CIIRJSflAN

J°'s0RBERG-SCHUIJZ
GENIUS
LOCI
TO\VARDSA
PHENOMENOLOGY OF
ARCHITECTURE

EDINBURGH COLlEGla OF ARi LIBRAR'f

•
 PREFACE
'"Log:k is doubtless unsh!1b blc,
but it cannot wit hc;ra 11d
a m:m who w~trns 10 lh•e."
Fra,11. K:1fk:1 : T/;e 'f r i al
The. present book fo n)!S a sequel ro iny
theoretical works Intcn'rions lri Ar:Cl,itec-
111re (1.963) and E., istem:e, Space and
Architecture ( J97lr. h is also related t.o
my historic.al study Menning in \'ViJ:;tern
Architecture ( 1975 }. Common to all of
them is the view· thar- architecture
represents a me .ins to give nrnn ~10
r "exist,·miaJ foothold~. ~1y p rimacy aim
} is therefo re co i1westig.tre the psychic
implicarions of a rchitecture rather than
L itS practical side, although I certainly
admit that there cxiscs an incerrehnion-
-$h.ip bcrween che rwn ~tspectS. In Inten-
tions in A'rc.bitccwre the. practical,
''foncrionar1 , dimension '"-as in facr
d iscussed ;1S part of a co rnpre hensi ve
sySttm/ At the same ri me, howev-er, che
book stres"sed rhaL the ·'e,wironmenr
intluenCes hu,nan beings_, and th is im -
plies that the p urpose o f archirecrure-
transcencls the -definition given by early
functiona lism'\ A thorough µ isc ussibn
.of perception and ciymboliz~ttion was
cherefore i.nclude<l, and ic was em-
phasized that man can not gain :-i foot•
hold through scienrific underStanding
alone. 1-'le needs symbols, char is, wo rks
of a rt which "repre-Sent life-situat io ns''~
The conception of the work of a rt as a
"concretizmion"" of a Jlfe•siru:uion is
maintained in .-rhe p resenr book. fr is- one
of me ba,;ic n·eeds of mao to experience
his l,ife-situatiOns a ·s meaningful, and rhe
purpose of the- work q f an is ro "keep"
and tr:insmir meanings . T he co.11cept of
''mean1rig"was :.1lso im r:oduce<l in !11-
temiQm ln Architecture. In genera], .fhc
early book ,timed ar unde, srnnding ar•
chitectm c in concrete. 0 architecrural"'
tcans 1 an· aim w·hich I sriU consider
particulatly imporranr. Too much con-
fusion is . created today by rh·o se who
calk about everything dsc when rhcy
dis.cuss ;ud1itecrurc! r..4y writings t here•
fo re rcflecc- a belief iir nrchitCcmre.; I do
nm ac.c:ept t har ,archicecrure, Ye.n1ttcular
or monumenral. is a lux u cy or perhaps
J
5
something which is mad e " lo im press
the populace" (Rapop o rr). T here are not
different "kinds" of a rchi,ccrurc, bur
only different siru:uio11s which require
different solutions in order to Stltis(y
ma n'S-physical aitd psychic needs.
My general aim and al?proach has
the refore been rhe same ·in all rhe
writings menrioned above. As time h:as
passecJ, however, a cenain d , ~rnge in
method has become nrnuifost. In /11-
t.ent.ion$• in Architech1re art and ;:1 r-
chitecrure w ere analyzed "scif'mi fic;1.l.ly"\
rhat i~, by-m earrs oT ml!thodS ,~tken over
&om n:uurnl s-:ience. I do not think t har
this approach is wrong, bur toda y I fi nd
other methods more illumi natin,g.1\'\l hen
we tre:.u arthitecrure :-m alyric:-1lly, \\1e
miss rhe concrete cnv irournent:tl cha•
raeter., th,tl is~ l ht" very qualil:r which is
tb c . objca of ·man's idenrific.ation . and
