Cyberchondria Research Paper Complete

Notre Dame University
Senior High School
CYBERCHONDRIA IN THE 21ST CENTURY: EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE INTERNET
USE ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
A Research Paper Presented to the Notre Dame University - Senior High School Faculty in
Partial Fulfillment for the Requirements in Inquiries, Investigations, and Immersion
MOHAMMAD RAIZ HASSAN P. SAMBILAN

ABDURRAFI M. KAHALAN
NORHATA MACARAYA
MEIZAN A. BADRUDIN
May 2022
NOTRE DAME
UNIVERSITY SENIOR HIGH
SCHOOL COTABATO CITY
APPROVAL SHEET
The Faculty of the Senior High School of Notre Dame University accepts and
approves the research entitled:
CYBERCHONDRIA IN THE 21ST CENTURY: EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE
INTERNET USE ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
submitted by Mohammad Raiz Hassan P. Sambilan, Abdurrafi M. Kahalan, Norhata
T. Macaraya, and Meizan A. Badrudin, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Strand.
MR. ALDRIN B. LAMZON MS. MONICA DENNISE S. AHUNIN

Member Member
MS. KATHLYN PEARL JANE G. CUERPO

Chairperson
MS. ROSELLE P. RECOMONO

Adviser
MS. ROSELLE P. RECOMONO

Research and Innovation Coordinator
DR. DANILO D. CABURNAY

Principal, Senior High School
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title Page
Approval Sheets
Acknowledgment ......……….…………………………………………………….….. iii
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….….... iv
List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………… v
List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………... vi
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………….…… 1
Review of Related Literature…………………………………………….. 3

Origin of Cyberchondria ……….......………………………...……… 3
Sex, Age, and Ethnicity and Their Relationship to Cyberchondria.…. 4
Factors Affecting Cyberchondria.…………………..……………….. 9
Cyberchondria and Its Effects on Students………………….…...….... 10
Cyberchondria’s Impact on Psychological Well-being………............ 11
How Cyberchondria Causes Stress and Health Anxiety....................... 14
How Cyberchondria Affects Metacognitive Beliefs…..….…...…….. 15
Ambiguity and Uncertainty of Online Information………...…............ 17
Misinformation and Cyberchondria in the Age of Pandemic….……... 18
General Strategies on Managing Cyberchondria……………............... 20
Theoretical Framework …………………………………………….…….. 25
Conceptual Framework …………………………………………………... 26
Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………….... 27
Hypotheses …………………………………………………….…………. 28
Significance of the Study ……………………………………….………... 28
Scope and Delimitation ……………………………………………….….. 32
Definition of Terms ……………………………………………………… 33
II. METHOD ….…………………………………………………………….. 36
Design …………………………………………………………………….. 36
Setting …………………………………………………………………….. 37
Respondents ………………………………………………………………. 37
Sample Size and Sampling Technique …………………….……………… 37
Instrumentation……………………………………………………………. 38
Data Gathering Procedure ........…………………………………………... 39
Statistical Treatment………………………………….……....................... 40
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ………………………….…….………. 42
IV. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND

RECOMMENDATION……………………………………………..…... 60
Summary….………………………………………………….…………… 60
Conclusion ………………………………………………….……………. 62
Recommendations ...……………………………………………………... 64
Recommendations for Further Study ...………………………………….. 66
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………… 67
APPENDICES ……………………………………………………….…. 77
Permission Letter ………………………………………………………… 77

Letter to the Respondents ……………………………………………..….. 78
Survey Questionnaire …………………………………………………..… 79
Statistician’s Certification……...………………………………...…..…… 85
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper came to reality with the help and support of those people who provided
guidance along the course of fulfilling this study. If not for them, things would not have come to
fruition. The researchers would like to express heartfelt gratitude and highest appreciation to
those, who in one way or another, extended their helping hands for this study.
To Almighty God/Allah (S.W.T.) for giving the researchers a healthy mind and body to
fulfill their responsibility and for giving the following precious people in their lives;
To the NDU-SHS Principal, Dr. Danilo D. Caburnay, for his brilliance and for the
approval to conduct an online survey of the respondents of Notre Dame University - Senior
High School;
To Ms. Roselle P. Recomono, Research and Innovation Coordinator, for her outstanding
skills in transferring her knowledge about the fundamentals of research in daily life;
To Ms. Nestofil Joy C. Taata, the Inquiries, Investigations, and Immersion Teacher of the
researchers, for her valuable and commendable effort in imparting knowledge and for the
continuous support and encouragement;
To Ms. Roselle P. Recomono, the Research Adviser, for her skillful expertise, wisdom,
and passion shared with the researchers, and constant motivation to keep on moving forward;
To the research panelists, Ms. Kathlyn Pearl Jane G. Cuerpo, Mr. Aldrin B. Lamzon, and
Ms. Monica Dennise S. Ahunin, for their constructive criticism, comments, ideas, and
suggestions to improve the quality of the paper as well as the respondents for their active
participation;
And last but never the least, to the loving and supportive parents of the researchers for
being their inspiration and for their undying support always, in all ways.
iii
ABSTRACT
Cyberchondria is an excessive or repeated online health information seeking that is
associated with increasing levels of health distress. This study was therefore conducted primarily
to determine the perceived effects of cyberchondria on the psychological well-being of the Grade
11 students, Grade 12 students, and teachers of Notre Dame University - Senior High School
(NDU-SHS). This study employed a descriptive-comparative design to examine this
phenomenon. A total of 307 respondents were taken from the students and teachers of the
aforementioned university. The research instrument was modified and adopted by McElroy and
Shevlin (2014) to determine the effects of cyberchondria on students’ and teachers’
psychological well-being. In data gathering, survey questionnaire were administered online.
Items were answered using a four-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly
disagree. Statistical treatment of data was treated by using frequency distribution and
percentage, weighted mean and standard deviation, and Kruskal – Wallis Test. In terms of sex,
age, and ethnicity and its relation to cyberchondria, the results show no significant difference,
while there is also no significant difference in the effects of cyberchondria on the respondents’
psychological well-being in terms of emotional health, and metacognitive beliefs. This means
that regardless of their age, sex, or ethnicity, both students and teachers can experience
cyberchondria.
Nonetheless, while respondents agree with the statements about cyberchondria, there is still
a necessity to offer and provide them with sufficient information about cyberchondria and
how they can help to minimize the risks of this behavior.
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1. Sex of the Respondents………………………………...……………………. 43

Table 2. Age of the Respondents…………………………..…………………………. 43
Table 3. Ethnicity of the Respondents……………………………….……………….. 44
Table 4.a Effects of Cyberchondria on the Psychological Well-being of the Respondents

