =
cell IV curve to a square shape and thus allows one to I scVoc
quickly identify the optimal resistive that need be
applied
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Example: Open Circuit Voltage and Illumination
• A solar cell is illuminated with intensity 600 W/m2 and has a short circuit current, Isc = 16.1
mA and an open circuit voltage, Voc = 0.485 V. What are the short circuit current and open
circuit voltages when the light intensity is doubled?
set
I (mA)
⎛ eV ⎞
I = − I ph + I o ⎜ e nk BT − 1⎟ = 0
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ 20
assume Dark
Voc >> nk BT / e
Voc
then
0 V
nk T ⎛ I ph ⎞ 0.6
Voc = B ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Iph 0.2 0.4
e ⎝ Io ⎠ Light
nk BT ⎛⎜ I ph 2 ⎞⎟ nk BT ⎛ I 2 ⎞
Voc 2 − Voc1 = ln = ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜I ⎟ –20
Twice the light
e ⎝ ph1 ⎠ e ⎝ I1 ⎠
⎛I ⎞
I sc 2 = I sc1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = (16.1mA)(2 ) = 32.2mA Typical I-V characteristics of a Si solar cell. The short circuit current is Iph
⎝ I1 ⎠ and the open circuit voltage is Voc. The I-V curves for positive current
next _ assume _ for _ convienence _ that requires an external bias voltage. Photovoltaic operation is always in the
n =1 negative current region.
nk BT ⎛ I 2 ⎞ © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Voc 2 = Voc1 + ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.485 + 1(0.0259 ) ln(2) = 0.503V
e ⎝ I1 ⎠
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Example: A Solar Cell Driving a Resistive Load
• Consider a solar cell driving a 30 Ω load. Suppose the cell has an area of 1 cm X 1 cm and is
illuminated with light of intensity Io = 600 W/m2 and has the IV characteristics shown in the
figure below.
– What are the current and voltage in the circuit?
– What is the power delivered to the load?
– What is the efficiency of the solar cell in the circuit?
V
I =−
30Ω
V ' ≈ 0.425V
0.425V
I'≈ − = 14.2mA
30Ω
efficiency
Pout
η = 100 = 10.06%
Pin
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Series Resistance and Equivalent Circuit
Neutral Depletion Neutral
n-region region p-region
• Along with the load resistance, RL
• One must also consider the effective series Back
resistance of electrons traveling along the surface Finger
Rs electrode
of the solar cell prior to reaching the finger electrode
electrode, RS Rp
• There are also a much smaller series resistances
due to the neutral p‐type region that also
RL
contribute to Rs
Series and shunt resistances and various fates of photegenerated EHPs.
• We know the photocurrent process is © 1999 S.O. Kasap,Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
represented by a constant current generator Iph
where current is proportional to light intensity Iph Rs I
A
• And we know that the normal diode current
flows opposite of the photcurrent Id
• There is also the possibility for carriers to flow Iph Rp V RL
through the crystal surfaces or grain boundaries
(polysilicon devices) instead of through the
external load. These effects are represented by
an internal parallel resistance, Rp B
– Typically Rp is less important than Rs unless Solar cell Load
the device is highly polycrystalline
The equivalent circuit of a solar cell
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Series Resistance within the Solar Cell
• Rs can significantly deteriorate solar cell
performance.