w hich may give h im :,.. sense of ex-
i~te nrial foorhold . To overcome rhis
13ck, J ior-rOduc~ in E;rfrte,u;'e, Space
and J\rc/Jitecl:tre tht concept of •~ex-
isrenlial s pace" ....Exisce nria l space'~ is
not a logico-marhema tical ,erm, but
cm nprises rhc: basic cclarionships be-
rween ,nan nnd his enviro n menr. The
present book continues the search ior :i
co~ncrcte understanding of the e1wiron•
menr. T he co1icepr of exisremial space is
hece divided ir'i tht· complem<·nrnry ltrms
"space.~· and ··c h:iracccr'1 , in acco rdance
with cht: basic psychic fun crions ..orienr•
:uion~ and ..ide nrificarion". Space and
ch!1r~,cte r :1 1·e ,1or rre;it~d in :, purely
philoropbic,11 w:,y (as has been d one by
0. F. Bo!lnow), but a re direct!)' rclarcd
co a rchireccurc, following the definit io n
of architeccure as ;1 "4conctetization of
exisn:ntia) space,·. "Concretizati<cmt~ is
furrhermore txplaincd by mc,,ns of rhc
co ncepts of "garhering,1 a nd "t hing".
The w<>rd "th ing" origin:illy 1nea1,r a
g:fthering: and che_me.a ning ·of an_)'thing ....sdcnrific1.rihe:or.y, it is urgent t hat we
coosisrs in whar ir g-nrhers. T h us Jiei• rerur n co a q ualitative, phenomenoJog-
degger said : "A t hing gathers world". ical u nclersra·n;;ting of ~tchicecture ~ It
rhe ph ilosophy of Heidegger has h<-en
t he c:n:d yst which h:t~ made rhC p resent
book possible and detcn nin~cl its a p-
p roach. The: wish foe understanding
a rc hirec1m:e as a cone.re-cc p he nomenon~
a lready expressed in Intentions in .·\r,
chirec.ture, could be s:ufsfied in the
p reScnr book, t hank::; t'O Heidc::ggcr's
t·.s says on language_ ;md .1t-sthctics= whid1
h ave bcrn collccrcd and admiJably t,;ans-
laced imo English by A. Hofscad,er
(Poetry, Language. Thought, New York
1971). First of all [ uwe ro Heidegger
tht'. concept of thuelling . ··£x:istt·nrial
foochold..,. ~ind ..dweJling" are s yno nyms,
a nd ""dwelling", in an exiscemi:tl se11se,
is the p urpose of architecture. Man"'
dwells w hL·o hL~ can ork-ntat~· h imsdf
w ithin and idcntifv bimsclf with an
c:-nvironmcnt~ o r 1 in shofc, when he
experie11ces rhe e11viroornem as me;_H1ingJ
ful. Dwelling therefo re. implies somt•-
thing more than ~'shelter..,_ le implies that
rhe s paces where li fe occurs -are plac2s.,
in the rrue sense o f rhe word. A place is
a space \\lhich has a disrinet character.
Since ancient times t he genius loci, o r
""s))irit of place'\ has been recognized as
t he · co ncrece realirv man hns to face a nd
come ro terms ,;•ith in h is daily life-.
Architecture means to visualize the ge·
nius loci, ;:md the rask of the archirecr is
ro create mea1ling ful p laces, wher.eby- he
h elps ma n to <!well. ..d
I am ,vell aware of rhc. shorrcornings of
the p rese nt book. Many problems could
o nly be rreared in a Yery Sk ecchy way,
a nd need further elabora rion. The book
cel)tesenrs, however, a fusr St~p ro,,•ards
a "phenomenology of architeeturc:", tb at
is- 1 a cheory which u nder:s,:111d:; ard1I~
recrure in concrete. exi"5remlal terms.
The conq u~sr o~e ~g~n!llll <li!!)$J.1_ 4
SlC>nlS ln 007:he m ttl.!!::.f,ur_pose of the
P-$§t_.ill_ bOok: ,W-r dccadt~s ~(abstiact►