in terms of Emotional Health…………………………………………………………. 44
Table 4.b Effects of Cyberchondria on the Psychological Well-being of the Respondents
in terms of Metacognitive Beliefs……………………………………………………. 47
Table 5. Influence of Online Medical Misinformation on the Behavior of the Respondents
in Notre Dame University-Senior High School…………………………………….... 49
Table 6. Strategies Implemented by the Government Agencies (Department of Education,
Department of Science and Technology, and Department of Health) to Eliminate
Cyberchondria and Its Effects on the Psychological Well-Being of the Respondents in
Notre Dame University-Senior High School………………………………………..... 52
Table 7. Significant Difference Between the Perceived Effects of Cyberchondria on the
Psychological Well-being of the NDU - SHS Respondents in terms of Emotional Health
Metacognitive Beliefs and the Demographic Profile of the Respondents in terms of Sex,
Age, and Ethnicity……………………………………………………………………. 57
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1. The Schematic Diagram of Conceptual Framework…...…………………. 26
vi
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The rapid development of information and communication technologies in the 21st
century has accelerated the utilization of the internet to access health-related information
owing to its advantages such as being easily accessible, anonymous, and cheap (Starcevic
et al., 2019). However, caveat quaeror – let the searcher beware: using the internet for
self-diagnosis may heighten anxiety in persons who have no medical knowledge (Muse et
al., 2012). This phenomenon is often referred to as cyberchondria. This term stems from
the words cyber and hypochondria. A cyber is a computer network, electronic medium, or
computer in which online communication occurs. On the other hand, hypochondria is a
condition in which an individual is unduly or excessively worried about having a particular
disease. Considering the origin of the term, cyberchondria (CYB) is an abnormal
behavioral pattern characterized by excessive internet searching for medical information
that is related to rising levels of health concern (Fergus et al., 2013). Searching through
this category of information is a complex and dynamic process that might lead to
consumers misdiagnosing themselves and receiving ineffective treatments, squandering
money, and causing unnecessary anxiety about illnesses they do not have (Kordovski et
al., 2020).
In the United States of America, a study about “Cyberchondria: Parsing Health
Anxiety from Online Behavior,” conducted by Doherty et al. (2016) reported that
cyberchondria does not denote to formal diagnosis and happens as a result of health worry
Cyberchondria in the 21st Century: Effects of Excessive Internet Use on the Psychological Well-being
NOTRE DAME UNIVERSITY- SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
and hypochondria. In line with the updated version of the Diagnostic Criteria for
Psychosomatic Research (DCPR), cyberchondria focuses only on a specific behavior or
the excessive or repeated search for health-related information on the internet, driven by
distress and anxiety about health. All persons with cyberchondria appear to spend an
inordinate amount of time conducting searches. This can be a risk factor for excessive
concern, catastrophizing, and social alienation, all of which have a detrimental effect on
psychological well-being. As such, more research is needed to determine the frequency of
cyberchondria in medium and low-income countries, as well as other demographics such
as sex, age, and ethnicity (Starcevic et al., 2013).
Thus, the researchers seek to fill in the gaps in the dearth of literature exploring the
effects of cyberchondria on the respondents’ psychological well-being through the use of
an online survey questionnaire. Its specific goal is to determine the perception of the
students on the effects of cyberchondria on their psychological well-being and its
significant differences to the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of sex, age,
and ethnicity. As a result, the current research study will benefit society by equipping the
respondents with the necessary skills in critical thinking, fact-checking, and technological
application. The findings and general recommendations will also assist the general people
in being careful of misinformation, as well as the appropriate authority of a country in
taking proper safety measures against disastrous misinformation to safeguard public health
from being exploited (Starcevic, 2017). More so, future researchers can use this as a guide
for their study to augment their understanding of cyberchondria.
NOTRE DAME UNIVERSITY- SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL 2
Review of Related Literature
This section presents the review of related literature pertaining to cyberchondria
and its effects on psychological well-being as perceived by the respondents of Notre
Dame University - Senior High School. A review of literature related to cyberchondria,
emotional health, metacognitive beliefs, online medical misinformation, the internet,
and COVID-19 Pandemic are included in this chapter for the reason to locate the
possible connections between the previous works and the present work.
Origin of Cyberchondria
According to Starcevic and Berle (2013), the term 'cyberchondria' is formed from
the phrases 'cyber' and 'hypochondriasis,' implying that it is a type of abnormal behavior
linked to or even caused by the internet or computer use. Cyberchondria has recently
grabbed public attention due to its unique nature and association with technological
breakthroughs. Therefore, printed or online media are frequently cited as primary sources
in the professional literature on cyberchondria. In addition, the rate of information
disseminated via the internet surged considerably (Sharma et al., 2017). People shared
their experiences and concerns about the pandemic by using social media sites to access
news and articles regarding the COVID-19 pandemic.
For example, people's searches for information about COVID-19, jumped by 36%
in the United States one day after the first COVID-19 case was announced. More than 80%
of the total medical students relied on social networks and internet search platforms as
their main source of data on COVID-19 which could heighten cyberchondria. In the
Philippines, searches for COVID-19 symptoms, health-related difficulties, and therapy
surged dramatically peaking in March 2020. However, research has found that internet
material on COVID-19 contains a significant quantity of false information (Li et al., 2020),
and public health agencies should work to restrict the spread of misinformation about
the virus to manage the pandemic more effectively.
Sex, Age, and Ethnicity and Their Relationship to Cyberchondria
Though accessing medical information using online sources is a common, useful, and
accessible strategy for most people, in some cases, when online searching becomes
excessive and repetitive, it can turn into a pathological behavior such as cyberchondria.
Vismara et al. (2020) provided a systematic review of cyberchondria (CYB), confirming the
significant role of sex, age, and ethnicity in the increase of health anxiety, distress, and
obsessive-compulsive related behaviors. Although there is still no consensus on the
definition of cyberchondria (CYB), most researchers agree that this type of behavior is often
driven by distress or anxiety caused by a person’s beliefs about one’s health (Starcevic & Berle,
2013).
International surveys such as the Journal of Medical Research (JMR) have suggested
that around 80% of female users have utilized the internet for medical appointments (Aiken
et al., 2012), while a sample of 12,000 individuals recommended that nearly half of the
participants used Google for them to be able to diagnose themselves (Mcdaid & Park,
2013). The extensive coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic in both online and offline media
may have led to a significant increase in health anxiety, especially among adults and
teens. Consistent affirmations of prevention guidelines, for instance, wearing safety masks
and gloves, handwashing, and seeking to avoid contact with other people, as well as updates
on COVID- 19 disease treatments and infection and death rates, fueled health anxiety and
CYB-related behaviors (Farooq et al., 2020).
According to Andreassen et al. (2014), younger people aged 17 to 44 are by far the
most engaged internet users when looking for health-related information. However, there are
few and conflicting connections between age, sex, and cyberchondria (Vismara et al., 2020).
Some studies suggested that there is no straightforward correlation between age and CYB
(Barke et al., 2016). Meanwhile, Doherty et al. (2016) stated that older participants have
been less probable to encounter an increase in anxiety as a result of their search for medical
data.
Doherty et al. (2016) also claimed that there were no substantial distinctions between males
and females. This entails that regardless of their sex, anyone can experience cyberchondria if
the internet is not used properly.
In addition, sex, residence, age, associated chronic disease, previous or current
psychiatric illness, as well as the existence of COVID-19 can have a comparable impact
on the public's mental health. Women are much more likely to be affected by the pandemic
than men because anxiety and depressive disorders are much more common in women.
That is due to the fact that after puberty, depression and anxiety rates are higher in females
than in males. Because girls typically reach puberty before boys do, they're more likely to
develop mood disorders at an earlier age than boys are. There is evidence to suggest that
this depression gender gap may continue throughout the lifespan.
A study that was made by Brotto et al. (2021) states that Minority Stress Theory
(MST) proposes that people who belong to a marginalized society or community may face
even larger health disparities. Considering this, the recent study hypothesized it would be
critical to investigate how gender interacted with these psychosocial factors to influence
mental health, especially since these social factors could moderate the effects of gender.
To solve this problem, numerous government agencies have customized health programs
based on infection endemic and hospital visits rates all through the pandemic, leading to a
series of lockdowns and recommended regulatory requirements followed by a period of
relaxed constraints, likely to result in defined "stages" of the global pandemic. While it is
now widely acknowledged that lockdowns have an impact on mental health, what is
uncertain is how the tightness and loosening of these social restrictions affect psychosocial
factors differently depending on sex. The study discovered that having a high level of health
literacy was associated with a lower likelihood of using the internet but a higher likelihood
of using TV and radio as primary sources of health information.
This finding contradicts a study that found that patients with low health literacy were
less likely to seek health information on the internet after controlling for age, gender, race,
and ethnicity (Chae et al., 2021). When considering sex in the sense of psychosocial
problems, it is very well-formed that females are more likely to present psychological
symptoms such as depression and anxiety in general, and face increased job losses during
the COVID-19 pandemic than their male counterparts (Brotto et al., 2021). The findings
also give insight into the correlation between demographic factors and cyberchondria. In the
preliminary analysis, gender had no effect on cyberchondria, while age had a substantial
negative effect. However, age as a control variable was not relevant in the mediation model
test.
These findings imply that cyberchondria-related activities appear to be more
common in younger people. Widyanto and Griffith (2011) believe that younger folks are
more likely to have unrestricted internet access and use it regularly. Those with poor self-
esteem who seek information including medical information online may be more prone to
finding health-related material online. Widyanto and Griffith (2011) also hypothesized that
women and gender-diverse individuals who have higher scores are called more
symptomatic. May it be on depression, anxiety, stress, and loneliness than men, and that
would be modified by age, ethnicity, and wealth (Wong et al., 2020). The researchers
also expected that psychosocial problems would worsen during periods of increasing social
limitation.
In a Cyberchondria Severity Scale (CSS) test conducted in China, ethnicity, in
addition to age, was linked to psychological outcomes, with Han Chinese participants having
significantly lower scores, having fewer psychosocial symptoms of anxiety, depression, and
pandemic stress, and loneliness. These findings are consistent with findings from other
studies, such as a survey of over 46,000 Canadians, which found that Asian-Canadians were
less likely to report symptoms of moderate to severe generalized anxiety disorder than other
visible minority groups during the COVID-19 pandemic (Moyser, 2020). Despite the
established benefits, widespread usage of the internet and internet-based health technology
for all Americans is exposing poor health outcomes and the digital literacy among
disadvantaged populations: racial and ethnic minorities, older individuals, rural populations,
lower-income groups, and populations with a poorer educational background (Lewis, 2020).
These neglected communities are more likely to experience lower health literacy levels, a
lack of health care coverage, a lack of provider availability, lower quality of care, and face
prejudice in general and in health care (Ndugga & Artiga, 2021).
In addition to the above-mentioned studies, ethnic customs and cyberchondria, many
believe, are intrinsically linked. Seeing a connection between ethnicity and cyberchondria is
important for medical health professionals working in the medical field. Healthcare providers
need to have an awareness of how ethnic beliefs impact patient experiences in order to
provide appropriate care. Defined by Siddique (2020), ethnicity is a complex construct
including metacognitive beliefs, social/cultural identity, and behavioral patterns; it has been
used as a crude tool to explore differences amongst populations. Several studies have
elucidated significant differences in cyberchondria based on complex factors closely
interconnected with ethnicity. Furthermore, racial or ethnic minorities often suffer from poor
mental well-being outcomes due to multiple factors including cyberchondria,
misinformation, and the overall lack of awareness about mental health (Budhwani, 2015).
One study conducted by Jimenez (2013) that looked into the relationship between
ethnicity and cyberchondria says that Asian Americans and Salvadorans are most likely to
report cyberchondriasis within the past year than any other ethnic group, followed by
American Indian/Alaska Natives (22.7%), white (19%), and black (16.8%). Some of these
American ethnicities believe that one must search for information repeatedly to get more
accurate results. This is also consistent with this study saying ethnic customs are triggering
factors of cyberchondria (Clement, 2015). On the other hand, in the United Kingdom (UK),
one in seven people are from Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnic (BAME) backgrounds and
14% of the population reported to have cyberchondria as a result of their beliefs. An
estimated 1.2% of U.K adults had cyberchondria in the past year which was higher for
female British Chinese (1.8%) than Black British males (0.5%).
This has resulted in the UK government launching a national inquiry to explore if,
and why, people from BAME backgrounds appear to be disproportionately affected by the
COVID-19 pandemic. At the time of writing, in the United States of America (USA), 39
states have released full or partial COVID-19 death data disaggregated by race and ethnicity,
showing BAME residents account for over 50% of all deaths. These early observations
suggest a potential association between cyberchondria and ethnicity. As COVID-19
continues to spread across the world to areas with significant ethnic diversity, an
understanding of ethnicity and its relation to the acquisition and transmission of SARS-CoV
2, and the clinical course of COVID-19 is important (Taverna et al., 2018).
Factors Affecting Cyberchondria
The associated factors include intolerance of uncertainty, the need for thorough,
“perfect” explanations of symptoms and other health complaints, and selective attention to
and perception of health-related information (Fergus & Spada, 2018). These factors may also
act to maintain cyberchondria, thereby explaining the repetitiveness of online health-related
searches. For example, a sense of uncertainty about one's health may increase during online
health-related searches, especially when online information is ambiguous or conflicting; a
need to quell that uncertainty and arrive at a “closure” may then drive further online
searches. Likewise, if the internet is perceived as the best medium to provide a “perfect”
explanation for any health-related query because it contains information on “everything,”
this may fuel further online searches. On the other hand, selective attention paid to health-
related information found online may contribute to an increase in health anxiety and
motivate some
people to keep coming back to the internet to reduce anxiety by continuing the searches.
Anxiety-amplifying factors pertain to various aspects of the online environment in
which health-related searches take place. In such an environment, it may be more difficult to
distinguish between credible and non-credible sources of information than in an offline,
“real” world. Because of this, information obtained via unregulated potentially less
trustworthy websites may be treated in the same way as information found on the “official”
or potentially more trustworthy websites, producing confusion and anxiety if there is a
discrepancy in their content. Furthermore, the internet is not designed to always provide
relevant, accurate, non-conflicting, non-ambiguous, or reassuring information, which makes
the outcome of online health-related searches less predictable compared to the outcome of
seeking reassurance from a family member or physician. Not only can the internet provide
conflicting, ambiguous, or wrong information on the subject of the search, but it can be
distracting and may lead to other potentially anxiety-amplifying information. For example,
information about unknown diseases or health risks. Some people may not realize that the
internet is not an ideal place to seek reassurance, with a failure to obtain the expected
reassurance in the course of online health-related searches increases their health anxiety (Li
& Zheng, 2020).
Other anxiety-amplifying factors boil down to various difficulties with managing
online information, especially online health information. It has been suggested that health
anxiety may increase because of erroneous beliefs about the ranking of search results, that is,
a tendency to equate higher rankings of online search results with higher probabilities of
providing an explanation. Thus, an interpretation of the higher ranking of some malignancy
as an explanation for the symptom that initiated an online search is very likely to increase
health anxiety. Another anxiety - amplifying factor may be the difficulty in managing
abundant online information about health, especially if it is conflicting or vague. Information
overload is known to generate distress and anxiety and some individuals who embark on an
online health-related search are surprised to find out that “more” does not necessarily mean
“better,” as they do not expect an abundance of information to increase their health anxiety.
Cyberchondria and Its Effects on Students
The effects of cyberchondria on students are numerous. These elements may have
psychological and bodily consequences (Wong et al., 2012). According to Jungmann et al.
(2020), there is a positive connection between cyberchondria and psychological well-being
during the pandemic, which means that cyberchondria is associated with an increase in
searches for health information, causing an individual to have irrational or negative thoughts,
panic unnecessarily, pay excessive attention to health issues, and suffer from severe
depression. Furthermore, after being exposed to various types of health-related information
regularly, individuals with cyberchondria become even more uncertain about COVID-19 and
pay more attention to their physical conditions as well as those around them, potentially
causing even more stress.
Psychological factors such as stress have an impact on one's immune system,
resulting in frustration and demotivation. Stress’ behavioral or physical impact, on the other
hand, can lead a person to be moody, silent, jumpy, hyperactive, or even irritated (Chebbet,
2012). Hence, some students may neglect to study, exercise, cease excellent eating habits,
and occasionally overuse television and the internet. On the other hand, the study found that
students and teachers who use the internet excessively can develop overconfident behaviors
or cyberchondria, such as browsing websites, health-anxiety attacks, and persistent internet
searches for health information. These activities are repeated to reaffirm one's health
status and receive additional health services, and eventually acquire confidence and deny the
sickness. Although these behaviors may briefly alleviate anxiety, they are eventually
reinforced by repeated searches, and the vicious cycle continues (Tyler, 2018).
Cyberchondria’s Impact on Psychological Well-being
As stated by Pressman (2012), many governments implemented public lockdown
measures, such as school closures, travel restrictions, and public-gathering bans, to
effectively control the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic and reduce the risk of public
infection. By lowering the risk of becoming infected, these measures effectively controlled
the rate and scope of COVID-19 infections. However, due to lockdown policies, most
communication with the outside world took place over the phone or online. People suffer
from negative psychological effects as a result of social isolation and a lack of traditional
communication. Moreover, individuals in the quarantine may experience insomnia as well as
emotional responses such as depression, anxiety, stress, anger, and confusion. One of the
pathological effects of the COVID-19 pandemic is cyberchondria.
Negative experiences may aggravate an individual's negative mental state caused by
the COVID-19 pandemic. In contrast, individuals who have had no negative experiences are
more receptive to lockdown policies and recognize the importance of lockdown measures in
controlling pandemic spread (Wong et al., 2012). While fighting cyberchondria and
infodemic (information during the pandemic) was considered based on facts, malevolent
content encompasses not only fake news, rumors, and conspiracy theories, but also the
promotion of fraudulent treatment techniques, panic, racism, xenophobia, and mistrust,
among other things (Vismara et al., 2020).
Studies have shown that the impact of cyberchondria has been substantial on mental
health and well-being. One of the publications that systematically analyzed 225
misinformation pieces from January to the end of March 2020 from a corpus of English
language fact checks gathered (First Draft News, 2020), focusing on the content rated false
and misleading, discovered that 88% of the false information appeared on social media
platforms, as well as 9% on TV, 8% on news outlets, and 7% on other websites. At the start
of the pandemic, the entire world was in the grip of misinformation, and social and internet
media exploded like never before on any such public health issue, and nobody could
understand what was going on in the realm of health education and whether people were
getting the right information from right sources or wrong information from "right-look-like"
sources, which created a lot of confusion. Further, people are susceptible to misinformation
and skewed information as a result of their belief system, culture, and degree of education,
and they are less conscious of the legitimacy of information sources. It has also been
discovered that much of the public's awareness of health concerns and policy is derived
from what they read and comprehend from the media rather than actual experience.
According to a research published by Tyler (2018), a significant amount of the
material that circulates on social media does not come from credible sources. As a result,
improper social media usage contributed to even greater confusion around COVID-19. One
study that looked at the mediated effects of COVID-19 fear and misunderstanding on
problematic social media usage discovered that problematic social media usage is strongly
associated with psychological distress and insomnia in a sample of 1078 people, both
directly and indirectly. It is also supported by a research conducted by Fergus and Dolan
(2014) that when people obtain a greater quantity of disinformation and misconceptions
about COVID-19 from social media use, their unease increases, which leads to
psychological suffering. Another study on the impact of social media on public worry
among the Filipino population, conducted via an online survey, found many sources of
information as well as present and prior concerns about disinformation. In percentage terms,
the sources of knowledge were internet media (80.52%), conventional media (52.62%),
family members (24.36%), academic courses (21.18%), and medical staff (19.03%).
As stated by Wells et al. (2011), 27.5% of the 69 videos evaluated contained false
material and received 62,042,609 views, implying that public fears and panic were
communicated to this many individuals. Additionally, an online survey conducted in the
Philippines utilizing a convenient sampling technique discovered that almost two-thirds of
the participants were concerned about becoming infected as well as the source of medical
assistance if it was required. It was also revealed that 95% of participants changed their
behavior due to fear of becoming infected with COVID-19. According to a study conducted
in Iraq, fear and panic regarding COVID-19 were higher among social media users, and it
has had a severe influence on the mental health of approximately half of the country's social
media users. Surprisingly, researchers in China discovered that the impact of disinformation
on mental health is dose-dependent. The longer people are exposed to social media, the
more anxiety, and unhappiness they experience.
How Cyberchondria Causes Stress and Health Anxiety
Research by Akinlosotu and Ertan (2018) states that stress does not only affect the
professional sector but also the educational sector, particularly, the university students and
teachers. Akinlosotu and Ertan (2018) also found out that stress among high school students
has many factors, mainly from academic factors, which include physical and psychological
factors. This is no different when it comes to cyberchondria. For instance, the COVID-19
pandemic today brought strict isolation measures that have led learners and educators to
search for health-related information exacerbating fear and distress. This study found that
fears about diseases spread through social networks, as search engines and social media
platforms complicate matters with personalized content, which can lead to some groups of
people receiving misinformation, complicating their anxiety and stress (Oberle et al., 2018).
Additionally, persistent and omnipresent social media exposure might contribute to
health worries and melancholy among consumers. Anxiety and uncertainty can also lead to
trouble getting to sleep after researching medical conditions and create a difficult-to-break
cycle of cyberchondria (Laato et al., 2020). Relationships may also be negatively affected as
family and friends grow tired of hearing about an individual’s health concerns (McMullan et
al., 2019). In this pandemic situation, where the media is flooded with ambiguous
information, excessive online health information searching can represent a safety-seeking
behavior. This potentially disturbing information can trigger or reinforce fear, anxiety,
depression, and further safety-seeking behavior. Recent research found that cyberchondria
influences people's threat assessment and drives them to take prescribed health precautions
more quickly. On the other hand, researching symptoms or perceived medical conditions
online can be a risk factor for excessive concern, catastrophizing, and social alienation, all
of which have a detrimental effect on mental health and further interrupt offline social
activities such as that it reduces time spent with friends or family (Wong et al., 2020).
How Cyberchondria Affects Metacognitive Beliefs
Research published by Dolan (2017), sheds new light on cyberchondria —a relatively
new phenomenon of health anxiety caused by excessive use of internet health websites. The
new study discovered a link between cyberchondria and psychological well-being and
metacognitive beliefs. Metacognitive beliefs appear to be more relevant to cyberchondria
particularly those about thought uncontrollability. Studies have shown that metacognitive
beliefs especially particularly biased thinking and beliefs about uncontrolled thoughts
connected to health have been found to cause people to be concerned about their health and
seek the internet for medical information to help them feel better. Further, Dolan (2017)
stated that social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are used as
coping mechanisms for the stress and anxiety they are experiencing. Thus, people with
cyberchondria may seek medical information that makes them feel more anxious about their
health, and they maintain this position by believing their metacognitive beliefs about health-
related thoughts.
Seçkin et al. (2016) explained that there is also a problem with the reliability of
numerous websites that carry medical information. Unfortunately, most of the health-related
information on the internet has been proven to be incorrect, misleading, incomplete, or
oversimplified. When a person acquires wrong information, they might browse the internet
first to review health issues. Moreover, as an unintended consequence of their mission to
'promote' specific diseases and draw attention to the plight of their sufferers, websites of
some patient support groups, or organizations established to raise awareness of certain
illnesses and raise funds for medical research may provide selective or misleading
information similarly on prevalence rates and the tendency for some illnesses to be
underdiagnosed. Because the outcome of online searches may be influenced by the perceived
or real trustworthiness of a website, individuals suffering from health anxiety and
hypochondria may spend a significant amount of time attempting to visit trustworthy
websites (Doherty et al., 2016).
This has been reported in persons with severe health anxiety, and it may add to their
proclivity to return to the internet in search of a website they can trust and rely on
(Akinlosotu & Ertan, 2018). A complicating aspect here could be a belief that trustworthy
websites offer unpleasant and anxiety-inducing material that causes having a confirmation of
the dreaded sickness, in which case they should be avoided. Hence, some people suffering
from cyberchondria may inadvertently prefer to get information from a less trustworthy
source since it is more reassuring. There is some evidence from nonclinical research that
there is a link between the perception of trustworthiness of online information sources and
health anxiety, suggesting that health anxiety is more likely to occur in response to
information obtained from more credible websites, but not in response to information
obtained from less trustworthy sources, making the person search for symptoms and
illnesses extensively on the internet (Starcevic & Berle, 2013).
Ambiguity and Uncertainty of Online Information
The ambiguity and unpredictability of many health-related materials on the internet
may contribute to cyberchondria (Sharma et al., 2017). Thus, unclear medical jargon,
intricate algorithms, or perplexing charts with differential diagnoses may stimulate
additional web searches. Long internet searches may serve the function of seeking a
conclusion since the 'core' dread of the unknown – associated with intolerance of
uncertainty and ambiguity – cannot be overcome. According to research conducted by
Seckin (2014), accessing medical information can lead to decreases or increases in
uncertainty, depending on the content of the information as well as the consumer's
evaluation and interpretation of that information. Searching for medical information on the
internet, on the other hand, has the potential to increase uncertainty and so heighten health
concerns.
Anxiety and negative thinking, inordinate ambiguity, wakefulness, and continual
physical and mental forms of stress that can manifest as somatic complaints are all
symptoms of an anxious disposition (Oniszczenko, 2021). Additionally, the anxiety about
COVID-19 has been linked to dysfunctional social media usage. This is reasonable
considering that social media is among the main sources of data on COVID-19. As a
consequence, the greater the fear of COVID-19, the greater the desire for some people to
fully comprehend the disease, resulting in more time spent on social media (Ahorsu et al.,
2022).
Misinformation and Cyberchondria in the Age of Pandemic
A research study by Kim and Dennis (2018), reported that misinformation is not a
new issue. Ever since the turn of the 21st century, the amount and spread of misinformation
have increased exponentially, prompting the World Economic Forum (WEF) to name online
misinformation and cyberchondria as one of the top ten global threats to humanity in 2018.
Previous research shows that misinformation can increase health anxiety leading to poor
mental well-being matters and affecting the cognitive and health officials' ability to fully
analyze the intensity of continuous situations and take appropriate action (Kata, 2012).
Nonetheless, metacognitive beliefs and factors such as a distaste for ambiguity and
intolerance of uncertainty all play a role in the development of cyberchondria.
Individuals with low trust in the government may also have concerns and fears about their
health. In extreme cases, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a great deal of
misinformation on social media and social networking sites (Mattiuzzi et al., 2020). Citizens
may be misled by social media, causing massive fears of cyberchondria, COVID-19, and
other mental health issues.
In Iran, for example, thousands of people have died as a result of misinformation
spread on social media about the medicinal benefits of alcohol in the cure of COVID-19
(Pleasance, 2020). Steadily increasing time spent looking for symptoms online has been
linked to cognitive disability and anxiety. Therefore, it is evident that cyberchondria can be
disadvantageous to individuals. Whilst still misinformation and fake news can arise
anywhere and be spread through all of the channels as other forms of media, social networks
in specific have now been found to hasten the spread of misinformation (Shu et al., 2017).
Higher Cognitive-Behavioral Model (CBM) scores in younger populations could usually
reflect the digital gap, which is one of the reasons that students have more severe CBM
symptoms than senior subjects. Furthermore, students and teachers use social media
platforms quite regularly, which was linked to an increased risk of misinformation and CBM
during the pandemic period (Farooq et al., 2020).
In a study conducted by Khan and Edris (2019), knowing cyberchondria and
misinformation-sharing requires consideration of both harmful effects and technical factors.
In the modern environment, it is obvious that one should not trust all data collected through
social media. When online information is not critically evaluated, cognitive overload and
anxiety occur. Further, in current history; a significant amount of false information and
misinformation has been shared on social media, at times more frequently than news
supported by journalistic ethics and rigor (Howard et al., 2017). Falsified news reports that
spread widely are often so similar to real news that it is challenging for both humans and
algorithms to tell the two separately (Del Vicario et al., 2016). People who place a high
value on online information are more likely to spread both reliable news and false news
reports.
Despite the prevalence of online disinformation, the internet is a vital source of
information during a disease pandemic because it may be a quick and efficient conduit for
distributing needed information and correcting errors. Indeed, risk communication
researchers have stressed the significance of delivering timely information in risk contexts to
facilitate decision-making, particularly when the most effective course of action in a given
circumstance is unclear (Edgar et al., 2020). Hence, scholars must figure out how the
internet's ability to misinform is affecting its ability to inform. In its examination of exposure
to misinformation on COVID-19, this current research study addresses these significant gaps
in the existing literature.
General Strategies on Managing Cyberchondria
Online health-related searches may be less likely to cause distress or anxiety if search
engine information system designers change the way internet search results are ranked. It has
been suggested that separate ranking algorithms for health-related searches should be
created, as well as identification of inquiries meant to arrive at a self-diagnosis and
recognition of the potential for 'escalation’. One such strategy would be to add research-
based knowledge regarding the prevalence and probability of particular disorders into search
algorithms, increasing the likelihood of plausible results appearing. This could reduce the
chances of a symptom-driven search yielding an unrealistic but terrifying result such as a
severe medical condition that is improbable given the demographics and other characteristics
of the person.
Several alternative technical solutions, such as the supply of more precise, user-
friendly, and unambiguous medical information have been proposed (Zhang et al., 2020).
Another method that could be beneficial is to increase the 'health information literacy' of
those who use the internet for medical searches using reliable websites such as World Health
Organization.org or WHO.org. This would entail educating internet users on how to critically
evaluate online health information, interpret search results, and apply retrieved knowledge to
their health concerns or personal situations. Furthermore, internet users may require aid in
interpreting and comprehending health information obtained online while seeking medical
advice or consultation. These strategies necessitate a collaborative effort involving
information technology professionals, public health specialists, health psychologists, and
health administrators (Edgar et al., 2020).
Contrarily, COVID-19-related frauds surfaced and spread quickly. As of April 21,
2020, the FBI's Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3) in the United States had received
over 3500 official complaints about COVID-19 frauds. These FBI complaints describe
frauds that function from internet sites that advertise fake immunizations and healing
properties, fraudulent charities, malicious files, or other frauds that could heighten
cyberchondria. Computers and the internet such as various online platforms have become the
channel for both government agencies and multinational organizations, such as the World
Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in the United States,
to distribute information and guidance to people to prevent them from becoming victims of
COVID-19 scams (Tang et al., 2021).
Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, education is one of the most impacted aspects
of human life. Since the outbreak and danger of the pandemic, numerous nations around the
globe have decided to temporarily shut down schools, affecting millions of students. As a
result, students, mainly youngsters, have faced learning issues as a result of the pandemic.
In the Philippines, the Department of Education (DepEd) has issued guidelines for
implementing online and modular distance learning instruction. This is done to enhance
students’ and teachers’ critical thinking skills essential for combating cyberchondria
(Sarmiento et al., 2021).
Technical issues can be addressed to reduce the chances of developing
cyberchondria. This refers to how online health information and the results of online health-
related searches are presented. For example, a clear and user-friendly presentation of online
health information, as well as ranking the results of online searches based on true
probabilities in the relationships between specific symptoms and diagnoses are likely to
reduce misinterpretation and escalation of health anxiety. Despite these advancements, the
risk of cyberchondria cannot be completely eliminated. Regardless of how serious and life-
threatening diseases are communicated, the unpleasant or potentially fear-inducing content of
such information will always remain. In addition, disagreements between different online
information sources cannot be resolved by improving the clarity of that information.
To avoid a cascade of negative emotional reactions, the government agencies should
be directed to seek pandemic-related information calmly (Del Vicario et al., 2016). Countries
and governments should also control the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic as soon as
possible, as well as limit the spread of false or exaggerated information about the pandemic,
which will help alleviate cyberchondria and lower levels of depression, anxiety, and stress.
Simultaneously, the impact of lockdown experiences on individuals' psychological states
should be considered. As a result, when implementing a lockdown policy, schools should try
to reduce the students’ negative lockdown experience as much as possible by promoting
media literacy and by actively communicating with them online. These approaches can assist
the administration in alleviating students' negative mental states and psychological problems
as a result of the pandemic outbreak.
Instead of encouraging people to avoid online health information, treatment
approaches for cyberchondria should focus on two main goals: (1) enabling people to use the
internet for health-related purposes without experiencing increased health anxiety; and (2)
reducing time spent online for health-related purposes so that other activities are not
neglected and functioning improves. Reaching these objectives will be possible if people are
gradually exposed to health-related online material if they learn that online health
information is not inherently threatening or overwhelming, if they gain confidence in their
ability to manage such information, and if they can resist the urge to conduct extensive and
unnecessary online health-related searches. As stated by Pokhrel and Chetri (2021), high
school students and teachers are experiencing rising stress levels and lower engagement with
learning since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the Department of Science
and Technology (DOST), the Department of Education (DepEd), and the Department of
Health (DOH) are doing the best they can to ensure access to basic public health services to
all Filipinos through the provision of quality health care and regulation of providers of
health goods and services. The DepEd formulates, implements, coordinates policies, plans,
programs, and projects in the areas of formal and non-formal basic education. Meanwhile,
DOST has stepped up amidst the pandemic and its different initiatives have never been much
sought after on a larger scale of things. The DOST, for its part, recalibrated some of its
Research and Development (R&D) programs to give way to more pressing concerns in the
country’s fight against COVID-19 while continuing other activities, true to its mandate, to
address other socio-economic concerns using Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI).
Individuals suffering from cyberchondria must understand that the internet is only a
source of health-related information and is not an omnipotent agent capable of providing
reassurance consistently or providing answers to all health-related questions. Also, despite
the temptation, the internet is not a tool for self-diagnosis. Individuals suffering from
cyberchondria would benefit from understanding that gathering information about one's
symptoms through online health searches does not equate to establishing a diagnosis that
explains those symptoms. Consequently, even when online "symptom checkers" with
diagnostic algorithms are used; internet-derived self-diagnosis should not be the goal of
online health-related searches.
The common recommendation is to give more weight to government websites, those
that clearly state the names of the authors and their credentials, websites with no financial
interests and belong to reputable academic, medical, or scientific organizations, and sources
that frequently update their content and provide scientific evidence and references to support
their statements or recommendations may be helpful only to a point. This is due to the fact
that some people are generally distrustful or even resentful of any official institution and
may place more trust in what they find on the websites of patient-run support groups, as well
as the corresponding discussion forums and bulletin boards. Many people with
cyberchondria, high levels of health anxiety, mistrust of physicians, and negative
expectations of healthcare professionals have been found to drive online health information
seeking. People who conduct online health-related searches frequently end up comparing
multiple sources of health information to find answers to their questions. If there is a
discrepancy between these sources, deciding who to trust becomes a guessing game, which is
frequently the case for people suffering from cyberchondria. This is why it is critical to not
only educate such individuals on how to distinguish credible from non-credible sources of
health information up to the greatest extent possible but also to address the issue of trust
more broadly.
As a result, they must be taught to consider this complexity, as well as the attendant
inconsistency between different sources of health information, whenever they try to make
sense of the results of their online health searches. This endeavor necessitates the ability to
tolerate the increased uncertainty but also foster critical and realistic thinking. In the end,
such reasoning produces better results than jumping to simple, but disastrous, conclusions
about one's symptoms (Bala et al., 2021).
These existing pieces of the literature revealed a huge study gap when it comes to
what is known regarding health anxiety amongst Notre Dame University-Senior High School
respondents, and the effects of cyberchondria on their psychological well-being.
This is precisely the knowledge that this study seeks to bridge.
Theoretical Framework
The expanded Cognitive-Behavioral Model (CBM) theory proposed by Pressman
et al. (2012) explains how psychological factors may contribute to cyberchondria, with the
idea that the digital component intensifies and accelerates the described processes. Within
the scope of the cognitive-behavioral model, searching online for health-related
information is regarded as a trigger in the development of cyberchondria. Pressman et al.
(2012) also reported that individuals may try to acquire related medical information on the
internet to overcome their anxieties as the new COVID-19 spreads rapidly. Individuals
with cyberchondria and negative metacognitive beliefs may have higher concerns in such
situations than those without these characteristics. As a result, the current research
provided a theory to explain the connection between cyberchondria, emotional health,
metacognitive beliefs, and COVID-19 fear.
Derived from the original 33-item scale, the CBM proposes the Cyberchondria
Severity Scale (CSS) which comprises five subscales: compulsion, distress, excessiveness,
reassurance, and mistrust of medical professionals which measures the extent of the
repetitiveness of research for medical information and the time spent. These factors of the
CBM can have a significant negative impact on the respondents, including wasting users'
time and money, negative psychological and emotional effects, trusting in unethical and
unscientific treatments, increasing unnecessary referrals to doctors, lowering the quality of
counseling sessions, and wasting a significant amount of money for unnecessary tests, as
well as a general psychological and economic burden on public health. Nonetheless, the
relevant educational bodies and institutions together with the Department of Health (DOH)
and the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) must aid in sensitizing and
educating the students and teachers about cyberchondria.
Conceptual Framework
Demographic Profile Effects of Cyberchondria on the

