I.

Equivalence
Equivalence is an important factor in translation because the meaning of the text which is
translated is same as the meaning of the source text. This is what translation is about. Basically,
the equivalence definition is that when a language is translated into another language, they have
a similarity in meaning or feeling (Vinay and Darbelnet, 2001). The similarity came from the
extent of credential overlapping. Equivalence has two types, including dynamic equivalence and
formal equivalence. Formal equivalence tends to accuracy, the source document's grammar
structure and details in lexical. With dynamic equivalence, this kind of method tends to be more
natural and does not focus much on accuracy in terms of literal translation, focusing strongly on
"sense for sense" translation without using "word for word" like formal equivalence (Eugene
Nida, 1982). To find a way to make equivalence, there are lots of techniques such as:
"adaptation, direct transfer, circumlocution, substitution, etc.". Eugene Nida (1982) wrote and
demonstrated that the way to make the translated text fit the culture of the translator while the
original meaning of the native text is kept, dynamic equivalence has changed into functional
equivalence.

II. Equivalence in Translation

One of the fundamental ideas in translation is equivalence, which is frequently one of the
best places to begin when describing how languages are translated.

Liraz Postan (2022) stated in an essay titled "The Concept of Equivalence in Translation"
‘Language translation sometimes could be likened to the “science of poetry.” Although it is
sometimes true, language is poetry whether it is intended to be so: Words have the power to alter
our reality in addition to describing and documenting it. You are changing the world simply by
writing or speaking about it, after all. Using words to describe something alters its nature, like
the theory in physics that anything may be changed just by being observed.

That may be a bit in-depth, but it gets at the heart of the matter, which is how equivalency
works in translation. Equivalence, according to Postan in 2022, is frequently used to explain a
job in translation services to people who do not have any training or background in linguistics or
translation. This is because it is a potent concept that is both relatively simple to explain and a
crucial translation work technique. It's not too difficult to understand equivalence. When you
translate, you must contend with two different linguistic systems: the language you are
translating into and the language you are translating from. That should be clear enough.
However, a lot of individuals believe that languages are fundamentally the same and that
learning a new language just involves switching out words from one language for those in
another and then cleaning up the syntax.

It is far more challenging. Postan (2022) asserts that languages are a reflection of the
culture, history, and thought processes of the people who developed them. This can differ
significantly amongst cultures. Often, a word salad prevents word substitutions from being made.
However, you need a human brain to decode the meaning of a word or phrase in a sentence
utilizing context and cultural understanding before looking for the right encoding in the target
language. Using online or other machine translation tools is usually a straightforward way to see
an example of this.

A literal translation is worthless; you must comprehend the words' intended meaning. In
support of that objective, equivalence is a potent instrument, but it only functions when you have
a thorough grasp of the procedure (Postan, 2022).

III. Translation Techniques

Besides equivalence in translation, translators also use many different translation
techniques. While a translation method is used for the whole document, translators can make
various combinations of different translation techniques to achieve the most accurate translation.
However, these combinations will not change the meaning of the original version. According to
Cỏ Günter, translation is that everything is transformed but there is no have change. Moreover,
Mona Baker also emphasized the role of translators that they have to show themselves as well as
others to see that they can control what they do. It means that they do not just translate well
because of having a “flair” for translation, but rather since, like other professionals, they have
made a conscious effort to understand different aspects of their work. Each technique used in
translation were first noted in 1958 in the work of J. P. Vinay and J. Darbelnet, “A Methodology
for Translation”. Direct translation techniques and indirect translation techniques are the two
main techniques mentioned. Direct translation techniques; including calque, borrowing, and
literal translation; will be used when the factors of the original language can be easily translated
into the target language. In case the cultural features as well as linguistic aspects of the native
language and the target language are not close, using direct translation techniques cannot bring
 the correct meaning of the original version to the target language. Therefore, translators often
prioritize choosing indirect translation techniques, which include modulation, transposition,
reformulation or compensation, adaptation, equivalence, reduction, and expansion.