docs nm help much to solve prnctic;1l
problems as long as chis unclers.r:mding
is lacking. The book chcrdor.e does. nor
trcar cconomk.;.t) :md social proble,ns.
T he cxistcmi•a) dimension is not Hdctcr-
mined~' bv che socio•cconomkal con-
ditions, although they may focilirnre o r
impede the (self-) realization of ccrt:1in
<:xistcntial structures. Th(' socio-ccontim-
ical conditions arc like a j:,icturc-framc;
chey offer a ccrrnin "space" for life co
c:1ke place, but dq not determine irs
exiscciuial meanings . The ~xistential
l_ncaningS have deeper roots. They ar<.·
determined by die structures of our
bcing•i11-t/Je-1uQrld. which h;wc been
anali•ied by Hcidegser in his- d.1ssic;1I
,woi-k "Being .:.tnd Time" (Seiil um/ Zeil,
1926). In his essay "Building Dwelling
Thinking" (J 951 ), Heidegger moreover
rehtted basic existenri:"1l srrucrures ro rhc
functions o f buildi,ig and dwelling, and
in "TJ,e Thing" (1 950) he demonstrated
the fundamental importance of the con-
cept of ''gather.ing''. ~1odern architects
h~we in ge'neral cXcluded rhe existential
dimension , alrhough some: of them spOn-
cancuusly recognized its signifitan~e.
Thus Le ·corbusier wrote: "'l'he purpose
of · ~1rchirecrurc is Jo move us. Ar•
chitCctur:-tl emotion esists wh·e ff the
work rings within 1:1s ' in tune ~,,il'h ~
uni\'crsc whose laws we obey, recognize
and re.speer''. ( Vcrs nue -arc},it.ecture,
1923). Only wiih Louis Kahn, however,
che exisccncial dimension hils regained its
true importance, .,md in his qucstiop:
••\'\'hat docs the building want to he?"',
the problem is posed in its essential
form.
The existential dimension {11truth'') be-
comes manifest in h istory, but its mean-
ings transcend the historical situation.
History, on the ocher !,and , only be-
c.omes meaningful if ir rcpri:scms· new
concrctizations of the existential dimen-
sion. In genc.~al the concretization o f the
existential d imension depends on how
things arc made, that is, ir depends on
form· and technologr {'!in~pired tech-
nology~, Louis K<1hn said). This also
includes the "how'' of che Nacural
environment. In tbe prese1it bo.ok we
hav.c therefore chosen to approach the
existenrial dimension in terms of ph1ce.
The place repre~ems :uchirccture's share
in truth.. The pla,e is rhe concrete
manifeStacion of m:rn's dwelling, :md his
identity depends on his belonging co
places.
I w;1nr to thank all thoso coll~agu(-S and
students who have given me inspiration
,tnd help. In p:micular thanks go co my
wife ·Anna Iviaria De Dominicis for her
criticism and untiring help.
Because o( the co.mposirc nature of the
book I ha"e not included anv bi-
bliography. ,\II references arc fou.ncl in
the foot-notc-s.
-....: "environment.. to others .
Oslo , .lune1976
I
PLACE?
'/. The Pbe110111e11011 of Place
Our ever)'d,ly lifo-wotld c()n~isrs of
concrete "phenomena". Ir consists of
people, of animals, of flowers, trees: and
forests., of st_~ ne, car~h, wood :ind.
water, o~ towns, snccts . :md hous~?
doors. w,ndows and funurure. And ,c
consists of sun, moon and stars, of
dri(cing clouds, of nighr :mcl day and
changing seasons. Uut it also comprises
more imangihle phenome1rn .su~I( as
foelin~s. This is what is ''gi"en", ,his is
the 11content'' of our existence. Thus
Rilke asks: ''Arc we perhaps here to say:
house, bridge} founrnin, g:ue, jug, fruic
tree~ window, ar best: column_.,
towcr... ""1 • E\'Crything else, such as
atoms a nd molecules, numbers and all
kinds of "da't a 11 , are :1bstrncrions or to,o l~
which :1rc consr.n1cced to serve otller
purposes rhan chose of cveryd:1y life.
Today it is common to give moce
imporrnnce to t he tOols t h:m our life•
world.
The concrete things which ·cqnsticute our
given world a rc imcrrchucd in complex
and perhaps- contradictory ways. Some
of the phenomena may for inst1nce
comprise orhers. The forest consists of
trees, and the town is made- up. of
houses. "L:u1dsc~1pe'' is su.ch a com-
prchcnsi\'e phenomenon. In gcncraJ we
may say that .some phenomc1ia form :1in
..L concr~tc ~ for cnvirQ11mcn.c._ij_,
,,Ince. Jt is common usagC,..;.!9.,J!!Y w~:
acts and occu,.rrc.uces.,Ja kJ! 1,l.<JCC..,q (n act'
it is meaningless ro im:lginc :my liap•
pcning. wil'houc reference to a loca1it)·.
fiacC-is_ eridentL)'-ao...m.tegraLpa•e,.,coi:-
.c...x.istcnce,I
\'Vhar, thcnt do we me:m with che w<;>rd
'"place''? Obviously we mean something
more chan ;:1bsrract location . \X1e mean ·a
toh'lliry ~ le up 0(- c(lli~rc t_hings
ha\'ing m3tcriaJ subsr:incc> ~hap-c, rnx•
rufe :rnd colour. T ogerher these rliings
determine ;m "environmenr;1I char:1cter'',
6
 (pag, 7/
J, A rvi,m.•r t-'Ve11i,rg.