of respondents in terms Respondent’s Psychological
of: Well- being in terms of:
a.) Sex a. Emotional Health
b.) Age b. Metacognitive beliefs
c.) Ethnicity
Figure 1. The Schematic Diagram of the Conceptual Framework of the study.
The figure depicted above is a schematic diagram of a descriptive-comparative design
essential for describing the significant differences between the demographic profile of
respondents in terms of sex, age, and ethnicity and the effects of cyberchondria on
psychological well-being in terms of emotional health and metacognitive beliefs. The effects
of cyberchondria on psychological well-being were further determined to gather the
perception of the NDU-SHS learners and teachers and relate it to the important variables of
the study.
Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study is to determine the perceived effects of cyberchondria on
the psychological well-being of the respondents in Notre Dame University - Senior High
School. More specifically, this study seeks to find answers to the following questions:
1. What are the perceived effects of cyberchondria on the psychological well-being
of the Notre Dame University - Senior High School respondents in terms of:
a.) Emotional health
b.) Metacognitive beliefs
2. What are the influences of online medical misinformation on the behavior of
the Notre Dame University - Senior High School respondents?
3. What strategies are implemented by the government agencies (Department of
Health, Department of Education, and Department of Science and Technology) to
help eliminate cyberchondria?
4. Is there a significant difference between the perceived effects of cyberchondria on
the psychological well-being of the NDU-SHS respondents in terms of emotional
health and metacognitive beliefs and the demographic profile of the respondents in
terms of sex, age, and ethnicity?
Hypotheses
H0: There is no significant difference between the sex of the respondents and their
perception of the effects of cyberchondria on their psychological well-being in terms of
emotional health and metacognitive beliefs.
H0: There is no significant difference between the age of the respondents and their
H0: There is no significant difference between the ethnicity of the respondents and their
Significance of the Study
The findings of the study will benefit the grade 11 and grade 12 students and teachers
of Notre Dame University - Senior High School (NDU - SHS), particularly in their
perception of the effects of cyberchondria and how this type of health-related anxiety affects
their psychological well-being. Its importance is to address the problems and difficulties
experienced by the respondents which include stress and health-related information fear.
To further expound, the study will have a great impact and benefit the following:
Department of Education (DepEd)
Propaganda, online health-related misinformation, and fake news during the
COVID-19 pandemic have the potential to polarize public opinion, promote violent
extremism and hate speech and, ultimately, undermine democracies and reduce trust in the
democratic processes. Thus, it is vital for schools to provide students with a solid
education on media and information literacy as part of the curriculum. Teachers must also
be well- trained in the subject to empower students with the necessary competencies to
critically understand and assess information reported by all forms of media. Projects in
partnership with national and local authorities and media organizations are encouraged.
This study may provide insights on how will they come up with effective and sustainable
plans to reduce the harmful effects of cyberchondria on their constituents. This may also
urge the DepEd to respond critically to online propaganda, misinformation, and fake news
by providing training for students and teachers on media and information literacy.
Considering the increased amount of time they have been spending online, this study may
also encourage the DepEd to orient the learners on how to detect false information and do
their research to validate the information they see online. Overall, this study aims to
contribute to the overall knowledge of government officials regarding the awareness of
NDU-SHS students and teachers, in cyberchondria and how to mitigate this excessive
internet use.
Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
The study will help the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) to assess
the cyberchondria and its effects on psychological well-being. This study will provide
the agency with an easier approach on how they will fight misinformation and prepare
public media users to understand and critically evaluate media reports on scientific
issues. By knowing the perceived effects of cyberchondria on the respondents’
psychological well-
being, the DOST will garner a more inclusive perspective and will prioritize the people’s
health, safety, and security. As a result of having enough knowledge, government officials
will provide the information needed to reduce the risk of cyberchondria and make its
people much safer. Through this, public and social media users will develop the skills
needed to distinguish between evidence-based information, pseudoscience,
misinformation, disinformation, and entertaining content.
Department of Health (DOH)
This study will urge the Department of Health (DOH) to take action or know the
effects of cyberchondria on psychological well-being. Through sufficient learning input,
people are able to be active citizens of the country with science-related knowledge which
will prepare them to make evaluative judgments as they weigh evidence to make
informed decisions about scientific claims. It will also enhance people’s science media
literacy and decision-making skills through critical analysis of content accuracy, implied
values, and ethical considerations.
Public and Social Media Users
With the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, people are using social media more
than usual because they rely on news from online sources for health information for
themselves and their loved ones. The use of social media platforms has become a welcome
relief in the aftermath of natural disasters and global crisis. As a result, the findings of this
study will benefit the public and social media users who exhibit symptoms of
cyberchondria. This study will also serve as a form of medium to showcase the effects of
cyberchondria on psychological well-being and will also assist the general people to be
wary of misinformation circulating on social platforms.
School and Administration
School administrators take on the critical responsibility of ensuring that the system
operates effectively and efficiently. Those in positions of administration, such as principal,
dean, or headmaster provide governance in times of crisis and layout optimistic visions for
the future of educational institutions. Thus, this research study will benefit the
administration of NDU-SHS as this will be their springboard for the future improvements of
the school’s existing programs to lessen the rate of students who have cyberchondria. They
may be able to promote skills assessment, letting their teachers understand the influences of
their students’ technological skills that will promote adequate learning opportunities and
effective instructions.
Faculty and Staff
Teachers have a profound and long-lasting influence on every one of their students.
They are also the ones responsible for assisting students in acquiring knowledge, expertise,
and moral rectitude. This issue concerns not just the learning and teaching of specific
academic abilities but more notably, encouraging students to know the effects of
cyberchondria on their psychological well-being. This study aims to know the effects of
cyberchondria on the psychological well-being of students. By being able to do so, the result
of this research study will provide them with information about the effects of cyberchondria
and find alternative actions on how to handle their students.
Notre Dame University - Senior High School Students
Nowadays, people depend on technology. Hence, the internet has become an
essential global source of health information where communication is conducted over giant
digital social media platforms capable of sharing information with high transmission speed,
reach, and penetration which can also exacerbate health related-anxiety. This study will
benefit the Notre Dame University - Senior High School (NDU - SHS) students by
equipping them with the necessary skills in critical thinking, fact-checking, and
technological application. It will also benefit the students who are experiencing
cyberchondria by allowing them to acquire greater knowledge and awareness about the ways
of lessening or avoiding the major effects of cyberchondria that will help them improve their
metacognitive beliefs and mental well- being.
Future Researchers
Due to the fast pace of innovations in the world and the rising of new technologies,
the use of the internet for health information also continues to grow rapidly. This study may
serve as an essential reference for future researchers who will conduct similar studies. This
study is also beneficial to improve the research and develop it for future purposes. They can
use this study as a related topic or study to widen their knowledge regarding this concern.
Scope and Delimitation
The optimum goal of this study is to determine the perceived effects of cyberchondria
on the respondents’ psychological well-being in terms of emotional health and metacognitive
beliefs. The respondents were only limited to the Notre Dame University - Senior High
School teachers and students under the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
(STEM) strand, Accountancy, Business, and Management (ABM) strand, Humanities and
Social Sciences (HUMSS) strand, Technological, Vocational, and Livelihood (TVL) track,
Arts and Design and Sports (ADS) track enrolled in the school year 2021-2022.
Moreover, the study only catered to the topics in line with the effects of cyberchondria, the
influences of online medical misinformation, and actions implemented by the government
agencies such as the Department of Health (DOH), the Department of Education (DepEd),
and the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). As the situation at hand does not
permit face-to-face interaction between the researchers and respondents, close-ended online
survey questionnaire were used to gather data from the randomly selected 307
respondents through online platforms such as Facebook, Messenger, and Google forms. By
the said strategy, the researchers were able to determine the perceived effects of
cyberchondria on the psychological well-being of the respondents in NDU-SHS.
Definition of Terms
The basic usage of the words in this section remains an essential reference guide that
will enable the readers of this study to understand both the content and the context of this
research.
Cyberchondria - primarily refers to the specific behavior of a person
searching excessively for health information online that
is exacerbated by compulsion, distress, reassurance,
excessiveness, and mistrust of a medical health
professional.
Cyberchondriac - an individual who is constantly using the internet to
self-diagnose various health problems.
CBT model - also known as the Cognitive Behavioral Theorem, is
a model conducted by Pressman (2012) discussing
how psychological factors such as stress and
COVID-19 fear can cause cyberchondria. This states
that individuals' perceptions are often distorted and
unhelpful, particularly when they are distressed
which can lead to pathological behaviors.
Electronic Health - the electronic management of health information to
deliver safer, more efficient, and better
quality healthcare.
Emotional Health - an aspect of a person’s psychological well-being
which encompasses broad fields such as
metacognitive beliefs, depression, anxiety, bipolar
disorder, addiction, and other mental health issues.
Negative Metacognitive Beliefs - are perceptions about the threat or unsteadiness of
specific notions that are believed to cause anguish
and lengthen counterproductive patterns of thoughts.
OHIS Theory - Online Health Information seeking is a new area of
study in health communication research that has
caught the interest of academics and is an expanded

