WEEK 3 (31 AUG - 6 SEP)

The Qazaq Khanate

●Khan – figure at the top of the political system, in charge of the unit
territory. To become
a Khan, one needs to be a Chinggisid, meaning a male descendant of Chinggis
Khan
himself, not necessarily the son of the previous khan.
●Sultan (Oglan) – individual Chinggisid, who is not a Khan, but eligible to
succeed to the
position of Khan.
●Amir (Bek) – non-Chinggisid leader of the tribal population. Amirs, the
tribal chiefs, held
the real power, and was closest to people and commanded their respect. Amirs
also
played an important role in deciding who will be the next Khan and could
remove the
Khan from power if they did not like him for some reason. Khan were
dependent upon
the amirs for their own authority, and always had to negotiate with them.
●Starshina – Russian term used to refer to tribal chiefs, or amirs.
●Mongol – term that refers to Mongol ethnicity who speak Mongol language,
who live a
certain lifestyle and observe certain customs.
●Chinggisids – this term is used in the context of Qazaq Khanate to refer to
the
descendants of the Chinggis Khan that assimilated with Turkic population.
Factors in determining succession:
★Seniority principle
★Individual merit
★Military capability
★Access to resources
★Charismatic authority
★Religious legitimacy
Political Succession
❖ not linear, lateral seniority principle
❖ merit-based system
❖ collective rule
Chinggisid Succession System:
+ meritocratic
+ democratic
- can lead to instability (competition and conflicts)
- !great number of claimants!
●Appanage System – a system common for Eurasian nomads which implies
that a Khan
or grants a territory to his sons or any other kinsmen for their own rule, so
they can play
some role in exercising power and authority by controlling their own
segments of
territory.
➔Drawback: after a number of generations, once territory becomes divided
up further
and further, causing conflicts.
Division of the Golden Horde:
● Batu - ‘White Horde’
● Orda - ‘Blue Horde’
● Shiban - ‘Gray Horde’
Methods of consolidating power:
● Violence (eliminate your relatives)
● Gain support of emirs and people
● Separate and seek independence
● Gain support of a powerful foreign patron
●Eponym – term used to refer to an individual after which something is
named (e.g.
Chinggisids).
●Neo-Eponymous Clan – ruling clan named after some individual who
through some
means simply pushed out all his other relatives and established himself as a
new
eponym, a new head of a new clan under his name.
Özbek Khan (1313-1341)
➢descendant of Orda
➢an important figure in the history of the Golden Horde and the Qazaq
Khanate
➢one of the longest serving Khans of the Golden Horde
➢very powerful figure
➢conversion to Islam
➢formation of the Özbek Ulus
➢after him, the Golden Horde goes into a very long period of decline, a
fragmentation and
leading up to its eventual disappearance.
Key events in Central Asia (14-15th centuries):
- Fragmentation of the khanate of Chagatai
- Emergence of Moghulistan
- Rise of Amir Timur and Timurid dynasty
Tokhtamysh Khan
➢one of the last very rulers of the Golden Horde
➢attempts to reassemble people around himself in a same manner as Özbek
Khan
➢was defeated after a series of battles with Amir Timur
➢after that Golden Horde again goes into a long period of decline and
fragmentation to a
bunch of smaller states.
●Moghulistan – an independent political unit, appeared as a result of a
fragmentation of
the Chagatai Ulus. It played an important role in the history of the Qazaq
Khanate.