whic_h is the e,s sence of place. In general stractions and mental constructions. So about usnow", "win<low1' 1 11hOuse", "·ca-
a phtce is given as such a ch,uact·e r or far phcnomcnologists have been mainly ble''. "door"_, "tree"> "threshold", "bread
''armosphere". A place is therefore a concerned with ontology , psychology, and wine"' , '"darkness" and "light'', and
ualitativc;-''iotal-p:Jlenomenon, which. ethlc,"..aud ro som.e eXrenc aestherics, and he charnccerizes man as a. "wanderer".
- -'~ ~ot rcdace to al!~: of ~l~-~?J~e~ .,5~vC givCn rc1a,l'ively little atten~ion ro These images, however, ;t1so imply 1'00~
ttes, sucfi as sparrnl relarionslups, w,th- the phenomenology of the daily en- general structures. First of all the poem
our losing its concrete nature out o( vironment. A few pioneer works how- distinguishes between an o utside and an
sight. ever ciisr, bur chey h:udly contain <lll)' inside. The Ollt~ide is presenred in the-
Evc;cyday experience moreover tells us direc,r reference to ardlitecture·1 , A firsr nvo verses o( the first srnnza, and
that different actions need different phenomenology of ,irchitccture is there- comprises uawral !IS ,vell as mq,,-mmle
environments ro rake place in a satisf• fo re urgently needed. clements. Natural place is present in tl,e
acrory way. As a consequence town§. Some of the philosophers who have falling snow, which implies winter, .and
and hoiisesco,lsi:St'of- a mtilt,tude of approache/1 the problem of our life- by the evening. T he very title of rhe
p~n1cular places. 1 niS:-fact 1s ol course world, }lave used hlll,S\Htge and literature poem "pl~1Ces'~ ever)'thing in chis namrill
ta~en .....intci conSiocrntion by q1rrenr as sour<:es of ninformation''. Poetry in context. A winter evening., however_, is
theory of planning and architecture, but fact is able to concrctize thos.c totalities something more ch·an a point in th~
so for the problem h:is been treated in a which elude science, and may therefore c:11cndar. As a concrecc presence, it is
too abstract way. ''Taking place• is suggest how we mighr proceed to obrnin expe.-ienced as a set of pariicular qua-
usually u·a dcrstood in a quantitative, rhe needed undersmnding. One of the lities,, or in general ;ts a Stimmmtg or
-«funci-ionil1' seilSc~\ \li[I-, - im'plicatioi'i·s- poems used by Heidegger
to explain th(• "character"' which fotms a backgroimd
such as sparialOiscr16ut1~n anOO iffi'cii:- nature of language, i.s the splendid A to acts and occurr~nces. In · the poem
~_.,,s,,
iouing. "Bur ~re_ not ·:Junetioiis"inter:-1Vi111er £vl!11i11g by Georg T rnkl·'. The t his clHtrncccr is given by rhe snow
human and S!m,lar cyerywhcre? Ev,- words of Tr;ikl :ilso serve our purpose foiling on the window,. cool, sofr and
dcntly not-. "Similar'' functions, even rhe very well , as t_hcy make present a total sou1)dless, hiding the eontc;,urs of thQsc
mosr basic ones such as sleeping and life-situation where th·c aspect of place is obje<-~S -which arc still recognized in the
eating, rake place in vecy different w:iys, srrongly felt. approaching darkness. The word "fall-
and dcma□d places witli different pro- ing,. moreover creates a sense of spoc;e,
pcnics, in accordance wich different A WINTER. EVENING or rather: an implied presence of e;irtfi
cullUral traditions and different environ- Window with falling snow is arrayed, nnd sky. With a minunum of words
mental conditions. The functional ap- Long-rolls the vesper betl , Trakl thus brings a total natural en-
proach therefore left out the place as a Tlie.h9us~ is prov[dcd well, vironment ro life. ,Sur che our.side also
concrete •~here" ha.ving- its particular has nrnn~n1ade properties. This is in•
T he table is.for many laid .
identity. dic,1tcd by .the vesper bell, which is
Being qualitative totalities of a ~.omplex Wandering ones, more than a few, _ heard everywhere, ;1nd makes die
n,nur,e, places . cannot be described by Come t0 t.hc door on darksome courses. ''private" inside become p:1n of a com•
means:of analytic, '4.scwmi1lc~' conccE>.Ei:.._G'olde_n blooms che tr~e of graces prehensive, '·public" totali1y. The vesper
As a m·a ttcr ofpriilciple science "ab- Drawing up the earth cs cool dew. bel1, ho\vevcr , is something more th:rn
straccs·• from che given to :1rrive ac \~1an~erer quietly steps within; a practical man-mad~ ~u:tifact. h is a
neutral, "objective" knowledge. P:1in has•turned the threshold to.stone. symbol. which reminds us of the com·
What is losr, however , is the everyday T berclie, inljmpidbrighmessshown, mon ,·alues which ~,re ar chc basis Of
lTfc-woild, whfch ought to 6c the real-Upon rhe table bre"d ;ind wine'. that totaliry. In Heidegger's words: "The
concern of man in general ,md planner:s tolling of the evening bell brings men, 'JS
and archircct.s in panicular2 • Forru- \Vie shall not rcl?cat Mcidcggcr's pro- mortals, before-the d ivine"r..
__nhuel~ a way out of the impasse exists, f~~nd analysis of che poe~, , bm _ratl,~r The inside is presenred in the nexr two.
t at 1nn:c mcth.o d f<-nown as phcuo,• pomr ,o ur a few properties wluch 11- verses. (c is described as a house, which
menQlog:y. lurninatc our pebble.in. Jn gene.r;1l, Tr:,kl offers n1.,n shelter and security by being
PhenomCOOfog~ was conceived ~L L uses concrete ianagc.s w hich we ;1II know enclosed and "wcU provided".. It has
- - .'return to diings'\ as opposed to :1b- from our everyday world. He talks however a window , an opening which