1. Direct translation techniques

Another term for word-for-word or literal translation is direct translation. Legal, technical,
medical, business, and other formal papers frequently employ this style of translation (Voxtab,
2022). When the ideas and grammatical structure of the native language are able to be utilized in the
target language, several translation procedures are employed (Intertranslations, n.d.). Direct
translation techniques include:

1.1. Borrowing
Borrowing is when phrases or words are immediately copied from the original text and
translated into the target language. This technique can assist to keep the cultural context of the
original material. In addition, this method is also frequently employed when it has no equivalent in
the target language, such as with clothes or food (Intertranslations, n.d.).

It is referred to as "borrowing" when words are utilized directly from another language without
being translated. Numerous terms from different languages have been "borrowed" from and into
English (Voxtab, 2022). 

1.2. Calque or loan translation

A sentence that has been verbatim translated from another language is known as a loan
translation, or calque (Voxtab, 2022). By literally translating a sentence from one language into
another, a new term is created in the target language. Otherwise speaking, this is a borrowed word
that has been translated exactly (Intertranslations, n.d.).

The distinction between borrowed translation and loaned translation is that the former uses the
other language's original text verbatim or unaltered, whilst the latter is translated. In specialized or
globalized domains of communication, such calque translation is fairly common (Voxtab, 2022). 

1.3. Literal translation

Literal translation is when each word is translated word for word. The target text must be
adhere and idiomatic to the source text's meaning, style, and word choice. Only cultures and
languages which are very nearly related may use this approach. This can overlook subtleties in the
original text (Intertranslations, n.d.).

Depending on the sentence patterns, only a few language pairings can employ a word-for-word
translation. Due to the disparity between these languages' sentence patterns, this type of translation
would not have been possible (Voxtab, 2022). 

2. Implication

Definitions of implication are researched by many experts in their studies.

Implicit was described as following in Vina and Darbelnet's dictionary of terms that a
stylistic translation technique is to make explicit things in the native language implicit in the
target language. Moreover, it also conveys the meaning by relying on the context or the
(1995:344). Aside from that, Klaudy and Karoly (2005:15) state that Implication happens, for
example, when a TL unit with a more general meaning replaces an SL unit with a specific
meaning; when the meanings of several SL words is combined in one TL word by translators;
when the TL text does not receive meaningful lexical elements of the SL text; when two or more
sentences in the ST are combined into one sentence in the TT; or, when ST According to the
concept given above, there are several categories of implication.

3. Near-synonymy

Synonymy is distinct from near synonymy. When two terms' meanings are similar but not
identical enough to be used interchangeably in all situations, they are said to be close synonyms.
The term in the target language that most closely matches the meaning of the word in the source
text may not be an exact synonym.

4. Generalization

The process of lexical broadening, also known as meaning’s généralization (Vinay and
Darbelnet 1958), generalizatsiya (Retsker 1974, Barkhudarov 1975), or generalization (Vinay
and Darbelnet 1995, Klaudy 1996), is a common transfer process in which the SL unit having a
more specific meaning is replaced by the TL unit having a more general meaning.

Because diverse vocabulary systems in different languages represent distinct mental maps of
the world (body parts, colors, and kinship words), generalization of meaning in translation may
be explained. Generalization is inevitable if the SL exhibits a more intricate segmentation, and
the TL lacks a dictionary equivalent. The interlingua imbalance in this situation takes the shape
of a "many to one" connection, where two or more SL terms have just one dictionary counterpart
in the TL.

Two factors appear to support the generalizations' tendency to be universal:

1) Finding a TL correspondent with a broader connotation is simpler
2) It is simpler to incorporate a TL correspondent with a broader meaning into the TL
sentence's structure.
5. Expansion and Reduction Strategies
5.1. Introduction

According to a study by Atefeh Abbasi and Mansour Koosha in 2016, the difficulty of
translating poetry is one of the complex problems that any translator must deal with in all texts,
especially in literature. To maintain the integrity of the original text while translating poetry,
translators employ a variety of techniques. Semantic and structural adjustment techniques are the
two categories that Manafi Anari (2004) presents. Semantic adjustment techniques are employed
while translating material so as to retain the original text's substance and its intended meaning
(Nida & Taber, 2003). Different categories are used to categorize semantic correction
techniques. The semantic correction procedures include expansion and reduction (Manafi Anari,
2009).