● Galdan Boshoktu – Khan – 1670-1697
●Tsewang-Rabdan – Khan – 1694-1727
●Galdan-Tseren – Hungtaiji - 1727-1745
Split of the Oirats in the 17C:
●The Jungar Khanate divided into Volga Kalmyk Khanate → Khoshut
Dynasty of
Tibet → Khoshut Dynasty of Kokonor
Zaya Pandita:
● reinforcement of Buddhist identity of the Junghars
● Junghar unity
● invention of the distinct Oirat script
● development of bureaucracy
● improved internal administration
Rise of the Jungar Khanate key events:
●Khara-Khula – negotiated successfully with Russians about resources of
trade,
agriculture and population
●Batur Hungtaiji – agreement with eastern Mongols, new unified legal code,
expansion
of Khanate to Zhetysu
●Galdan Boshoktu – as a Khan he became a ruler of Jungar khanate, invaded
and
occupied eastern Turekstan, diversified economy
●Tsewang-Rabdan – promoted agriculture, craft and trade, expands the
khanate at the
expense of the Qazaqs
●Galdan-Tseren – continued expansion toward Qazaq steppes and towns of
Syrdarya,
dominated over Senior and Middle juzes
Artillery and Cartography:
➔Johan G. Renat and Galdan Tseren’s map – combines traditions of Mongol,
Chinese and
European cartography
Junghars:
❖ built an empire with diversified economy and effective system of taxation
❖ quickly adopted technologies from their neighbors from paper and velvet
production to metal factories and armories
❖ established cities and developed bureaucracy based on Oirat script
But:
➢ remained nomadic empire in its nature
➢ primary motivation was extracting resources from their subjects, both
sedentary
and nomadic
➢ furiously competed over resources with Russia and Qing China
➢ inherited all deficiencies of Chinggisid’s power succession system
Jungar-Qazaq Wars 16-18C Key events:
●Galdan Boshoktu Khan gained control over Sairam, Tashkent, Shymkent
and Taraz
● Kurultai in Karaku in 1710 → Bogenbay Batyr defeated Jungars BUT
failed to
retake cities
●1718-1726: Jungars went deeper into Qazaq lands
● 1730: unity of Qazaq → Bulanty and Anyraqai battle → no consolidation of
victory (make stronger)
Advantages of the Junghar army over the Qazaqs:
● better equipped, trained, prepared and surpassed the Qazaqs
technologically
Reason for the success of the Qazaqs in repelling the Junghars:
● Junghar artillery was ineffective in the Steppe
● decentralized political organization of the Qazaqs
● three Juz system allowed flexibility to the Qazaq political and
administrative organization
● always centralized state apparatus of the Junghars made the Khanate
vulnerable to
political crisis
Junghar Khanate was completely destroyed by 1759
● dynastic crisis
● severe civil strife
● invasion of the Qing troops
● a new province of Xinjiang
● a series of draughts and floods that destroyed crops in the Khanate
● devastating smallpox epidemics
● the Qing Empire moved close to the Qazaq territories and totally
reconfigured the
political situation in the region.
Crisis of succession key events:
● After Galdan Tseren death in 1745 Jungars experienced crisis of succession
●Khans failed to consolidate their power → noyons question their authority
● Sultan Ablai manipulates rivalry within the Jungar elite
● Metal factories and armory decline
● Some Jungar noyons appeal to Qing China
The Qazaqs and the Russian Empire in the Early 18th Century
In the course of the 17th century the Qazaqs split into three zhuzes:
● some tribes from the Manghit/Nogay horde (The Jeti-ru) joined what would
become the
Junior Zhuz; some Moghul tribes from Eastern Turkistan (Dughlat, Jalayir)
joined the
Senior Zhuz (more plausible)
● it came about because only the Senior Zhuz controlled cities in the Syr-
Darya Valley
● it was a response to attacks by the Zhungars
With the introduction of firearms and artillery, the “nomadic advantage” in
military technology
and tactics came to the END.
Political authority among the Qazaqs
● became more fragmented within the Qazaq Zhuzes
● khans were at least partly controlled by the powerful Chinggisid aristocratic
class, the
Aqsuyek
● some khans saw relationships with external powers as a means of
strengthening their
own authority
The ‘submission’ of Abu’l-Khayr Khan 1731:
● It has been taken as the date when Qazaqs became Russian subjects
● Describes as ‘voluntary annexation of the Qazaqs with Russia’
Why did Abu'l-Khayr Khan request protection from Anna Ioannovna?
● Because of conflicts with the Bashkirs
● Because of Jungars
● Because of inner politics in Qazaq Juzes
Who was Tevkelev?