8
 2, Outside.-imidt:, on the groumJ under 1'1e sky.
1-lildebnuult: COlkrsilorf, Chapel.
:3. O :ruhfo•i11sidt•. G iglio C,stdlo.
4, Stfmm ,mg. No rdic. /ort•st m'" ' Oslo.

makts us 6'.pc[ience che inside as a

complemem co t he outside. As a final
focus wi(hin the house we find the cable_,
which ''is foe many laid". At t he t=ablC·
men come together, ic i~ che centre
which more ch;m nnyrhing else con•
stitutes· the inside. The characrer of the
inside is hardly told , but anyhow prc-
se,it. It is luminous .incl warm , in
contrast to the cold darkness Outside,
and its silence is pregn,mr with porcntial
sound, In general the inside is a com-
prehensible world of 1/,i11gs, where the
lifeof"man V' may take p la ce-.
In the ncXt ~wo stanzas the perspective
i~ deepened. Herc chc metmint: of places
and things comes forth, and man is
presented :\S :1 wanderer on "'darksomc
~ourscs''. Rather than being placc'd safe-
ly; within the house he has created for
hih1sclf, he comes from che outside,
from the "parh of life", which otlso
r~presents 'man's attempt at "'orientating''
himself in the given unknown environ-
trienc.
But nature also has another side: it
offers die grace of growth and• blossom.
fn th.t image of t he ''goldca•,► tree, earth
and sky are unified and become a
world, Through man's labour this world
is bro ught. inside· as br<·ad a nd wine,
whcrcOy. the inSide is. "illuminated'\
th.at is, becomes meaningful.
Without tl1c "s:ocred" fruits of sky and
earrh, the inside•would remain ''empty".
The house and the table receive arid
gather, a nd b ring die world "close". To
'dwell in a house therefore means to
i11/10bii 11,e world. Bur rhis dwelling is·
not easy; it has to be reached on dark
phth.s , ,mil a threshold separates the
outside from the inside, Representing
the "rife· between othl·rncs..'i~· and milni-
11

£cst me:lning-; i, embodies: suffi!l'ing :111d

fr;, "'turncc.~ to :,tQnc" , In che threshold ,
thus, t~e µ,rob/em Of dwelling comes to
rhe fore' .
Trakl's poem "illuminates some essenti,11