Atefeh Abbasi and Mansour Koosha also said that it is a major issue that the current study
has looked at because while translating poetry, translators must deal with some terms in the
native language that are untranslatable because of the disparities between language systems and
cultural perspectives. The translator is translating for readers with various cultural and historical
backgrounds, thus there are some words in the original text for which they may not be able to
identify an equivalent (Klaudy, 2009, quoted in Shirinzadeh & Tengku Mahadi, 2014). In order
to have a translation that is understandable, natural, and comprehensible in their language, the
translators apply semantic adjustment procedures in their translations to address these issues
(Nida & Taber, 2003).

5.2. Expansion types

 According to Nida and Taber's (2003, p. 166) classification, expansion has two different:
"syntactic (or formal) expansions and lexical (or semantic) expansions." Lexical expansions have
three various types, according to Nida and Taber (2003, p. 167): classifiers, descriptive
equivalence, and semantic rearrangement. The discussion on them may be found below.

a. "Classifiers are rather widespread and can be employed whenever a borrowed term
requires some semantic redundancy linked to it, so that the reader will be able to
comprehend at least something about its form and/or purpose" (Nida & Taber, p. 167).
b. Descriptive equivalency occurs when the target texts' word lengths are altered and
their word counts are increased. Since the target text has more words than the original
text, it is crucial to accounted for the form and function of the event and the object
using the appropriate number of lexical components (Nida & Taber,2003).
c. Semantic restructuring takes place when some expressions in the source text are so
condensed that they require significant expansion in the destination language.
5.3. Reduction types

According to Nida and Taber (2003, P. 168), "Reductions are neither as numerous nor as
frequent as expansions. They are therefore less significant architecturally as a result. Though
both expansions and reductions are founded on the same fundamental concepts of recreating the
closest natural equivalent, employing the right reductions is just as crucial as introducing the
right expansions." Reduction occurs when multiple words from the native language are translated
into fewer words in the target language, it is important to note (Nida & Taber, 2003).

Nida and Taber (2003, p. 168) identify seven main categories of reduction:

a. "Simplification of doublets." When using this sort of reduction, words that have the
same meaning are combined into a single word, as in "he responded, he said;"
b. "Reduction of repetitions" is a type of reduction used to eliminate repeated words; for
example, in certain languages, "verily, verily" must be shortened to "verily" since
repetition does not have the same meaning;
c. Failure to specify participation, such as by reducing the number of times a person is
the subject of several phrases;
 d. When hypotactic structures are reduced to practice ones, conjunctions are lost. The
term "usage of subordinate clauses" is hypotaxis. The placement of related clauses one
after the other without the use of a linking word is known as parataxis.
e. "Reduction of formulae," such as using "to" rather than "to the extent of" in the phrase
"to his ability." a predetermined phrase that has been shortened.
f. "Using longer ellipses than those that are typically utilized." While certain languages
need the extension of any ellipses, some languages favor ellipses that are more
extensive than those seen in texts written in the original language.
g. "Simplification of very repetitive style frequently related with formal sturdiness and
significance of topic".
6. Transposition
6.1. Introduction

A skilled translator uses a few techniques to get outstanding outcomes, according to a 2016
essay by Chiara Grassilli. The pronunciation of the text in the target language can be enhanced in
several ways. One of the most important translating techniques is transposition.

Transposition, according to the article, is the initial step or process of oblique translation.
Oblique translation is another term for free translation, which is when the translator employs
their judgment to attain equivalence. It involves switching out a word class for another at the
grammatical level without changing the meaning. Although the transposed statement's content is
the same, artistically speaking, its importance is different. Transposed sentences frequently
sound more literary. It is crucial to choose the shape that best fits the circumstances.