Cognitive Behavioral Theory that explains its four
dimensions, which include the following examples:
excessive or repetitive online health searches,
compulsion or interruption of daily lives such as work,
distress or increased negative emotional states, and
reassurance or the repetitive seeking of health
information from other sources such as the internet.
CHAPTER II
METHOD
This chapter presents the current study’s research methods and design that were
used in the conduct of the study. This further shows how procedures, instruments, data,
and results were collected, tabulated, and analyzed. It also presents the collation of
information pertaining to the setting, respondents, sample size and sampling technique,
instrumentation, data gathering procedure, and statistical treatment of data which were
applied to interpret the data gathered in the study.
Design
The research design utilized in the conduct of this study is the descriptive-
comparative research design through the collection of information out of primary and
secondary data. It was employed to understand the perceived effects of cyberchondria on the
respondents’ psychological well-being in Notre Dame University - Senior High School.
Further, this design was used aiming to describe the significant difference between the
demographic profile of the respondents in terms of sex, age, and ethnicity. Thereby,
presenting summary figures by providing answers to all possible questionnaire items that can
contribute to the recognition of their perception. The variables of this study were measured
with the use of an online survey questionnaire providing the researchers with sufficient data
on the profile of the respondents and their perception on cyberchondria and its effects on
their psychological well-being. Through this, researchers were able to gather data to seek
answers for the statement of the problem at hand.