9
 phenomena of our life-world, and in blue deprh of the crher .. :·10, Like many the e:trth ;ts the inhabited landscape
P.anicular the basic propcnies of place. fund~memal insights, the distinction bee- close to man, and at rhe same time place
Fiest of all it rells us rhat every situation •ween earth and sky might seem trivial. the closeness of neighbourly d,yelli!)g', 1
is local :,s well as ~'1r'Tlre- wi-n"tc·r lts impbrtan<;e howe\ler comes our when - un'o'er-the~'fuse. of dlC?.. SkfUJ:.' The,
cvemng clcscribco,sobviously a local, we ndil Heidegger's definidon of "dwel- , b;1sic properry of man-f!'J !d£_j!lacesf''
nordic phenomenon, but the implied lirfg~_': "ThC~w3y""'in wliich )1ou-;ue and I !'thCi"Cfore co,lcCnrr;11ion and end~re -
am, .the way in wllich we h umans are on \ They arc ''insides11 in a 'fllll sense) wli:1 ·
norior:i.s of outside .and inside are gcner-
the e;!.!'~_h, Is _[~~~Ing~~•-: .Jut 'ion .~1'¢ means i~
al, as '~1re rhe meanings connected wirl1 rheY· '"g~1thc_rt' what i~
this di~tin~tion. The poem hence con- carifl" afre,1oy means unclcr the sky ' /· known. To fulfill this funct1on .t h~y b:tv1
He also calls what is betwee11 earth and qpenini;s which relate to th~ outside.
crctizcs . basic properties of existence.
sky tbe world, and S:t)' S thar "the wor!d (Only an inside can in fact -havd
- ·C(iiicr'i!Yizc""- Hcrc . means to make the
g~nernl ,;visible" as a concrete, local
is the house where the mor~als dwelP't Openings). s·~ildi.ng~ a.re ' _funherm?r◄
In other words, when man 1s capable·of ielared co their cnvuonme.nt by restmi:;,
situntioh. In i loing rhis, the poe·m moves
dwelling the world Qecomcs ;m ""insi<lc".\
in the OPJ?OSire ~irection of ·sciencific d,,
the ground ~nd rising tow~trds the\:
thought. Whereas science departs from In general, n,,cure forms an extended sky. Finally the man-made environments·\
che '"sivenf', poetry brings us back to the
comprehensive totnlitr, a ·•place"., which \ ctimprisc iudfoccs or "'things", ~,,hicij
1
accordin&_to Jocal C1rcymstances has a m t1y serve as internal focj, nn.d em•
<.;_oncrete things, uncovering the mean-
i.ngs inherent in the life-world'.. . [?;!!fi~uh1r 1de!l!J9:.,_This identity, or plia0e che . garl)_:"i.n,g func\iM ef r~
. _
Furthermore Tr.I.l's poem d1sungu1shes"spmr" , may be described by means of set\lemenr;=ln-Hei~egger~~:::wo.i:~: "l'hc
between natural and m:m-made ele- the kind of concrete, ''qualirntivc>' terms thing- things world~·, where "thingilj'gf,is
me1us, whereby it suggests a point o.fHeidegger uses to characccl'.'iie e'arth and used in the original ,!i:ense ·o f .cga~~ering.,,
departure for -?n "environmental phc- sky, and has to take this fund:unenrnl and further: "Only what conjoins it'self
nomcnology". d istinction as its poinr of departure. In out of world becomes a thing''~'.
Natural clements are evidently the this way we mig ht arrive at ,rn ex- Our introductory remar.ks give se.".ecal