7. Addition

The use of additions as a translation technique has drawn the attention of several specialists.
According to Baker, grammatical differences between the source and destination languages
frequently cause changes to the information content of the message during translation (1992: 86).
This modification may include adding details to the target text that are missing from the source
text. When the destination language possesses a grammatical category that the source language
does not, this may occur. According to Baker, the modification may entail supplying information
to the target text that is not provided in the source language if the target language has a
grammatical category that the source language does not.
 Nida claims that many changes might be made while the text is being translated (2003: 227).
The most frequent and important ones are elliptical statement completion, forced specification,
additions required by grammatical restructuring, and amplification from implicit to explicit
status. Nida (2003: 230–231) further stresses that although the procedures require "additions," it
is important to understand that no actual modifications to the semantic content of the message
have been made because these additions effectively only make apparent what is implicit in the
source language text. The information is not made more significant by changing an element's
status from implicit to explicit; rather, it is just presented in a different way. The following are
the four categories for additions:

7.1. Filling out elliptical expression

The sentence has an elliptical shape when a word or phrase implied by the context is left
out since it is repeated in a preceding clause. A further definition of elliptical (ellipsis) in the
Webster's New World College Dictionary is the omission of a word or words necessary for a
complete grammatical structure but intelligible in context (1996: 441).

According to Nida, ellipses are used in all languages, however various grammatical
frameworks permit various "omitted" words (2003: 227). Elliptical statements could be
prohibited in certain languages even if they are widespread in others.

7.2. Obligatory specifications

According to Nida (2003: 228), mandatory information may be required in some

translations due to either (a) ambiguity in receptor language formations or (b) a potential need
for additional information to prevent misleading reference. A third-person reference, such "Paul
to the church at," would suggest that a Paul other than the writer is being discussed if the writer
is the same Paul who is referenced in the greeting, as in "I, Paul, am writing to the church at...
Nida." (2003: 228).

7.3. Additions required by grammatical restructuring

There may be some lexical additions because of almost any sort of restructuring a source
language phrase. The most frequent situations that call for amplification are voice shifts and
changes to word classes (Nida, 2003: 228). a) Change in voice When a passive phrase is
converted to an active one, the agent must clearly be included, according to Nida (2003: 228).
Nababan (2008) adds that in some circumstances, augmentation owing to a change in voice is
necessary to prevent misunderstanding. When an active voice is converted to a passive voice and
vice versa, this type of addition takes place.
 8. Omission

Newmark refers to this as deletion or omission (1981: 149). Sometimes deletion or

removal is permitted during translation when the original text word(s) just serve as a source of
supporting information. Additionally, according to Baker, leaving out material that was included
in the source language may alter the communication's informational substance (1992: 86). A
grammatical category that is present in the source language but is missing from the target
language may require that the suggested meaning be disregarded. According to Baker, if the
target language lacks a grammatical category, information from the source language may be
deleted to alter the information content of the message during translation. Furthermore,
according to Baker (1992: 40), there are times when it is beneficial to delete a word or phrase's
translation. Translators may opt not to translate a term or sentence if its importance to the
progression of the text does not justify torturing the reader with lengthy explanations. They
regularly make this choice to do so.

8.1. Repetition

According to Nida (2003: 231), a phrase that intensifies the statement in question must
often replace or be removed from one of the numerous frequently occurring lexical components.
Examples include the following: a) The phrase "I'll murder him with my weapon," or "I'll slay
him with my sword." I'll use my sword to murder him, is how this line is translated into
numerous languages. Several words in the phrase need to be dropped to prevent information
from being repeated. To create an effective sentence in the target language, this type of
subtraction is used. (Nida, 2003: 231). In English, the concept of plural is phonologically and
morphologically conditioned (for example, book/books, box/boxes, and pen/pens). Before a
plural noun, a determiner expressing plurality is also employed (some books, three pens). It will
become redundant if it is said in Indonesian. In Indonesian, the noun buku-buku (book-book) is
repeated to create the plural form, or a noun quantifier like beberapa (some) or tiga is added
(three). The quantifier must be dropped from a noun when it is in the plural form. The noun in
question should be in the singular form when there is a quantifier denoting plurality, and noun
repetition should be avoided.
 8.2. Reference specification

Nida (2003: 231) claims that a change from source to receptor language calls for the
addition of elements that help to make the reference to participants more specific and obvious.
Because not all languages express reference in the same way, the opposite is also true.