● Murza Qutlu-Muhammad Tevkelev came from Tatar lineages in the
Russian Empire
● He was a Muslim whole his life
● He was a translator at the College of Foreign Affairs
● He could cross cultural and political borders and facilitate cross-cultural
contact
Reasons for submission:
● Qazaq Khans are not independent or not autocratic
● Qazaq Khans are not hereditary
● Abu’l-Khayr Khan himself does not come from senior Chinggisid lineage
Orenburg Expedition 1734:
● Dispatched by Anna Ioanovna in response to Abu’l-Khayr’s ‘submission’
● Aim: secure Russian control over the Bashkirs (many were in open rebellion
for 1730s)
● Was led by Ivan Kirilov together with Tevkelev and Abu’l-Khayr’s son
Erali
●It had large military force → they constructed fortress, roads and
mines/metallurgical factories
John Castle’s Journal (1736-1737)
➢ Anglo-German adventurer who attached himself Governor Kirilov’s suite
➢ managed to get himself sent on a semi-official embassy to Abu’l-Khayr
Khan in
1736
➢ his journal, published in German some 50 years later, is one of the only
eyewitness sources of life in the Junior Zhuz at this time available, and an
important
complement to Tevkelev’s writings
Ablai Khan and The Russians
❖ requested Russian recognition of his title of ‘Khan’ in 1778, towards end of
his
life, but it came after many years in which Ablai had refused to accept it
❖ however, he already used the title of Khan, partly because he had received
in
from the Qing, but also because he had been enthroned within the Middle
Zhuz
The process of the Russian Conquest of the Qazaqs starts at 1731 and lasts for
over a hundred
years, up until the 1860s.
➔Mercantilism: economic theory that trade generates wealth, shipping raw
resources
from colonies to metropole
➔Cameralism: science of kammer (administration). Increase wealth by
systematically surveying the resources of your country → mining is central
WEEK 5 (14 - 20 SEP)
Qazaq-Qing Relations
● Qing China crashed the Jungars in 1755-59 and occupied the territories of
the Khanate
and became immediate neighbours of the Qazaqs.
● In contrast to popular view, the Jungars were defeated and massacred not
by Chinese,
but by their fellow Mongols under leadership of the Manchus, another
Central Asian
nomadic people.
●The Qing Empire had been built by the Manchus, in alliance with Eastern
Mongols
they managed to conquer China and establish a new dynasty.
● The Qazaqs had to adopt an ambiguous strategy between Russia and China
in order
to preserve their independence and if possible gain benefits.
● There is a vast documentation of the Qazaq-Qing relations in Manchu,
Oirat, Chagatai
and Chinese, as the Qing Empire was a heavily bureaucratized state. It
consists of
many edicts, decrees, orders, bylaws, correspondences, accounts and
descriptions.
● The letters of the Qazaq notables dispatched to their Qing counterparts are
written in
two different writing systems: vertically oriented Tod Bichig (in Oirat
language) and
Chagatai – Turki. Russians were carefully following the developments in the
sphere of
the Qazaq-Chinese relations and thus, various Russian reports and surveys
are
indispensable.
● All incoming letters from the Qazaqs were rottenly translated from Oirat or
Qazaq
languages into Manchu and Chinese.
Han China and Wusun in the 2nd-1st cc. BCE:
● Chinese first came into contact with the qazaqs in 2C BC.
● Han emperors maintained alliance with the Wusun people against Xiongnu
● Later history of Chinese influence in Central Asia and Qazaq steppes is
closely related
to the Chinese presence in Western Region, Chinese Xiyu
Silk Road
● During Western Jin, Former Liang, Former Qin, Later Liang, Western
Liang, Northern
Liang and Tang dynasties Chinese led active policy in the region
●Reason: Chinese efforts to set their control over most of the lucrative trade
routes (Silk
Road)
● At the height of Chinese might in Western region they sought to extend
their influence in
the adjacent parts of Central Asia and Qazaq steppes, but these periods were
followed
by the time of Chinese decline and withdrawal from the area
Who were the Manchus?