primary components of the given, and istenrially relevant understanding of indications about the structure of places-.
l1111dscnJ1e, which ought to be preserved Some of t hese have :already been.wotktd
p laces Me in fi1_e1 usually defined in
geographical rerms. We mus, cepc.n as rh·e main designation of narurnl out by phcnomeno logist philosophers,
However 1 that "pince~• means somechin:g
p laces. \'(i'ithin the l'and~ apc., however 1 Mld offer ;J good point of dcpar.t ure for
more than location. there are subordinate places, as well ris a more complete phenomenology.
V:1rious attcmpcs at a cl~scriptio,1 of
natural "things"' such as Tr;1kPs ''tree". A .first step is taken with the distinction '
,rnrur.al places a rc offcrc.<l by- Currem
Jo these things_ the· meaning o ( .. the of na tural ~rnd man-made pltenomcna,
literature ·Q:n "l;rndsaape", but again ~v..c
n;itur~ll environmenr is''condcnsccl", <.>r in c.oncrctc terms becween "land~
find that the usual approach is too The man-made parr,s of the environment scape·· and ''settlement". A second step
abstract, being based on ••functional" 01·3
rc"Jirst of alJ "senlcmems" of different is represented by the cattgorics of
scale, fro m houses a nd forms to villages carth-.sky
perh·:ips "visual'1 •.consid~r.irions' . Aga.in . {horizonrnl-verrical) :mjl ou~
we must turn to philosophy for help_ As and towns, and second ly 11p:1ths"' which side•insidc.
-a first, ·fund:tmcnt:11 disti1n,a-ion 1-_leideg-
conn·ecc these settlements , as well as These cate:gorics have spatial implica-
.var.ious elements which rrnnsform nature lions, :md •1spacc" is hcm;e re-intro•
ger inrroduct.s the concCfl'S of ''C:.rdf''
and "sk)"', an~ says: 'Earth is, the into a "cultural landscape·. If the duccd, 1101 primarily as :i math1lmatio:il
sci'"ing bearer, blossoming and fruiting,
senlements ~re_ organically re.h ued to concept, but as en exisrenrial dimcn-
spreading our in rock and w:1tc~, rising che.ir environm·e1.1t, ir- implies that they si.o n 15 • A final :md particularly im•
serve as. /oai where. the cnvironmcnn\1 porrant step i$ taken with the concept o.(
up into plant and anint~l1. .:·. 1'The s-ky
is rhe vaulting path o( the~ sun , che character is condensed (tnd "eXplained'". "character". Character is determined Dy
course of the changing moon , the i litter
Thus Heidegger SU)' S: ·''The single how things ttre·, and gives- our in•
houses,. rhe villages, rhc towns are vestigation a basis in the concrece
of thc·srnrs, die }'ear's seasons. the light
and dusk of day, the gloom :ind g low ofworks of building which within and phenomena of our cvcryd:1.y life-world.
night, the clemency and incleme ncy of around themselves gather the multi- Only in this way we ~1,1r fully grasp the
the weather~ the drifting clouds ~rnd frtrious in-between . TH.e buildings bring genius loci; chc '"spirit o( p1ac.e " whi~li

IJ)
 5. Sti,11111111,g, Dcsen village ()lltsh11! KJutrt()mn.
6. fo$frk Pltl NoitVt•gia,i cotwg,:, 1ioJ,~mark.