Setting
The study was conducted at Notre Dame University - Senior High School located
at Notre Dame Avenue, Rosary Heights 3, Cotabato City, Philippines during the
implementation of distance learning in the school year 2021-2022.
Respondents
The researchers randomly selected 307 respondents who are bona fide active Grade
11 and Grade 12 students from the Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
(STEM) strand, Accountancy, Business and Management (ABM) strand, Humanities and
Social Sciences (HUMSS) strand, Technical, Vocational, and Livelihood (TVL) track, Arts
and Design and Sports (ADS) track of Notre Dame University - Senior High School
enrolled in the school year 2021-2022. Researchers also included NDU-SHS teachers as
part of the respondents. The respondents were obtained through the use of a stratified
random sampling technique. The demographic profile of the respondents are in terms of
their sex, age and ethnicity,
Sample Size and Sampling Technique
This study utilized probability sampling, specifically the stratified random sampling
technique in selecting respondents to answer the online survey questionnaire. The entire
population was divided into different strata and was randomly selected to comprise the
number of the sample population which is 307 from the students and teachers of Notre
Dame University - Senior High School.
Instrumentation
An online survey questionnaire based on Cyberchondria Severity Scale (CSS) was
utilized by the researchers as a guide to collect pertinent data from the respondents of
Notre Dame University - Senior High School (NDU-SHS). Due to the current pandemic
situation, the survey was conducted online using Google forms. Adopted from the study of
McElroy and Shevlin (2014), the online survey questionnaire was modified to realize the
objectives of this study. From the transcript of the survey, data were analyzed and
categorized based on the statement of the problem. It was divided into four (4) parts: the
first part asks for the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of sex, age, and
ethnicity; the second part aims to answer the perceived effects of cyberchondria on the
psychological well-being of respondents in terms of emotional health and
metacognitive beliefs; the third section contains statements about the influences of online
medical misinformation on the psychological behavior of the respondents; and the last part
discusses the strategies implemented by the government authorities, the Department of
Health (DOH), the Department of Education (DepEd), and the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) to eliminate cyberchondria among NDU-SHS respondents. The
instrument’s results were rated through a four-point Likert scale (4=Strongly agree,
3=Agree, 2=Disagree, 1=Strongly disagree). The total number of questions is thirty (30)
items which will only require 5-10 minutes of answering.
Data Gathering Procedure
An online survey questionnaire was used to gather data from the academic
stakeholders of Notre Dame University - Senior High School, particularly its students and
teachers. The online survey questionnaire was adopted from McElroy and Shevlin (2014),
in their study entitled, “Cyberchondria Severity Scale” and was modified to fit the
specific objectives of this study. The online survey questionnaire was validated by the
research adviser to confirm that the items and format of the statements are properly
carried out. Before gathering the survey, the researchers seek approval by sending a letter
of permission to the principal to disseminate and conduct the data gathering of
respondents. Upon the commencement of the gathering of data, the purpose of the study
was clearly explained to the respondents, and their consent was obtained to record the
information.
Stratified random sampling was employed to identify the respondents. Through an
online platform, Messenger, researchers contacted the respondents to participate in the data
gathering procedure. Due to the lack of face-to-face interaction, online survey
questionnaire were sent through the internet, specifically encoded in Google forms.
Details about the data gathering were posted to the respondents and the completion of the
online survey questionnaire is projected as a form of approval for the respondents to
participate in the study. Retrieval of the online survey questionnaire is automatically done
on the server. After the survey, data were compiled, tabulated, and interpreted through
numerical analysis.
Statistical Treatment
The overall analysis and interpretation of the results of the survey utilized
descriptive statistics and the Kruskal – Wallis test. Descriptive statistics, particularly the
frequency distribution and percentage, were used to treat Part I of the online survey
questionnaire, which constitutes the demographic profile of the respondents, particularly
the sex, age, and ethnicity. The researchers evaluated the raw outcomes into significant
data with the aid of logical, reasonable, and sensible thinking or process. On the other
hand, Part II, Part III, and Part IV of the online survey questionnaire include the statements
pertaining to the perception of the respondents on the effects of cyberchondria on their
psychological well-being in terms of emotional health and metacognitive beliefs, the
influences of medical misinformation on the behavior of the respondents, and the strategies
implemented by the government agencies, specifically the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST), Department of Health (DOH), and Department of Education (DepEd)
which was treated by the use of the weighted mean for grouped data and standard
deviation. The Kruskal – Wallis test was implemented to calculate and determine the
significant differences between the respondents’ perceptions on the effects of
cyberchondria on their psychological well-being in terms of sex, age, and ethnicity.
The mean’s descriptive equivalents for every individual item as well as the overall
score were used based on the four-point scale which is weighted as follows:
Scale Range Description
4 3.50 – 4.00 Strongly Agree
3 2.50 – 3.49 Agree
2 1.50 – 2.49 Disagree
1 1.00 – 1.49 Strongly Disagree
CHAPTER III
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter focuses on the tabular presentation and interpretation of the results and
discussions based on the gathered data from the Senior High School students and teachers of
Notre Dame University. It should be denoted that the gathered data will be significant in
answering the research questions of the study.
Profile of the Respondents
The first research question examined the demographic profile of the respondents
which includes characteristics such as their sex, age, and ethnicity. By administering the
online survey questionnaire, data were compiled to supply the mentioned characteristics. The
respondents’ names are by no means significant to the results of the study and were excluded
from the discussion to maintain discretion and confidentiality pertaining to their identity. As
for their profile, the aforementioned characteristics were relevantly involved in the study in
order to discern each respondent. The gathered data were analyzed by using Kruskal –
Wallis Test which comprises data frequency, standard deviation, mean ranking, and p-
values.
Table 1
Sex of the Respondents
Sex f %
Female 196 63.8
Male 111 36.2
Total 307 100.0
Table 1 presents the sex of the respondents. This reveals that 196 or 63.8% are
females and 111 or 36.2 are males.
Table 2
Age of the Respondents
Age f %
16 36 11.7
17 137 44.6
18 102 33.2
19 19 6.2
20 2 .7
24 1 .3
25 3 1.0
26 3 1.0
27 1 .3
30 1 .3
44 1 .3
56 1 .3
Total 307 100.0
Table 2 presents the age of the respondents. This reveals that 137 or 44.6% are aged
17, 102 or 33.2 are aged 18, 36 or 11.7% are aged 16, 19 or 6.2% are aged 19, 3 or 1.0% are
aged 25 and 26, 2 or 0.7% are aged 20, and 1 or 0.3% are aged 24, 27, 30, 44, and 56.
Table 3
Ethnicity of the Respondents
Ethnicity f %
Ilonggo 21 6.8
Cebuano 25 8.1
Tagalog 36 11.7
Ilocano 4 1.3
Iranun 27 8.8
Maguindanaon 171 55.7
Maranao 19 6.2
Tausug 4 1.3
Total 307 100.0
Table 3 presents the ethnicity of the respondents. This reveals that 171 or 55.7% are
Maguindanaon, 36 or 11.7% are Tagalog, 27 or 8.8% are Iranun, 25 or 8.1% are Cebuano,
21 or 6.8% are Ilonggo, 19 or 6.2% are Maranao, 4 or 1.3% are Ilocano and Tausug.
Table 4. a
Effects of Cyberchondria on the Psychological Well-being of the Respondents in terms of
Emotional Health
Statements Mean SD Interpretation
1. I feel more anxious or distressed after
researching symptoms or medical
conditions 2.89 .684 Agree
online.
2. I have trouble getting to sleep after researching
medical conditions, as the findings play on
my mind. 2.73 .739 Agree
3. I start to panic when I read online that a
symptom or disease I discovered is a rare
or 2.84 .796 Agree
serious condition.
4. Researching symptoms or perceived medical
conditions online interrupts my leisure
activities. (eg. Job, assignments, other house
works) 2.54 .784 Agree
5. Researching symptoms or perceived medical
conditions online interrupts my offline
social activities (e.g. reduces time spent with
friends/family) 2.43 .799 Disagree
Cyberchondria in the 21 Century: Effects of Excessive Internet Use on the Psychological Well-being
st

Overall Mean 2.686 Agree
Table 4. a presents the effects of cyberchondria on the psychological well-being of
the respondents in terms of emotional health. This has an overall mean of 2.686 which
denotes that the respondents generally agree with the following items.
Item number 1 got the highest mean of 2.89 and a standard deviation of 0.684 which
was agreed by the respondents saying they feel more anxious or distressed after researching
symptoms or medical conditions online. To support this statement, the study of Oberle et al.
(2018) indicates that concerns about diseases spread via social media, as search engines and
social media sites exacerbate issues with individually tailored content, which can direct
certain groups of people to receive misleading information, compounding their anxiety and
stress. Moreover, Starcevic et al. (2021) pointed out that cyberchondria also appears to have
compulsive features, behavior persisting despite its negative effects since searching are time
- consuming and may result in increasing distress, neglect of commitments, conflicts with
others, difficulties with healthcare providers, and increasing use of health services. These
factors that contribute to this compulsion at this time include a heightened perception of
threat and fear of a newly identified and poorly understood disease, lack of authoritative,
and trustworthy sources of relevant health information, difficulty in coping with an
abundance of information that is often confusing, conflicting, unverified and constantly
updated, along with a decreased ability to filter out unnecessary information and the
inability of excessive online health information seeking to provide the necessary information
and deliver reassurance.
Following this is item number 3, “I start to panic when I read online that a symptom
or disease I discovered is a rare or serious condition,” with the second-highest-rated mean of
2.84 and a standard deviation of 0.796. According to the results, most of the respondents
agree with the statement. Wong et al. (2020) state that investigating whether symptoms are
indicative of viral infection can cause or strengthen fear, anxiety, depression, and
additional safety-seeking actions.
Statement number 2 is as follows, “I have trouble getting to sleep after researching
medical conditions, as the findings play on my mind,” got the third highest-rated mean of
2.73 and a standard deviation of 0.739. Thus, it is considered that the respondents,
specifically the students and teachers agree with the above-mentioned statement. As stated by
Laato et al. (2020) persistent and omnipresent social media exposure might contribute to
health anxiety and depression among consumers.
Statement number 4 denotes, “Researching symptoms or perceived medical
conditions online interrupts my leisure activities (eg. Job, assignments, other house works).”
Measuring exactly a mean of 2.54 and a standard deviation of 0.78 implies that the
respondents agree with the said statement. Prolonged anxiety, catastrophizing, and social
alienation can all be caused by internet study of symptoms or perceived medical disorders,
all of which are damaging to mental health and further interrupt offline social activities such
as time spent with friends or family (Wong et al., 2020).
On the other hand, item number 5 says, “Researching symptoms or perceived medical
conditions online interrupts my offline social activities (e.g. reduced time spent with
friends/family),” measured the lowest mean of 2.43 and a standard deviation of 0.799.
Thereupon, the respondents disagree with this statement. Relationships may also be
negatively affected as family and friends grow tired of hearing about an individual’s health
concerns (McMullan et al., 2019).
Table 4. b
Effects of Cyberchondria on the Psychological Well-being of the Respondents in terms of
Metacognitive Beliefs
1. I use social media platforms as a coping
mechanism for the stress and anxiety that I
experience, especially when I think something
is wrong with me. 3.01 .792 Agree
2. I trust my medical professional’s diagnosis
over my online self-assessment. 3.18 .707 Agree
3. When I search for symptoms or diseases
online, I visit both trustworthy sites and lay
forums. 3.16 .655 Agree
4. I browse the internet first to review my health
issues before going to the doctor. 3.04 .661 Agree
5. If I notice an unexplained bodily sensation I
will search for it on the internet. 3.18 .656 Agree
Table 4. b presents the effects of cyberchondria on the psychological well-being of
the respondents in terms of metacognitive beliefs. This has an overall mean of 3.114 which
means that the respondents generally agree with the following items.
Among the statement indicators above, an apparent observation can be perceived
that the majority of the respondents aged 16-56 agreed on statement number 2 which says,
“I trust my medical professional’s diagnosis over my online self-assessment.” Measuring the
highest-rated mean of 3.18 and a standard deviation of 0.707. Hence, the respondents agree
with the statement. As stated by Dolan (2020), people with cyberchondria may seek medical
information that increases their anxiety about their health, and they sustain this stance by
trusting their metacognitive beliefs about health-related thinking.
As depicted on the number 5, “If I notice an unexplained bodily sensation I will
search for it on the internet.” It has the second highest-rated mean of 3.18 and a standard
deviation of 0.656, which indicates that the respondents agree with the said statement. Two
researchers supporting the statement, Starcevic and Berle (2013) claim that there is some
evidence from nonclinical research that links the perceived trustworthiness of online
information sources and health anxiety, implying that health anxiety is more likely to occur
in response to information obtained from more credible websites, but not in response to
information obtained from less trustworthy sources, prompting the person to search
extensively on the internet for symptoms and illnesses.
Statement number 3 indicates the third highest mean of 3.16 and a standard deviation
of 0.655 thereby describing, “When I search for symptoms or disease online, I visit both
trustworthy sites or lay forums.” Thus, most of the respondents agree with this statement.
Because the outcome of online searches may be influenced by the perceived or real
trustworthiness of a website, individuals suffering from health anxiety and hypochondria may
spend a significant amount of time attempting to visit trustworthy websites (Doherty et al.,
2016).
On the other hand, statement number 4, “I browse the internet first to review my
health issues before going to the doctor,” garnered an overall mean of 3.04 and a standard
deviation of 0.661. Results show that both students and teachers aged 16 to 56 agree with
this item. Seçkin et al. (2016) explained that there is also a problem with the reliability of
numerous websites that carry medical information. Unfortunately, most of the health-related
information on the internet has been proven to be incorrect, misleading, incomplete, or
oversimplified. When a person acquires wrong information, they might browse the internet
first to review health issues.
And lastly, item number 1 “I use social media platforms as a coping mechanism for
the stress and anxiety that I experience, especially when I think something is wrong with
me.” Having the lowest-rated mean of 3.01 and a standard deviation of 0.792, which implies
that the respondents agree with the said statement. According to Dolan (2017), people
utilize social media sites like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram as coping techniques for
stress and anxiety which could implicate their psychological well-being and metacognitive
beliefs.
Table 5
Influence of Online Medical Misinformation on the Behavior of the Respondents in Notre Dame University-Senior High School
1. The rapid spread of misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic has