● The Manchus are a branch of Tungusic peoples which inhabited the
territories of the
north-western corner of today’s China
● They were united in the early 17C by one of their chieftains Nurhaci and his
son
Hongtaiji adopting a new name Manchu
● In 1636, Hongtaiji proclaimed a Qing dynasty, and taking advantage of a
civil strife
broken out in China, seized the Chinese capital Beijing in 1644
● It took another 50 years to suppress the rebellions in Mainland China and
establish
control over the Southern and Eastern Mongols
The Manchus and the Mongols
● Neighbored and had ancient ties
● The time the Macnhus were rising to power, the Mongols remained in the
state of
disunity
● Taking advantage of it, the Manchus succeeded in drawing many Mongols
to their side
and destroyed rival Mongol Chinggisid khan in 1634 seizing the official Yuan
seal
● This gave the Manchus the right to claim their inheritance of the Mongol
Yuan dynasty
● The Manchus later actively used the Mongol troops to conquer the
Mainland China and
the territories in the Central Eurasia
● In fact, most of the troops that were smashing Junghar khanate were
Mongols
The Qing Banner System
● The Manchus organised their Mongol subjects into the banner system, a
military-type
super-tribal units created for protection of the frontier zones and spread of
the empire
● The Manchus adopted the Mongol script, converted to Tibetian Buddhism
trying in this
way to gain another effective tool for rendering their influence on the Mongols
The Qing Empire in 1820
● Cherishing their Eurasian roots, the Manchus slowly sinicized
● This process accelerated after 1800, paralleling with gradual decline of Qing
● By the end of 18C, the Manchus were able to get Mongolia, Tibet and
Eastern Turkestan
under their sway, expanding the territories of the Ming almost three times
Russia’s Pressure
● Russia was interested in maintaining status quo in the region apprehending
direct
military conflict with the Qing
● As for the Manchus, they feared potential alliance of the Junghars with the
Russians,
and did their best to destroy the khanate
● After reaching this goal, the Manchus got involved in a protracted
diplomatic game in
Central Asia and qazaq steppes
● By the mid 19C, the technological superiority of Russia over decaying Qing
became too
obvious, and this have led to Kulja and Aigun treaties which settled the
relations
between two powers in the West and allowed Russia to annex some territories
in the
East
The Issue of Amursana
● Almost simultaneously with taking the Jungar territories under their
control in 1760s, the
Manchus began to negotiate with the leading Qazaq chieftains of the Senior
and Middle
Zhuzes.
● The reason was the issue of the Amursana, the Jungar insurgent who raised
an
unsuccessful revolt against the Manchus.
● Amursana sought refuge among the Qazaqs of the Senior Zhuz and thus,
the Manchus
demanded the Qazaqs to surrender the fugitive insurgent
● The Qazaqs, and particularly Ablai sultan, who befriended Amursana from
the time of his
Jungar captivity, refused and nearly provoked the large-scale conflict
● Avoiding a new war with the Qazaqs, and then very likely with the Russians
Manchus
retreated and reconsidered their strategy.
Border Issues
● The Qazaq fugitives to Chinese sides
● Some groups of the Qazaqs were eager to occupy pastures in Jetisu,
previously
conquered by the Jungars.
● Manchus claimed this territory on the grounds of their continuity to the
Jungar Khanate
but did not oppose the Qazaq migration provided newcomers except Qing
subjecthood.
● This in turn raised protests of the Qazaq notables.
Two Power Strategies
● Dealing with the Qazaqs, Manchus ignored a special interest of Russia in
the region and
considered the Qazaqs as their outer vassals.
● Manchus deliberately avoided using Han Chinese political concept of
“barbarous
vassal”, this model was based on the old confusion idea of undisputable
cultural
superiority of China over its backward barbarous neighbors and attracted
them with the
might and spender.
● The Manchus preferred to utilize the Mongol categories of “Ejen and
Albatu” (leader and
servant) that put the participants on a culturally equal level emphasizing the
idea of
political and military rather than cultural superiority of China.
● This model was previously successfully tested by the Manchus in their
relations with
Eastern Mongols and now facilitated the cooperation of the Qazaqs and the
other
Central Asians.