• In an ideal device FF is nearly square and
the series resistance inside the cell is
Vo c
negligible 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
0 V
• However as Rs increases, the FF value Rs = 50 Ω
deteriorates significantly, reducing the Rs = 0
power that can output from the cell 5
Rs = 20 Ω
• Note that when Rs becomes large enough, Is c
that it can decrease the saturation current Ip h 10
of the solar cell I (mA)
• However it has no effect on the open The series resistance broadens the I-V curve and reduces the maximum
available power and hence the overall efficiency of the solar cell. The example
circuit voltage. is a Si solar cell with n ≈ 1.5 and Io ≈ 3 × 10-6 mA. Illumination is such that
the photocurrent Iph = 10 mA.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Example: Solar Cells in Parallel
Iph Rs I/2 I/2 Rs
A
• Consider two identical solar cells with Io = 25 nA, n = 1.5, Rs =
20 Ω. Both cells are subjected to the same illumination such Id I
Id
that Iph = 10 mA. Iph Iph
RL
• Explain the characteristics of the two cells connected in V
parallel
• Find the Maximum power that can be delivered by one cell B
and two cells in series and also the corresponding voltage Two identical solar cells in parallel under the same illumination and
and current at the maximum power point if Rp = ∞ driving a load RL.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
For _ one _ cell :
⎛ nkeVdT ⎞ ⎛ e (Vnk− IRT s ) ⎞ In _ Series
⎜
I = − I ph + I o e B ⎟
− 1 = − I ph + I o ⎜ e B − 1⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ each _ devices _ has
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Pmax ⇒ 2.2mW , I ≈ 8mA,V ≈ 0.27V ⎛ e ⎛⎜⎝ V − IRs 2 ⎞⎟⎠ ⎞
I ⎛ eVd
⎞ ⎜ ⎟
from = − I ph + I o ⎜ e nk BT
− 1⎟ = − I ph + I o ⎜ e nk BT − 1⎟
2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
I = −V / R ⇒ R ≈ 34Ω ⎝ ⎠
⎝ ⎠
Power (mW) Voltage (V) Comparing _ the _ two _ one _ sees _ that _ the _ _ device
6 4 2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
20
PII = 4.4mW ⇐ I ≈ 16mA,V ≈ 0.27V
Current (mA)
yielding
Current vs. Voltage and Power vs. Current characteristics of one cell and two
cells in parallel. The two parallel devices have Rs/2 and 2 Iph . R ≈ 17Ω
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Temperature Effects
• As one might expect, output voltage and efficiency in solar cells increase as the temperature is lowered.
assume substituting
− Eg
Voc >> nk BT / e
n = N c N v e k BT
2
i
then
and _ to _ ease _ the _ solution,
nk T ⎛ I ph ⎞
Voc = B ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ neglect _ the _ temp _ dependence _ of _ N c _ and _ N v
e ⎝ o ⎠
I
next _ assume _ for _ convienence _ that we _ get
n =1
eVoc 2 eVoc1 E g ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎛n ⎞ − = ⎜ − ⎟
⎛I ⎞ k BT2 k BT1 k B ⎜⎝ T2 T1 ⎟⎠
2
eVoc 2 eVoc1
− == ln⎜⎜ o1 ⎟⎟ ≈ ln⎜⎜i1
⎟
2 ⎟
k BT2 k BT1 ⎝ Io2 ⎠ ⎝n
i 2 ⎠ ⎛ T ⎞ E g ⎛ T2 ⎞
⇒ Voc 2 = Voc1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
⎝ 1⎠
T e ⎝ T1 ⎠
For Silicon:
Voc1 = 0.55 V @ T1 = 293 K
Voc2 (T2 = 333 K) = 0.475 V
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Solar Cell Materials, Devices, And Efficiencies
• Most solar cells are silicon based due to
the vast infrastructure and inexpensive
fabrication schemes available
• The figure presented shows how various
aspects of a silicon solar cell effect its
efficiency
• Note: some 25% of all the incident energy
is wasted because of photons having
insufficient energy to generate EHPs
• Of the 75% of light absorbed, only 60% of
the is effectively utilized due to near
surface absorption in the n‐region
• etc. etc. etc.
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Surface Shaping of Solar Cells to
Improve Light Collection
• Reduces reflections from surface
• Increases path length for absorption and
improves EHP and collection efficiencies
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
III‐V Materials for Thermal Photovoltaics
• Heterojunction devices used to overcome p-AlGaAs window (< 0.02 μm
Passivated GaAs surface
surface recombination limitations and p-GaAs
improve efficiencies to as much as 24% n-GaAs
• Wider bandgaps provide longer wavelength AlGaAs window layer on GaAs passivates the surface states
absorbtion and thereby increases the low wavelength photogeneration
efficiency
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
• AlGaAs absorb hv > 2eV
• GaAs absorb 1.4 eV <hv < 2eV
• In more advanced cell designs, the
composition of Al is graded slowly from the
surface allowing the device to absorb the
broad spectrum between 1.4 and 2.0 eV
more evenly.
• Tandem cells designed to absorb short
wavelength light at the top pn junction and Connecting region.
longer wavelength light below it improve p n p n
EHP efficiencies while maintaining high FF
values for the device
Cell 1 (Eg1) Cell 2 (Eg2 < Eg1)