potentially increased my internet use and distrust of information on
social media platforms including Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and 3.12 .690 Agree
Instagram.
2. The COVID-19 pandemic has alleviated my fear and concern about my
health. 2.93 .813 Agree
3. I often do not verify the information I see on the internet but I still raise
awareness among my friends, relatives, and family through social media
platforms such as Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, and Twitter. 2.81 .768 Agree
4. The magnitude of health misinformation about illnesses and symptoms
circulating on social media fuels my health anxiety and depression as a
result of the escalation of false speculations and negative representations
of 2.74 .693 Agree
certain medicine-related issues (eg. taking vaccines).
5. The content of the health web pages I encounter on the internet (e.g. URLs
of the health information, the title of the page or topic, the way the subject
is
underlined, descriptions with figures or pictures of the diseases) increases 2.65 .676 Agree
my anxiety.
6. I am preoccupied with anxious thoughts of getting infected with COVID-
19 due to the symptoms, causes, and effects of a certain condition provided
on 2.79 .737 Agree
the internet.
7. I question everything all the time because I am skeptical about the articles
and news I read on websites such as medical journals, Health.com or
Vaccines.com. 2.82 .692 Agree
8. Whenever I see a piece of authentic news that tells about the symptoms and
illness I think I have, I often get anxious and stressed. 2.90 .732 Agree
9. I believe the internet (eg. social media platforms) is also a source of medical
news information that can further exacerbate my anxiousness and stress. 2.92 .651 Agree
10. My information and technological literacy allow me to easily browse for
medical information such as symptoms and illnesses that aligns or matches
with what I feel, but this also has led me to get stressed and depressed. 2.85 .636 Agree
11. Every time I search on websites about symptoms and illnesses that I
suspect I have, my anxiety worsens. 2.78 .719 Agree
12. Social media has shaped my mind to look for health information I think I
have on some unreliable articles on Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, and
Twitter and as a result, my anxiety and stress increase. 2.57 .807 Agree
13. Articles on the internet such as Webmd.com and Diagnose-me.com interest
me even when they do not have any credibility regarding the symptoms
that I think I have, leading me to have anxiety as well as depression. 2.32 .750 Disagree
14. I easily believe what the internet says, telling me that I could get a serious
illness. 2.14 .832 Disagree
15. I am afraid of searching health information online for symptoms and
diseases because I get anxious and get gripped by fear every time I do it. 2.51 .802 Agree
Table 5 presents the influences of online medical misinformation on the behavior of
students and teachers in Notre Dame University - Senior High School. This has an overall
mean of 2.723 which implies that the respondents generally agree with the following items.
Item number 1, “The rapid spread of misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic
has potentially increased my internet use and distrust of information on social media
platforms including Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and Instagram,” perceived the highest-
rated mean of 3.12 and a standard deviation of 0.690 which means most of the respondents
aged 16 to 56 agree with this statement. Mattiuzzi et al. (2020) also support this by stating
there is a huge deal of misleading information on social media and social networking sites in
extreme situations, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
Following is statement number 2, garnered the second highest mean of 2.93 and a
standard deviation of 0.813 which states, “COVID-19 pandemic has alleviated my fear and
concern about my health.” Hence, most of the respondents agree with this item. Indeed, risk
communication experts have emphasized the importance of providing timely information in
risk contexts to help people make better decisions, especially when the best course of action
in a given situation is ambiguous (Yang et al., 2014).
Furthermore, number 9 follows as “I believe the internet (eg. social media platforms)
is also a source of medical news information that can further exacerbate my anxiousness and
stress,” which has a mean of 2.92 and a standard deviation of 0.651. Among the 15
statements, this statement comes third in the ranking showing that the respondents agree with
the statement. A study made by Howard et al. (2017) has indicated that in today's world, it's
also evident that one should not trust all data obtained through social media. Cognitive
overload and anxiety can take place when online information is not analytically assessed.
The number 15 states, “I am afraid of searching health information online for
symptoms and diseases because I get anxious and get gripped by fear every time I do it,”
with a mean of 2.51 and a standard deviation of 0.802. This signifies that most of the
respondents agree with this statement. According to Laato et al. 2020, selective attention
paid to health-related information found online may contribute to an increase in health
anxiety and motivate some people to keep coming back to the internet to reduce anxiety
by continuing the searches.
On the other hand, item number 13, “Articles on the internet such as Webmd.com
and Diagnose-me.com interest me even when they do not have any credibility regarding the
symptoms that I think I have, leading me to have anxiety as well as depression,” with a mean
of 2.32 and a standard deviation of 0.750. The results showed that most of the respondents
disagreed with the statement. Continuously increasing the amount of time spent online
looking for symptoms has been connected to cognitive impairment and anxiety. As an
outcome, it is clear that cyberchondria can be harmful to individuals (Alcott & Gentzkow,
2016).
For number 14, “I easily believe what the internet says, telling me that I could get a
serious illness,” which has the lowest-rated mean of 2.14 and a standard deviation of 0.832.
Thus, the respondents disagree with this item. Sharma et al. (2017) conclude that since the
‘core’ dread of the unknown – related to intolerance of uncertainty and ambiguity – cannot
be overcome, extended internet searches may serve the purpose of seeking to reach a
resolution negatively.
Table 6
Strategies Implemented by the Government Agencies (Department of Science and
Technology, Department of Health, and Department of Education) to Eliminate
Cyberchondria and Its Effects on the Psychological Well-being of the Respondents in
Notre Dame University – Senior High School
1. Government agencies such as the Department of
Science and Technology (DOST), Department of
Health (DOH), and Department of Education
(DepEd) encourage the public and social media
users to consume manageable amounts of health
content through social media because they believe
it will help reduce the spread of
misinformation and cyberchondria in this 3.19 .582 Agree
crisis.
2. Department of Health (DOH), Department of
Education (DepEd), and the Department of
Science and Technology (DOST) educate
consumers about COVID-19 scams and fake news
including how to
report them and avoid misinformation, building 3.19 .649 Agree
on learnings from behavioral insights.
3. Agencies such as the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST), Department of Education
(DepEd), and the Department of Health (DOH) are
able to utilize strategies by encouraging active
learning, interaction, participation, and
collaboration among students during the COVID-
19 pandemic. 3.12 .581 Agree
4. Students and teachers are assisted by government
agencies (eg. the Department of Science and
Technology, the Department of Education, and the
Department of Health) in developing resiliency to
maximize their potential and deal with changes in
the online setting by promoting media literacy
and actively communicating with them online. 3.07 .568 Agree
5. The Department of Health (DOH), Department of
Education (DepEd), and the Department of
Science, and Technology (DOST) are able to
train and educate the students and teachers on
fact- checking which will allow them to detect
misinformation and sort facts from lies by
providing handouts, leaflets, video lectures,
webinars, and infographics about cyberchondria. 3.15 .632 Agree
Table 6 presents the strategies implemented by the government agencies which are
the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), Department of Health (DOH), and
Department of Education (DepEd) to eliminate cyberchondria and its effects on the
psychological well-being of the respondents. This has an overall mean of 3.144, describing
that the respondents generally agree with the following items.
Starting with the item number 1 with the highest-rated mean of 3.19 and a standard
deviation of 0.582 is as follows, “Government agencies such as the Department of Science
and Technology (DOST), Department of Health (DOH), and Department of Education
(DepEd) encourage the public and social media users to consume manageable amounts of
health content through social media because they believe it will help reduce the spread of
misinformation and cyberchondria in this crisis.” This indicates the respondents agree with
this statement. According to Del Vicario et al. (2016), to avoid a cascade of negative
emotional reactions, government agencies should be directed to seek pandemic-related
information calmly. Countries and governments should also control the spread of the
COVID-19 pandemic as soon as possible, as well as limit the spread of false or exaggerated
information about the pandemic, which will help alleviate cyberchondria and lower levels of
depression, anxiety, and stress. These approaches can assist the administration in alleviating
students' negative mental states and psychological problems as a result of the pandemic
outbreak. Instead of encouraging people to avoid online health information, treatment
approaches for cyberchondria should focus on two main goals: (1) enabling people to use the
internet for health-related purposes without experiencing increased health anxiety; and (2)
reducing time spent online for health-related purposes so that other activities are not
neglected and functioning improves.
This is followed by the item number 2 which states, “Department of Health (DOH),
Department of Education (DepEd), and the Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
educate consumers about COVID-19 scams and fake news including how to report them and
avoid misinformation, building on learnings from behavioral insights.” The mentioned
statement garnered the second highest-rated mean of 3.19 and a standard deviation of 0.649.
This shows that most of the respondents agree with the said statement. In accordance with
the study of Tang et al. (2021), teachers support students in developing skills that allow them
to effectively evaluate content from a variety of media sources. Further, computers and the
internet such as various online platforms have become the channel for both government
agencies and multinational organizations, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and
the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in the United States, to distribute information and
guidance to people in order to prevent them from becoming victims of COVID-19 scams.
As a result, when educators teach media literacy, they provide students with crucial skills to
become knowledgeable and active participants in the media surrounding them.
Following this is statement number 5, “The Department of Health (DOH),
Department of Education (DepEd), and the Department of Science, and Technology
(DOST) are able to train and educate the students and teachers on fact-checking which will
allow them to detect misinformation and sort facts from lies by providing handouts, leaflets,
video lectures, webinars, and infographics about cyberchondria.” This comes third in
ranking with a mean of 3.15 and a standard deviation of 0.632. The results showed that the
respondents agreed with this statement. A study by Sarmiento et. al (2021) conducted in
the Philippines states that the DepEd together with the DOST and DOH issued guidelines
for implementing online and modular distance learning instruction. This is done to keep
students from becoming aware of the dangerous outcomes of the infodemic during the
COVID-19 pandemic. Teachers were able to teach students regarding media and
information literacy which allowed them to enhance their critical thinking skills and
improve their fact-checking skills as well. Although there were considerable obstacles for
teachers, schools, institutes, and the government towards online education from various
perspectives, the COVID-19 pandemic has formed numerous possibilities for those who
are poorly prepared and have long-term plans to introduce an e-learning system. It has
strengthened the bond between parents and teachers more than ever.
Number 3 follows in descending form, “Agencies such as the Department of Science
and Technology (DOST), Department of Education (DepEd), and the Department of Health
(DOH) are able to utilize strategies by encouraging active learning, interaction, participation,
and collaboration among students during the COVID-19 pandemic,” with the fourth highest-
rated mean of 3.12 and a standard deviation of 0.581. Hence, the respondents agree with this
statement. Based on a study conducted by Torres and Mercado (2021), support for media
literacy education has grown significantly in recent years with teachers advocating for its
inclusion in programs and curricula. They have also presented media literacy education as
helping new teachers give voice to all people. Integrating active learning provides students
with skills that will help them foremost think critically about media. It also cultivates other
21st-century skills like creativity, collaboration, and communication, as well as increasing
digital literacy skills through interacting with media, information, and technology.
Furthermore, item number 4 states that the students and teachers are assisted by
government agencies such as the DOST, the DepEd, and the DOH in developing resiliency
to maximize their potential and deal with changes in the online setting by promoting media
literacy and actively communicating with them online. Based on the results of the answers in
accordance with the respondents, the statement has the lowest-rated mean of 3.07 and a
standard deviation of 0.568. Most of the respondents agree with this statement. As stated by
Pokhrel and Chetri (2021), high school students and teachers are experiencing rising stress
levels and lower engagement with learning since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic.
However, the DOST, the DepEd, and the DOH are doing the best they can to ensure access
to basic public health services to all Filipinos through the provision of quality health care
and regulation of providers of health goods and services. DepEd formulates, implements,
and coordinates policies, plans, programs, and projects in the areas of formal and non-formal
basic education. Meanwhile, DOST has stepped up amidst the pandemic and its different
initiatives have never been much sought after on a larger scale of things. In fact, DOST, for
its part, recalibrated some of its Research and Development (R&D) programs to give way to
more pressing concerns in the country’s fight against COVID-19 while continuing other
activities, true to its mandate, to address other socio-economic concerns using Science,
Technology, and Innovation (STI).
Table 7
Significant Difference Between the Perceived Effects of Cyberchondria on the
Psychological Well-being of the NDU-SHS Respondents in terms of Emotional Health
and Metacognitive Beliefs and the Demographic Profile of the Respondents in terms of Sex,
Age, and Ethnicity
Factor N Mean Rank X2 df P