● When the Qing state power found stability in Central Asia in late 18th
century the
relationships slowly drifted back to the classical Chinese model sharing
Central Eurasian
political culture based on genealogy ascending to Chinggis Khan, Manchus
realized the
potential of title recognition.
Title Bestowal
●As early as 1757 two Qazaq Middle Zhuz leaders Ablai and Abulfeiz agreed
to become
vassals of the Qing in exchange of recognition of their Khan dignity.
●The Qing Emperor agreed to recognize the aforementioned sultans as khans
being
aware of Russia’s refusal to do so. By doing so they forced Russians to do the
same.
●By the 18th century the Qazaq sultans actively sought for additional
recognition from
great neighboring powers.
What in Return?
●Chinese increased superiority, even though symbolic one, over the Qazaqs.
In the turn
of title recognition, the Qazaqs were supposed to pay tributes and dispatch
hostages to
the Qing Emperor, up staying from ravaging the other Qing dependents, and
participating in Qing military campaigns upon calling.
●However, tribute paying was symbolic and the Qazaq khans did not have to
bring it
personally to the Qing courts, Manchus invariably sent the Qazaq hostages
back home,
as for the participation in military campaigns the Qazaqs ignored a few Qing
requests to
render assistance to the Manchus.
●The Qazaqs enjoyed several privileges given to them by the Qing
administration,
recognition of dignity, bestowal of aristocratic hats and costumes, lavish
salary and the
right for direct duty-free trade relations.
● Most importantly, relations with the Qing Emperor gave the Qazaq
notables an
effective tool in dealings with Russia.
●Fearing that the hardline in their policy toward the Qazaqs may push them
into the arms
of the Manchus, the Russians had to make important concessions, they had to
recognize the Khan dignity of a few Kazakh rulers.
Soft Policy of China
●The Qing administrator preferred not to meddle in internal affairs of their
Qazaq vassals,
their way of life, social structure, economy etc.
● Their demands mostly concerned symbolic sphere, this loose policy was
considered
optimal for the early stage of the Qazaq integration into the Empire.
● Direct Qazaq-Qing relations forced the Russians to change the policy
towards the
Qazaqs who were swiftly leaving the sphere of Russian influence.
●In the 1770s, the Russians had to recognize the Khan’s dignity of Nuraly of
Junior Zhuz
and Ablai and their offspring with all due privileges.
Russians Take Control
●Russian authorities, unlike their Chinese counterparts, whenever satisfied
with this
symbolic power, pursuing more tangible and energetic policy in the Qazaq
Steppe, they
constructed the chain of forts, roads, and trade routes.
●Russians served as arbiters in the conflicts between the Qazaq notables and
never
hesitated to meddle in the internal affairs of the Qazaqs, both secular and
religious.
●In 1823, the case of Gubaidulla, a sultan of the Middle Zhuz, marks the
moment when
the Russians started resolute actions to force the Qazaq nobility to completely
cut
any contacts with their Qing curatives.
The Factor of Religion
● Manchus were seen as infidels by the Muslim population of the Central Asia
and
Xinjiang.
● Religious factors played a significant role in Uyghur and Dungan uprisings
in Xinjiang
and brutally suppressed by Qing troops.
● For the period of the 18th – early 20th century Uyghurs and Han-Muslims
participated in
400 rebellions.
● Revolts were the outcomes of multiple mistakes in colonization of the
Xinjiang, poor
administration, aggressive resettlement campaign and entire Muslim attitudes
of local
Qing officials.
● Qing Empire underestimated religious factor and never seriously tried to
use Islam to
reinforce their regime like the Russians did.
Fading Chinese Influence
● By the mid-19th century Qing China entered a protracted period of heavy
crisis, the
Manchus failed to modernize their administration and army.
● The Qing domination over Central Asia was Challenged by Russian and
British Empires.
● Manchus chose to withdraw from the Qazaq Steppe under Russian pressure
and in view
of inextinguishable uprisings in Xinjiang.
● Officially withdrawal was secured by the unequal treaty of Kulja under
which China had
to open the towns of Kulja and Chuguchak to Russian trade.