Reference in semantics is defined by Baker (1992: 181) as the connection between a word
and the thing it refers to in the real world. The most frequent form of reference in English is a
personal pronoun.

8.3. Conjunctions

Both forms of conjunctions—those connected with hypotactic constructions and those used
in appositional connections—link coordinates, which are commonly coupled without
conjunctions (Nida, 2003: 232). A hypotactic conjunction, in respect to point (a), is a conjunction
that joins two or more phrases, but each phrase has a unique location, the first one being a
dependent clause and the second one being an independent clause. The conjunction indicating
the coordinate of the lexical element that is often related but doesn't have a specific conjunction,
with reference to point (b). For instance: "John, Bill, and Jim," in SL. "John, Bill, and Jim." Nida
(2003: 232). (2003: 232).

8.4. Vocative

Vocatives are words or phrases that are used to address the reader or listener directly.
Usually, they come in the shape of a name, a title, or a loving statement. Vocatives include
phrases like "darling," "my dear," "sir," "my little birdie," etc. According to Nida, names for
people exist in all languages, but some don't have formal means to address them directly in a
polite manner (2003: 232). Vocatives may be completely removed or moved into clauses nearby
in some circumstances if the overall impact does not change the meaning.

9. Explication

The addition process is examined based on the following types under the goal (or purpose)
of using explicitation: completing elliptical expressions, obligatory specification, additions
required because of grammatical restructuring, amplification from implicit to explicit status,
responses to rhetorical questions, addition of classifiers, addition of connectives, categories in
the receptor language that are absent from the source language, and, finally, do Nida (do n)
(omission). According to Nida, who maintains that most additions are structural adjustments, it is
difficult to investigate one procedure without exposing further structural alterations. To connect
these ideas to what is seen in the data, it is important to go through each of Nida's nine
adjustment techniques in more detail (1964, pp. 227-231). Due to the completion of elliptical
expressions, the first is addition. In linguistics, the term "ellipsis" refers to the deletion of one or
more words that are understood properly but must be added to a phrase to make it technically
complete ("Ellipsis" 2019). The reason for this is because different languages have different
circumstances in which words can be removed without changing their meaning. Nida contends
that in some situations, only completing the parallel ellipsis of the translation is insufficient; we
may also need to add other language elements to completely convey the meaning. Other research
(e.g., Klaudy, 1998; Olohan and Baker, 2000; and Pápai, 2004) have examined explicitation in
greater detail and even provided sub-categories for adding processes, even though they fall
beyond the scope of this study. This is because the methods they employ in their works to
convey the concept of explicitation are inappropriate for the objectives of this study. For
instance, Klaudy (1998, p. 83) suggests four different types of explicitation: necessary,
voluntary, pragmatic, and implicit in translation. However, applying these criteria to actual data
is tricky, as mentioned by Englund Dimitrova (2005, p. 38), who critiques Klaudy's typology and
calls it difficult to implement since the typology's categories are formed from several criteria and
levels.

10. Compensation

The reward money for someone who is doing a task but suffers an injury as a result is the
definition of compensation. The translation of this term conveys the same idea. In general, since
some words or phrases cannot be translated, they will be substituted with others that at least
convey the same idea or sentiment (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958). Hervey and Higgins showed
that compensation through a source text may sometimes recreate meaning and consequences.
However, this approach can only approximate the original text's meaning and effects to a certain
extent.

11. Modulation
 Vietnamese has a term that may be used to explain modulation: " buồn trông con nhện
giăng tơ." Accordingly, modulation aims to maintain, replicate, or retain the source language's
feelings (Vinay and Darbelnet, in Hatim and Munday, 2001). For this approach to succeed,
semantic understanding is essential since the translator must completely comprehend the
suggested meaning of the original text to recreate the meaning (Kearns, 2000).