Female 196 153.10
Sex and Emotional Heath Male 111 155.59 .057 1 .812
Sex and Metacognitive Female 196 152.03
Beliefs Male 111 157.48 .275 1 .600
16 36 134.65
17 137 153.24
18 102 165.84
19 19 158.66
20 2 193.50
24 1 29.50
Age and Emotional Heath
25 3 89.33 14.363 11 .214
26 3 114.00
27 1 164.50
30 1 18.50
44 1 29.50
56 1 267.00
16 36 172.22
17 137 151.39
18 102 160.54
19 19 120.16
20 2 23.25
Age and Metacognitive 24 1 31.00
Beliefs 25 3 160.00 18.694 11 .067
26 3 110.17
27 1 304.00
30 1 228.00
44 1 228.00
56 1 31.00
Ilonggo 21 126.10
Cebuano 25 133.40
Tagalog 36 157.13
Ethnicity and Emotional Ilocano 4 142.88
Heath Iranun 27 141.48 7.398 7 .389
Maranao 19 143.13
Tausug 4 209.00
Ilonggo 21 156.05
Cebuano 25 150.70
Tagalog 36 144.06
Ethnicity and Metacognitive Ilocano 4 172.00
Beliefs Iranun 27 161.78 4.369 7 .736
Maranao 19 161.39
Tausug 4 232.75
The Kruskal –Wallis test revealed that there is no significant difference in the
emotional heath and metacognitive beliefs among the NDU-SHS respondents when grouped
according to their Sex, X2 (1) = .057, p = .812 and X2 (1) = .275, p = .600 respectively.
Moreover, there is no significant difference in the emotional heath and metacognitive
beliefs among the NDU-SHS respondents when grouped according to their Age, X2 (11) =
14.363, p = .214 and X2 (11) = 18.694, p = .067 respectively.
Finally, there is no significant difference in the emotional heath and metacognitive
beliefs among the NDU-SHS respondents when grouped according to their Ethnicity, X2 (7)
= 7.398, p = .389 and X2 (7) = 4.369, p = .736 respectively. According to a few studies
conducted by Doherty et al. (2016), there is no clear difference between sex, age, ethnicity,
and CYB. Barke et al. (2016) also found that, unlike younger participants, older male
participants were less likely to experience anxiety as a consequence of their own search for
medical information. Doherty et al. (2016) also stated that there were no significant
differences between males and females.
The findings also give insight into the correlation between demographic factors and
cyberchondria. In the preliminary analysis, sex had no effect on cyberchondria, while age
had a substantial negative effect. According to Andreassen et al. (2014), younger people aged
17–44 are by far the most engaged internet users when looking for health-related
information. However, there are few and conflicting connections between age, sex, and
cyberchondria (Vismara et al., 2020). The findings reveal that neuroticism, age, and sex are
all linked to cyberchondria. Although optimism was linked to cyberchondria, this
relationship was complicated by a substantial interaction with age. Further research reveals
that enthusiasm had a significant influence only on the general adult population.
Additionally, the psychological protective impact of enthusiasm against cyberchondria was
found to be greater than the reverse effect of neuroticism among these senior adults. This
illustrates the mental benefits of developing a positive attitude about the current health crisis
and one's personal fortitude in dealing with it, particularly among the elderly.
Moreover, a study by Moyser (2020) stated that age does not have a significant
difference in psychological outcomes, with Chinese/Taiwanese participants having
significantly lower scores, and having fewer psychosocial symptoms of anxiety, depression,
pandemic stress, and loneliness. These findings are consistent with findings from other
studies, such as a survey of over 46,000 Canadians, which found that Chinese people were
less likely than other visible minority groups to report symptoms consistent with moderate to
severe generalized anxiety disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic. Relating it to this
research study, it was found that sex, age, and ethnicity do not have a significant difference
with the effects of cyberchondria on psychological well-being in terms of emotional health
and metacognitive beliefs.
CHAPTER IV
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary
1. For the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of sex, age, and ethnicity, the
majority of the Senior High School students and teachers in Notre Dame University are
female followed by male. Most of the respondents are aged 17, followed by 18 and 16.
Furthermore, based on the conduct of the survey, receptive responses were derived from the
classification of Maguindanaon in terms of ethnicity. This means that most of the
respondents who are affected by cyberchondria are Maguindanaons.
2. The perceived effects of cyberchondria on the psychological well-being of the
respondents in Notre Dame University-Senior High School in terms of emotional health are
as follows: Feeling more anxious or distressed after researching symptoms or medical
conditions online, having trouble getting to sleep after researching medical conditions,
starting to panic after reading symptoms online and discovering it is a rare or serious
condition, researching symptoms or perceived medical conditions online which interrupts
their leisure activities such as job, assignments, other house works, and lastly,
cyberchondria reduces time spent with friends and family. On the other hand, the perceived
effects of cyberchondria on the psychological well-being of students and teachers in terms
of metacognitive beliefs indicate that biased thinking, erroneous beliefs, and uncontrolled
thoughts connected to health that has been found to cause the respondents to be concerned
about their health and seek the internet for medical information to help them feel better.
Respondents also tend to use unreliable articles and information on social media platforms as
a coping mechanism for the stress and anxiety that they experience, which could exacerbate
health anxiety. The results show that the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of
sex, age, and ethnicity, and the effects of cyberchondria on the respondents’ psychological
well-being in terms of emotional health and metacognitive beliefs do not have a significant
difference.
3. The outcome of this study found that the influence of online medical misinformation on
the behavior of students and teachers in Notre Dame University-Senior High School resulted
in the respondents being distressed, worried, and anxious due to the widespread of
infodemic misinformation on social media platforms. According to the results, the four (4)
behavioral components of the cyberchondria severity scale such as distress, reassurance,
excessiveness, and mistrust of medical professionals also influenced the students and
teachers. If anxiety intensifies, it may result in ceasing the search or, quite the opposite it
may stimulate further online investigation. This behavioral pattern appears to resemble these
behaviors that are intended to reduce fear of illness and restore confidence about good
health. Overall, the findings suggest that low self-esteem, health anxiety, and obsessive-
compulsive symptoms can be considered vulnerability factors for cyberchondria.
4. The results reveal that the strategies implemented by the government agencies to eliminate
cyberchondria and its effects on the psychological well-being of students and teachers are
the following: First, students and teachers were encouraged to consume manageable amounts
of information online as it will help reduce the spread of misinformation and cyberchondria
in this crisis. Department of Health (DOH), Department of Science and Technology
(DOST),
and Department of Education (DepEd) also assisted the public with COVID-19 scams and
fake news education including how to report them and avoid misinformation, building on
learnings from behavioral insights. This helped the respondents to trust medical
professionals instead. The above-mentioned government agencies were able to train and
educate the students and teachers on fact-checking which allowed them to be equipped with
essential skills that enable learners to be informed and active participants in the media that
surround them.
5. This study found that there is no significant difference between the demographic profile of
the respondents based on sex, age, and ethnicity and the perceived effects of cyberchondria
on psychological well-being in terms of emotional health and metacognitive beliefs. This
discovery leads to the idea to such that there are some of the respondents who are affected by
cyberchondria as they agree with the statements provided in the survey questionnaire,
specifically under the compulsive-seeking behavior, excessiveness-seeking behavior,
reassurance-seeking behavior, distress-seeking behavior, and mistrust of medical
professional-seeking behavior.
Conclusion
The primary purpose of this study is to determine the perceived effects of
cyberchondria on the psychological well-being of students and teachers in Notre Dame
University-Senior High School. Based on the findings, the researchers, therefore,
conclude that the Senior High School students and teachers of Notre Dame University are
not generally affected by cyberchondria. Despite the fact that some students and
instructors
admitted to experiencing cyberchondria, the results demonstrated that cyberchondria did not
affect the whole target demographics. Results also revealed that the demographic profile of
the respondents mainly; the sex, age, and ethnicity have no significant difference when it
comes to determining the effects of cyberchondria on their psychological well-being in terms
of emotional health and their metacognitive beliefs. This means that regardless of their age,
sex, or ethnicity, both students and teachers can experience cyberchondria.
Nonetheless, while respondents agree with the statements about cyberchondria, there
is still a necessity to offer and provide them with sufficient information about
cyberchondria and how they can help to minimize the risks of this behavior. This study is
important to ensure that students and teachers have adequate and accurate knowledge that
they can use to safeguard themselves from misinformation and improve their literacy skills.
It is also possible to conclude that the more people who agreed that they have
cyberchondria, the greater the likelihood that these people will be able to alleviate the
effects of this negative behavior on their psychological well-being, resulting in a better
community.
Moreover, the relevant educational bodies and institutes together with the Department
of Health (DOH) and the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) must aid in
sensitizing and educating the students and teachers about cyberchondria. A multidimensional
approach involving stakeholders, patients, doctors, mental health professionals, and
technologies is crucial to address the same. Cyberchondria and its negative implications can
be reduced by sticking to an information diet, or accepting responsibility for the type of
information read. Media literacy can help people recognize biases and fake news in the
media and how they may affect their perception of an event or issue. With so many sources
of information today, media literacy can help people identify reliable sources and filter
through the noise to get at the truth. It has also been suggested in a study by Doherty et al.
(2020) that stress management and venting your problems with friends and family could also
help alleviate cyberchondria. Overall, it falls upon the governments and concerned bodies to
regulate the infodemic, raise awareness about cyberchondria, and equip the general public
with health information literacy.
Recommendations
In the light of the findings and conclusion of the study, the following
recommendations are listed as follows:
1. Government agencies such as the Department of Health (DOH), Department of Education
(DepEd), and the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) must implement
programs and training for schools to provide students and teachers with a solid education on
media and information literacy to battle cyberchondria and misinformation.
2. Conduct more research on a larger demographics in order to gain more data and
new discoveries about cyberchondria.
3. Teachers that specialize in IT must empower both students and teachers with the
needed competencies to critically assess and comprehend information from all forms of
media.
4. Improve the propagation of information regarding cyberchondria in order to reduce its risk
and keep the public safe.
5. Strengthen the activities for mental health in the school with also the inclusion of
other grade levels who take charge as primary persons per grade level to raise awareness
about cyberchondria through webinars and workshops.
6. Form a team to discuss cyberchondria and its effects on the psychological well-being at
each grade level with a rotation policy. Make an action plan for the different activities to
further assess the emotional health and metacognitive beliefs of students and teachers.
7. Gain financial assistance from local government units for the planned activities. Make
request letters and resolutions for the procurement of equipment for webinars and workshops
in order to provide more training and drills to Notre Dame University - Senior High School
students and teachers in order to address the issue of cyberchondria and how to mitigate it.
8. Create a Facebook page that is committed to sharing the insights of people affected by
cyberchondria, promoting media and information literacy, and advocating for the mitigation
of cyberchondria in Notre Dame University, Cotabato City, and the rest of the country, and
providing new discoveries about cyberchondria.
9. Create a webpage that lists some of the diseases that are most likely to develop during
this pandemic. This website must have a list of diagnostics that professionals directly
evaluate where symptoms are input and a list of reasonable explanations graded by their
likelihood is reviewed.
10. Notre Dame University - Senior High School could also use its strength to collaborate
with the DOST, DOH, and the DepEd in order to maintain a growth-based learning
environment which leads to more innovation, efficient processes, increased success, and
improved communication.
Recommendations for Further Study
In view of the established findings and conclusion of the study, the researchers would
like to recommend the following research study titles in line with current research:
1. Exploring Cyberchondria and its Associations with Notre Dame University Students
and Teachers Amid COVID-19 Infodemic
2. Coping Mechanisms of Grade 12 Students Notre Dame University - Senior High School
Students on Cyberchondria and Its Alleviation.
3. Cyberchondria in the 21st Century: Challenges of Problematic Online Searches for
Health- Related Information in Notre Dame University - Senior High School Students
4. Perception of Notre Dame University - Senior High School Teachers on the Challenges of
Cyberchondria during the Post-Pandemic Era
5. A Comparative Study of Cyberchondria and Its Influence on the Students and Faculty
of Notre Dame University - Senior High School
6. Understanding Cyberchondria: The level of Awareness of Cyberchondria of Senior
High School Students in Cotabato City
7. Knowledge Level of Cotabato City Residents on Cyberchondria and Its Effects on
the Psychological Health
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processing model: A meta-analysis. Journal of Communication, 64(1), 20-
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an exploratory study of low-literate adults' navigation skills on the World
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(2020). Mental health problems and social media exposure during COVID-
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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231924
81
APPENDICES
Appendix A
NOTRE DAME UNIVERSITY

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
COTABATO CITY
PERMISSION LETTER
March 24, 2022
DR. DANILO D. CABURNAY

Principal, Senior High School
Notre Dame University
Dear Sir:
Greetings of Peace!
We, the student-researchers of STEM 12- Angel Gabriel of Notre Dame University-Senior High
School, are currently conducting a study entitled “CYBERCHONDRIA IN THE 21ST
CENTURY: EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE INTERNET USE ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL
WELL-BEING”
In line with this, we are humbly asking your good office to allow us to gather data through an
online survey among Grades 11 and 12 Senior High School students and teachers as the
respondents for our study. Rest assured that the data to be collected will be used with the utmost
confidentiality and will be utilized for academic purposes only.
Your complimentary approval upon our request will be highly appreciated. Best regards!
(SGD) MEIZAN A. BADRUDIN (SGD) ABDURRAFI M. KAHALAN

Researcher Researcher
(SGD) NORHATA T. MACARAYA (SGD) MOHAMMAD RAIZ HASSAN P.
Researcher SAMBILAN
Researcher
Noted by:
(SGD) MS. ROSELLE P. RECOMONO