● Yet, Qing authorities continued to bestow titles upon Qazaq notables until
the early 20th
century but then this practice ceased forever.
Outcomes
➔Avoiding open military conflicts, the Qing and Romanovs’ involved into a
diplomatic
game with the Qazaqs as key participants.
➔The Qazaqs used their intermediate position to extract profit from Russo-
Chinese trade
and elevate their political status and influence in the region.
➔The Russians had to make the concessions especially in recognition of the
Khan status
of the Qazaq rulers, but simultaneously increased their influence among the
Qazaqs
through construction of the fortification lines in the Steppe and serving as
arbiters in the
disputes among Qazaq nobility.
➔The Manchus, in contrast, preferred to limit their policy exclusively to the
sphere of
symbols rather than real authority.
➔By the mid-19th century China emerged into a heavy political crisis that
increased its
lagging behind Russia both technologically and politically.
➔This opened an avenue to the Russians to establish full control over the
Qazaqs and
other Central Asian peoples.
Ablai Khan and the Middle Zhuz
● Of all the kazakh leaders of this period, Ablai Khan is the most best-
remembered,
charismatic and effective leader
● Traditional reputation as a warrior and diplomat
● Refused the title of Khan from Russians but later asked for its confirmation
● Bukhar - Zhyrau - Khan’s advisor
Key Events:
●1453: the Turks conquered Constantinople, the capital of Orthodox
Christianity.
●1510: the monk Filofei declared Moscow the “Third Rome” (at that time,
Moscow was
independent, not islam-based).
●16th century: Ivan Grozny started the expansion of Russia.
●1552, 1556: conquests of Kazan and Astrakhan, respectively.
●16th - 18th cc.: mosques were periodically destroyed and Muslim subjects
were
pressured through taxation to convert to Orthodox Christianity.
●1721: Peter I declared Russia to be an “empire”; his goal was to reduce
Orthodox
authority in Russia (he started the internal and external division of Europe
and
Asia).
●1745: Catherine II “The Great” married Peter III.
●1762: Catherine got the whole power and was supported by elite guards
regiments.
●1764: Catherine confiscated much of the Church’s land (part of Church
reform).
●1767: Catherine published her version for Russia in the Enlightenment-
inspired “Great
Instruction”.
●1768-71: Apanaev Mosque was built in Kazan.
●1770: Catherine set a bunch of new laws in her “Nakaz” but the laws were
not applied.
●1773: Pallas published his ethnographical observations about the Qazaq
Steppe.
●1773: Holy Synod issued “Edict of Toleration of all Faiths” (Church
Reform).
●1773-74: Pugachev’s Rebellion.
●1786: the Orenburg frontier commission was established.
●1822: Ustav o Sibirskih Kirgizah (Orta juz) by Speranskii
People:
●Catherine the Great - Russian empress who married Peter III and later
betrayed him to
gain power; she was strongly influenced by the Enlightenment and started the
Church
reform and further Islam toleration.
●Tatischev - governor of Orenburg in 1730’s; historian and geographer who
came up with
the division of Europe and Asia.
●Scott Levi - argued that the fact that Russia dominated over the northern
regions of the
steppe stimulated caravan trade.
●Yemelyan Pugachev - leader of the rebellion in 1773-74 who claimed to be
tsar Peter
III.
●Mikhail Speranskii - author of the Ustav o Sibirskih Kirgizah.
Places:
●Kazan - where Apanaev Mosque was built.
●Orenburg, Troitsk, Petropavlovsk, Semipalatinsk - trading centers, terminal
points for
caravans.
Definitions:
●The Enlightenment - the movement which main aspect was reliance on
human reason
and inductive method (scientific observation and classification of the world);
it had a
strong influence on Catherine II
●“Great Instruction” - a publishment by Catherine II which main point was
Enlightened
absolutism.
●Church reform - series of actions by Catherine II by which she tried to use
religion as a
tool in order to strengthen her power.
●The Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly - was founded by Catherine II to
administer
Islam among the Tatars and Bashkirs.