12. Equivalence

The words "similar" and "same" are synonyms for this term. For instance, the words "dog"
in English and "chó" in Vietnamese have equivalent meanings and are regarded as equivalent.
Equivalence is a concept that translators use to describe when two words, phrases, or sentences
have the same meaning to "balance" them. Eugene Nida established that there are two different
sorts of equivalent: dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence, often known as functional
equivalence in the future. Because formal equivalence is the same as the very first translation
technique, "word for word," it is frequently utilized in academic or scientific writing. In formal
equivalence, the grammatical structure of the source language is frequently preserved. The
contrary is dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence since, in essence, this strategy is
adaptable. Although the grammatical structure will differ from that of the original language and
allow readers to engage with culture through translated material, it is flexible enough to
"balance" meaning and emotions.

IV. Culture difference in Translation

1. Concept of Culture

Every country on the planet has a unique national psychology and a lengthy history,
according to YANG Lihua's (2014) research on cultural differences in translation. No one of us
can be freed from the psychological genetic qualities that are unique to our own nation. These
inherited genes, which govern our mentality, attitude, and other characteristics, exist from birth.
Therefore, it is essential that the translator understands what the term "culture" implies. As a
rather broad word, "culture" may refer to a variety of cultural aspects, including religion, social
institutions, moral standards, customs, interpersonal relationships, material belongings, and so
forth.

2. Relationship Between Translation and Culture

 Nothing is more strategically significant than the language through which a society's
beliefs are expressed, passed down, and through which the majority of its members interact,
according to Nida's 2005 essay: "Since culture is defined succinctly as the totality of beliefs and
practice of a society, nothing is more important than that. It is linked to culture in a variety of
intricate ways when it is employed in communication situations. To understand the translation
process properly, we must first clarify how culture and language are related to it. Culture and
language are inseparably intertwined. According to YANG Lihua, the close ties between
language and culture play a significant role in determining the intimate relationships between
translation and culture.

WANG Ning claims that entails two distinct sorts of research: first, in its restricted sense, it
aims to accomplish content translation between two languages; second, in its broad sense, it aims
to establish cultural equivalence between two languages. It is easy to believe that translation
simply entails the communication of two different languages and cultures.

According to YANG Lihua, the biggest problem that develops throughout the translation
process is the cultural difference, which makes it difficult for us to achieve our translational
objectives. The statement of YANG Lihua that culture in translation is difficult stems from the
fact that a variety of factors, including religious culture, thinking styles, historical culture,
traditions, and varied geographic environments, can affect the translation process.

3. Pragmatic approaches
a. Definition

Pragmatics is the study or studies of the way people use languages in a natural way in
communication in a particular context. The subject synthesizes how people use language in
social interactions and the bond between the interpreter and the interpreted ("pragmatics |
linguistics and philosophy", 2022). In a straightforward way, pragmatics examines whether an
announcement of a person has its literal meaning or hidden meaning.

In translation, pragmatics stand a big role in encoding when semantics fail to analyze the
context. Success in communication deeply counts on whether the hearer understands the
meaning of the context, this is found in the speaker's words, failing to which would result in
misunderstanding (Gutt, 1998, p. 42).
 b. Text and Translation

Venuti (1995) asserts that the ambiguity of pragmatics in the act of translation enables the
translator to conceal his or her propensity to conceal one's voice and render oneself invisible to
establish the credibility of the original text. However, revising the original material is a necessary
step in the translation process. There are instances when translators will influence their work
with subjective assessments of themselves that align with society's values and culture, even if the
translator has a muddy image in the original language (Morini, 2013, p. 18).

c. Context

‘Psychological construct’ is a name that was labeled to the context of a specific context and
is supposed to be a piece of hypotheses made by the hearer about the universe. Those theories
provide a clear illustration of the presumptions the hearer makes to interpret a specific
announcement (Sperber & Wilson, 1986, p. 15; Gutt, 1998, p. 42).

What a translator do is balance the meaning of the text and make sure that the hearer/reader
understands what the speaker/writer means. This balance must go along with the principle of
effectiveness, which is needed to convey or complete communication objectives (Hatim &
Mason, 1990, p. 93).