Research Adviser
Approved by:
(SGD) DR. DANILO D. CABURNAY

Principal, NDU-SHS
82
Appendix B

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
COTABATO CITY
LETTER TO THE RESPONDENTS
March 24, 2022
Dear Respondent:
Greetings of Peace!
We, the student-researchers of STEM 12 - Angel Gabriel namely Meizan Badrudin,

Abdurrafi Kahalan, Norhata Macaraya, and Mohammad Raiz Hassan Sambilan, are
currently conducting a research entitled “CYBERCHONDRIA IN THE 21ST CENTURY:
EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE INTERNET USE ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-
BEING”
In accordance with that, we are inviting you to be one of the respondents of the study. We
believe that your perception on the topic will greatly help us realize the objectives of the
research. Hopefully, once the study is finished, it will benefit society by equipping its people
with the necessary skills in critical thinking, fact-checking, and technological application.
We guarantee that your data will remain confidential as it will only be used for academic
purposes. If you agree to participate, kindly complete the survey by answering the questions
as honestly as you can, and return it as soon as possible. This will only take 5-10 minutes of
your time.
Should you have concerns and clarifications, please feel free to contact us through the
email: 20800095-student@ndu.edu.ph. Your positive response to this request will be a
significant contribution to the study's success.
Thank you very much for your time.
Sincerely yours,
The Researchers
83
Appendix C

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
COTABATO CITY
CYBERCHONDRIA IN THE 21ST CENTURY: EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE

INTERNET USE ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
DATA PRIVACY STATEMENT
We, the researchers from Notre Dame University - Senior High School, recognize
our responsibilities under the Republic Act No. 10178, also known as the Data Privacy
Act of 2012, with respect to the data that we will collect, record, organize, and use. The
information of the research study that we will gather in this form will only be used for
research purposes.
CONSENT FORM
I have read and I understand the provided information and have had the
opportunity to ask questions. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am
free to withdraw at any time, without giving a reason and without cost. I understand that I
will be given a copy of this consent form. I voluntarily agree to take part in this study.
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
GENERAL INSTRUCTION: The following statements below are relevant to determining
Cyberchondria and its effects on the psychological well-being of the Grade 11 students,
Grade 12 students, and teachers in Notre Dame University - Senior High School. Kindly read
and understand each statement. Supply an honest answer in accordance with the effects of
cyberchondria on your psychological well-being. Answering this survey questionnaire will
only take about 5 to 10 minutes. Rest assured that the data gathered will be confidential and
will be used for academic purposes only.
84
PART 1: DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENTS
INSTRUCTION: Supply the needed information.

Sex Age:
o Female
o Male
Ethnicity
o Ilonggo o Iranun
o Cebuano o Maguindanaon
o Tagalog o Maranao
o Ilocano o Tausug
PART II. EFFECTS OF CYBERCHONDRIA ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-

BEING OF THE RESPONDENTS IN NDU-SHS
INSTRUCTION: This survey questionnaire adopted from Cyberchondria Severity Scale

(CSS) developed by McElroy and Shevlin (2014) provides a basis for future studies in this
area, which should, in turn, contribute to an improved understanding of the cyberchondria
phenomenon in this population. The scale below will serve as your guide in answering.
4- Strongly Agree 3- Agree 2-Disagree 4-Strongly Disagree
Effects of Cyberchondria on the psychological well-being of the respondents in terms

of:
A. EMOTIONAL HEALTH SA A D SD
1. I feel more anxious or distressed after researching symptoms or
medical conditions online. 4 3 2 1
2. I have trouble getting to sleep after researching medical
conditions, as the findings play on my mind. 4 3 2 1
3. I start to panic when I read online that a symptom or disease I

discovered is a rare or serious condition. 4 3 2 1
4. Researching symptoms or perceived medical conditions online
interrupts my leisure activities. (eg. Job, assignments, other
house works) 4 3 2 1
85
5. Researching symptoms or perceived medical conditions online
interrupts my offline social activities (e.g. reduces time spent
with friends/family) 4 3 2 1
B. METACOGNITIVE BELIEFS SA A D SD
1. I use social media platforms as a coping mechanism for the
stress and anxiety that I experience, especially when I
think something is wrong with me. 4 3 2 1
2. I trust my medical professional’s diagnosis over my online self-

assessment. 4 3 2 1
3. When I search for symptoms or disease online, I visit both

trustworthy sites or lay forums. 4 3 2 1
4. I browse the internet first to review my health issues before

going to the doctor. 4 3 2 1
5. If I notice an unexplained bodily sensation I will search for it

on the internet. 4 3 2 1
PART III. INFLUENCE OF ONLINE MEDICAL MISINFORMATION ON THE

BEHAVIOR OF THE RESPONDENTS IN NOTRE DAME UNIVERSITY –
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
INSTRUCTION: This section measures your perception on the influence of online medical
misinformation on your behavior. The scale below will serve as your guide in answering.
4- Strongly Agree 3-Agree 2- Disagree 1-Strongly Disagree
PART III: INFLUENCE OF ONLINE MEDICAL

MISINFORMATION SA A D SD
1. The rapid spread of misinformation during the COVID-19

pandemic has potentially increased my internet use and
distrust of information on social media platforms including
Facebook, 4 3 2 1
Twitter, YouTube, and Instagram.
86
2. COVID-19 pandemic has alleviated my fear and concern about
my health. 4 3 2 1
3. I often do not verify the information I see on the internet but I

still raise awareness among my friends, relatives, and family
through social media platforms such as Facebook, YouTube,
Instagram, and Twitter.
4 3 2 1
4. The magnitude of health misinformation about illnesses and
symptoms circulating on social media fuels my health anxiety
and depression as a result of the escalation of false speculations
and negative representations of certain medicine-related issues
(eg. taking vaccines). 4 3 2 1
5. The content of the health web pages I encounter on the internet

(e.g. URLs of the health information, the title of the page or
topic, the way the subject is underlined, descriptions with
figures or pictures of the diseases) increases my anxiety.
4 3 2 1
6. I am preoccupied with anxious thoughts of getting infected with
COVID-19 due to the symptoms, causes, and effects of a
certain condition provided on the internet. 4 3 2 1
7. I question everything all the time because I am skeptical about

the articles and news I read on websites such as medical
journals, Health.com or Vaccines.com. 4 3 2 1
8. Whenever I see a piece of authentic news that tells about the

symptoms and illness I think I have, I often get anxious and
stressed. 4 3 2 1
9. I believe the internet (eg. social media platforms) is also a

source of medical news information that can further
exacerbate my anxiousness and stress. 4 3 2 1
10. My information and technological literacy allow me to easily

browse for medical information such as symptoms and illnesses
that aligns or matches with what I feel, but this also has led me
to get stressed and depressed. 4 3 2 1
11. Every time I search on websites about symptoms and illnesses

that I suspect I have, my anxiety worsens.’ 4 3 2 1
12. Social media has shaped my mind to look for health
information I think I have on some unreliable articles on
Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, and Twitter and as a result,
my 4 3 2 1
87
anxiety and stress increase.
88
13. Articles on the internet such as Webmd.com and Diagnose-
me.com interest me even when they do not have any credibility
regarding the symptoms that I think I have, leading me to have
anxiety as well as depression. 4 3 2 1
14. I easily believe what the internet says, telling me that I could
get a serious illness. 4 3 2 1
15. I am afraid of searching health information online for

symptoms and diseases because I get anxious and get
gripped 4 3 2 1
by fear every time I do it.
PART IV. STRATEGIES IMPLEMENTED BY THE GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

(DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY, AND DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH) TO ELIMINATE
CYBERCHONDRIA AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-
BEING OF THE RESPONDENTS IN NDU-SHS
INSTRUCTION: This section measures your perception on the strategies implemented by

the Department of Education (DepEd), the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST), and the Department of Health (DOH) in order to eliminate cyberchondria. The
scale below will serve as your guide in answering.
4- Strongly Agree 3-Agree 2- Disagree 1-Strongly Disagree
PART IV. STRATEGIES IMPLEMENTED BY THE

GOVERNMENT AGENCIES (DepEd, DOST, AND DOH)
TO ELIMINATE CYBERCHONDRIA SA A D SD
1. Government agencies such as the Department of Science and

Technology (DOST), Department of Health (DOH), and
Department of Education (DepEd) encourage the public and
social media users to consume manageable amounts of health
content through social media because they believe it will help
reduce the spread of misinformation and cyberchondria in
this crisis. 4 3 2 1
2. Department of Health (DOH), Department of Education

(DepEd), and the Department of Science and
Technology
89
(DOST) educate consumers about COVID-19 scams and fake
90
news including how to report them and avoid misinformation,
building on learnings from behavioral insights. 4 3 2 1
3. Agencies such as the Department of Science and Technology

(DOST), Department of Education (DepEd), and the
Department of Health (DOH) are able to utilize strategies by
encouraging active learning, interaction, participation, and
collaboration among students during the COVID-19 pandemic. 4 3 2 1
4. Students and teachers are assisted by government agencies (eg.

the Department of Science and Technology, the Department of
Education and the Department of Health) in developing
resiliency to maximize their potential and deal with changes in
the online setting by promoting media literacy and actively 4 3 2 1
communicating with them online.
5. The Department of Health (DOH), Department of Education

(DepEd) and the Department of Science, and Technology
(DOST) are able to train and educate the students and teachers
on fact-checking which will allow them to detect
misinformation and sort facts from lies by providing
handouts, 4 3 2 1
leaflets, video lectures, webinars, and infographics
about cyberchondria.
91
Appendix D

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
COTABATO CITY
April 12, 2022
S T A T I S T I C I A N’ S C E R T I F I C A T I O N
Number 001, series of 2022
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN:
This is to certify that the research entitled CYBERCHONDRIA IN THE 21ST

CENTURY: EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE INTERNET USE ON THE
PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING prepared and submitted by MEIZAN
BADRUDIN, ABDURRAFI KAHALAN, NORHATA MACARAYA, and
MOHAMMAD RAIZ HASSAN SAMBILAN in partial fulfillment for the
requirements in Inquiries, Investigation, and Immersion has been statistically analyzed by
the undersigned.
JERICHO Y. BAYBAYAN, MOS, CS-PROF

Statistician
92

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Notre Dame University

Senior High School

CYBERCHONDRIA IN THE 21ST CENTURY: EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE INTERNET

USE ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

MOHAMMAD RAIZ HASSAN P. SAMBILAN

approves the research entitled:

CYBERCHONDRIA IN THE 21ST CENTURY: EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE

INTERNET USE ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

submitted by Mohammad Raiz Hassan P. Sambilan, Abdurrafi M. Kahalan, Norhata

T. Macaraya, and Meizan A. Badrudin, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Strand.

MR. ALDRIN B. LAMZON MS. MONICA DENNISE S. AHUNIN

MS. KATHLYN PEARL JANE G. CUERPO

MS. ROSELLE P. RECOMONO

MS. ROSELLE P. RECOMONO

DR. DANILO D. CABURNAY

Review of Related Literature…………………………………………….. 3

II. METHOD ….…………………………………………………………….. 36

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ………………………….…….………. 42

IV. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND

Permission Letter ………………………………………………………… 77

continuous support and encouragement;

Cyberchondria is an excessive or repeated online health information seeking that is

(NDU-SHS). This study employed a descriptive-comparative design to examine this

Shevlin (2014) to determine the effects of cyberchondria on students’ and teachers’

psychological well-being. In data gathering, survey questionnaire were administered online.

how they can help to minimize the risks of this behavior.

Table 1. Sex of the Respondents………………………………...……………………. 43

Table 3. Ethnicity of the Respondents……………………………….……………….. 44

Table 4.a Effects of Cyberchondria on the Psychological Well-being of the Respondents

Figure 1. The Schematic Diagram of Conceptual Framework…...…………………. 26

The rapid development of information and communication technologies in the 21st

computer in which online communication occurs. On the other hand, hypochondria is a

condition in which an individual is unduly or excessively worried about having a particular

disease. Considering the origin of the term, cyberchondria (CYB) is an abnormal

behavioral pattern characterized by excessive internet searching for medical information

consumers misdiagnosing themselves and receiving ineffective treatments, squandering

In the United States of America, a study about “Cyberchondria: Parsing Health

Psychosomatic Research (DCPR), cyberchondria focuses only on a specific behavior or

psychological well-being. As such, more research is needed to determine the frequency of

cyberchondria in medium and low-income countries, as well as other demographics such

as sex, age, and ethnicity (Starcevic et al., 2013).

effects of cyberchondria on the respondents’ psychological well-being through the use of

students on the effects of cyberchondria on their psychological well-being and its

in being careful of misinformation, as well as the appropriate authority of a country in

for their study to augment their understanding of cyberchondria.

This section presents the review of related literature pertaining to cyberchondria

and its effects on psychological well-being as perceived by the respondents of Notre

Dame University - Senior High School. A review of literature related to cyberchondria,

emotional health, metacognitive beliefs, online medical misinformation, the internet,

in the professional literature on cyberchondria. In addition, the rate of information

news and articles regarding the COVID-19 pandemic.

Philippines, searches for COVID-19 symptoms, health-related difficulties, and therapy

the virus to manage the pandemic more effectively.

Sex, Age, and Ethnicity and Their Relationship to Cyberchondria

obsessive-compulsive related behaviors. Although there is still no consensus on the

the internet is not used properly.

In addition, sex, residence, age, associated chronic disease, previous or current

this depression gender gap may continue throughout the lifespan.

series of lockdowns and recommended regulatory requirements followed by a period of

of using TV and radio as primary sources of health information.

These findings imply that cyberchondria-related activities appear to be more

In a Cyberchondria Severity Scale (CSS) test conducted in China, ethnicity, in