●Orenburg Frontier Commission - was established as an administrative organ
for
Kazakhs beyond the frontier line.
●Barimta - method of resolving disputes which was implemented when the
result of the
previous conflict wasn’t applicable, so it was the only way to avenge yourself;
for the
traditional Kazakh system, it did fit, but for Russians it was a crime.
●Menovoi Dvor - the caravanserai for traders built outside Orenburg.
●Pugachev Rebellion - the rebellion that meant for Kazakhs the breakdown of
Russian
Imperial authority and an opportunityto get the pastures of Kalmyks and
Bashkirs.
●Ustav o Sibirskih Kirgizah - was written by Speransky; meant an official
abolishment
of the khan power and caused a conflict between the traditional Kazakh law
and
Russian law.
WEEK 6 (21 - 27 SEP)
The Speransky Reforms and the Kenesary Rebellion
●Mikhail Speranskii - author of the Ustav o Sibirskih Kirgizah.
●Barymta – a method to resolve disputes or perceived wrongdoing, personal
fault
method of resolving disputes which was implemented when the result of the
previous
conflict wasn’t applicable, so it was the only way to avenge yourself; for the
traditional
Kazakh system, it did fit, but for Russians it was a crime.
●Zakat - an annual tax, constituting a conditional obligation on all Muslims,
amounting to
a one-fortieth levy on income or produce. Generally the tax was earmarked
for charitable
purposes. a form of alms-giving treated in Islam as a religious obligation or
tax, which,
by Quranic ranking, is next after prayer (salat) in importance.
Southern neighbors
By the early 19th century the Qazaq Steppe was bounded to the south by
three sedentary
states:
1.The Emirate of Bukhara, ruled by the Uzbek Manghit Dynasty since 1740s
2. The Khanate of Kokand, ruled by the Uzbek Ming Dynasty since 1799
3. The Khanate of Khiva, ruled by the Uzbek Qonghrat Dynasty since 1806
➔None of the rulers were Chinggisids (though the Ming and Qonghrat
dynasties claimed
to be Chinggisid descents)
➔Khiva and Khoqand intervened heavily in steppe politics, and both had
territorial
ambitions in the Syr-Darya Valley
The Politics of Expansion on the Steppe
● Khivan and Khoqandi expansion was partly motivated by traditional
concerns for
acquiring territory, subjects and tax revenues and partly by a desire to
control trade
routes to Russia, which were of growing economic importance
● They met sporadic resistance from the Qazaqs, many of whom served or
allied with the
two khanates, and who were politically disunited
● Their expansion was also facilitated by Russia’s preoccupation with the war
against
Napoleon until 1815, and with the Caucasus frontier and relations with Qajar
Iran and
Ottoman Turkey thereafter
● By the 1830s, however, Russians attention to the steppe once again –
Russian officials
viewed Khoqandi and Khivan ‘interference’ with Qazaqs whom they claimed
as their
subjects as an affront to their sovereignty
The Qazaq Response
❖ there was no unified Qazaq response to Russian and Khoqandi
encroachments on the
steppe from the North and South
❖ some Qazaqs served Khoqand – some voluntarily moved to the Russian
territory
to form the Bukey Horde, others played a vital role in the organization of the
Khiva
expedition
❖ however, the Russians would encounter resistance from at least one Qazaq
leader
– Sultan Kenesary Kasimov
Kenesary Kasimov
●he was a grandson of Ablai Khan, and claimed first the Khanship of the
Middle Horde,
and then that of the Qazaqs as a whole
●his movement was described as a ‘rebellion’ by the Russians, and a
‘national-
liberation movement’ in early Soviet and modern Qazaq historiography
●neither of these descriptions is accurate – Kenesary was not a Russian
subject, and the
territory he claimed was not under Russian sovereignty in any meaningful
sense, so his
movement can hardly be described as a ‘rebellion’
●as many Qazaqs refused to recognize his authority, or fought with the
Russians against
him, his movement was also not ‘national’ in the modern sense
➔Indirect Rule – controlling territory through a ‘resident’ at court, often
taking a portion of
the tax revenues than annexing the territory directly
➔In the early 19th century Russians used Qazaq khans and Sultans in a
similar way,
providing them with titles and symbols of rule, such as seals of office. The best
example
was the Bukey Horde (Astrakhan)
Towards more direct administration
➢Bukey khan died in 1817 and was succeeded by his son Jahangir. After his
death in
1845 no new Khans were confirmed for the Bukey Horde, though it survived
as an
administrative unit until 1852
➢No new Khans of the Junior Zhuz were appointed after Shir Ghazi Khan in
1824
➢1822 saw the abolition of the Khanship of the Middle Zhuz, which had been
based in
Petropavlovsk
● The Chinggisid nobility still played an important role in Russian
administration, but
increasingly they were much more firmly subordinated to the control of
Russian
officials.
The Speransky Reforms
● as a part of a wider set of reforms of the administration of the Western
Siberia, in the
Russian statesman Mikhail Speranskii introduced a new set of ‘regulation for
the
Siberian Kirgiz’
● this formalized the status of the Qazaqs as Russian subjects, and created a
formal
administrative structure of ‘inner’ and ‘outer’ okrugs and a hierarchy under
Chinggisid
Sultans
Administration
Aul ruled by the Elder [Starshina, elected every 3 years]
↓
Volost’ ruled by Volost’ Sultan [Chinggisid, hereditary, exceptionally elected,
Russian officer]
↓
Okrug ruled by Starshii Sultan [also Chinggisid, Russian officer (chinovnik)
and after 9 years
of service can receive a Russian title of nobility]
||
Prikaz – main administrative center in the steppe, [administrative structure
consisted of 2
appointed Russians, 2 elected Qazaqs, 1 Starshii Sultan and occasionally
involves local the
Cossack commander]
The ‘Siberian Kirgiz’ = Middle Zhuz Qazaqs
The Qazaq Customary Law
●the Ustav said a little about the role of customary law and the Bii, although it
clearly
envisaged a role for them beneath the new administrative and judicial
structures it had
created
●in practice little seems to have changed in the practice of customary law
before 1860s
but several attempts were made between the 1820s and the 1850s to codify
Kazakh
customary law
●in 1824 a commission met in Omsk for the purpose of noting down and
codifying Qazaq
Customary Law; five sultans attended the commission to provide information
– the ‘code’
they produced has been widely used by scholars, but was never enforced
across the
Steppe
●four attempts at codification were made in the 1840s and 1850s, but none
was
successful
➔Speransky Reforms regulated mobility of the Qazaqs in the Steppe.
The ‘Orenburg Kirgiz’ = Junior Zhuz Qazaqs
1824, ‘Мнение об оренбургских киргизах’
Until 1831:
●Orenburg Governor General nominates the Sultan-pravitel’ (west, centre
and east)
●Border commission had joint authority over 3 Sultan-pravitel’ and consisted
of
President, 4 councilors, 4 Qazaq representatives
● In 1831, Distantsii (eq. to okrug) start being organized for the Qazaqs who
live closer to
the ‘Line’, each distantsii has certain number of Starshinas underneath his
authority
After 1839:
● the distantsii system expands, to include 54 distantsii in the mid-century,
each of them
divided in mestnosti or auls
Kenesary’s Revolt:
● Kenesary attempted to create an alternative power center in the Qazaq
steppe
(state-building).
● Core support: clans disgruntled by Russian policies, Khoqand expansion
Legitimization
● Chinggisid + “Ablay-id”
● Islamic
● Attempts to gain recognition among the Qazaqs, from Russia, and from the
Kyrgyz
Income sources: taxation/tribute/extortion/pillage
Technologies of rule:
❖ partly imported from successful neighbors, e.g. the systematization of
taxation
❖ military technology
➢ some reliance on firearms (obtained with Bukharan, sometimes Khivan,
help)
➢ exploiting the residual ‘nomadic advantage’ (hide-and-seek)
➢ ‘modern’ army structure
➢ attention to logistics (grain supply)
Kenesary’s aims:
● recognition of his title of Khan