t he :mcicms recognized as chat "op·

posire"' m:111 has ro cQm~ co .cerrns wich ,
m be able t0 dwell'• .
2. The Structure of Place
, Our preliminary d iscussion of the phe-
nomeu:, of place led 10 rhe ci>nclusion
rh:ir rhc structure of pl:1ct ought ro be
described in terms of "lamlscapct' and
''scrtlcmcnt'\ and am1lyzed by me:.ns of
che categories "space" ;:rnd "'characcer" .
Wherc;lS "space~· c.kno.res the three~di-
mensiona1 organization of the dcments
which make up a place, "ch:uacrer··
denotes rhe general "annosphere·· which
is the most comprehensive property of
an)1 pl:,cc. Instead of nmking a dis-
tinction between space and character , it
is of course possible to employ one
tqmprchensive concepr, such as ""lived
spa'cc" 17., For our purpose, however, ic is
pmctic'11 lO distinguish between space
:ind character. Similar sp~tthtl (>rganiza-
tions m,1y possess very differenr ch,.1rac•
ters according co the concrecc treauncm
of .rhe space-defining elements (rhe
boundary). In history the basic SJ>atial
forms h,l\'c been given ever new charac-
terizing imerprernrions 18 • On the c;>rher
h,md ir h:1s ro be pointrd out rh:u the
spatiaJ organiz:uion puts certain limits
m characterization, and thm the two
oonc:~pts ~1rc. interdependent.
' 'Spice'• is cerntin ly no new term in
:1rchitcctural th~ory. But spncc c:10 me;rn
many things. In current literature we
lllay distinguish between two uses: space
~s rhree•dirnensionaJ geometry, and
space •~ pcrcepcual field 19 • None of
rhtse hqwever arc satisfoctory, being
~lbsn:a:ctions from the intuitive three-
dimensional totality of everyday cx-
pcri~nce,. which we 1nay call ..concrete
\ p:tce''. Concrete hum:ln acciorls in focc
do not 11,ke place in "" homogeneous
isotropic space, but in a space d is-
tinguished by qualitative differences,
such a~ ''up" and "down''. In ;irchiccc-

II
7. Tim patl, of 1/u··u:andenrr~ Sr1cro SJuico,
S11bU1cr>,

tural theory several actqnpt~ have been

made to define space in cOncr.cre,
qualit:nive terms. Giedion, thus uses
the distinction btt\vecn "outside!1 and
'' inside'' as the basis for a gnm<l vitw
of ;:1rchitcctural history.!!). Ke\1in Ly,nch
penetrates deeper into the structure of.
concrcre space,. introducing the con~
cep1s o( "node'' (''l:tndmarktt), "-path"'-,
"edge· ;lnd "disrrkr··, to d('note those
dt·incms -.. vhkh form the b,1si!. for
men's oric::n~atio11 in space! 1.. Paolo
Portoghesi finally define, space 'JS a
"sysccm .of places'\ i1npl)•ing that the
conce·pt of space has its rQots 1in
concrece s~tu;1tions, although spaces
m,1y be describetl by me,ms of m;uhe•
,natics!.? . The latter view cQrccspijnHs
to Heidegger's srntemcnt _that ''.spa&s
receive their being from Joc.acions :mil
not from uspace·~~ . The outside-inside
rcl;uion which is a pri111;1ry aspect of
concrete space, implies th;u spa~cs pos•
sess ;1 varying degree of f!X lm1sio11 an~
e11clos11re. Whereas landscapes are qis,
tinguishcd by a varied, but basically
continuous extension, senlcmcrits :~r~
enclosed entities. Settlement :md land.-
scape Therefore have a figt1te-gro1111d
relationship. In general any enclosure
becomes maJ1ifcst as a ''figi1nt in rel•
ation co the extended ground of thea
l:1ndscape. A settlement loses its ident-
ity if this relationship is corruP,wd, iuit
as much as the Jandsc,apc loses its
idenrity as comprehensive excl!nsion. In
a wider cqmcxc any encloSur~ becqmfs
a cem-rc,. which may function $S a
"focusl' for ics surroundings. From the
te1nre space extends with :.1 varying
<jegrec of continuity (rhythm) in dif-
ferenr direccfons. Evidentlv tlie main
directions are horizonra1 3nd vertical 1
{hat is, the directions of eanh and
sky. Ce11tralizatio11, directid11 ana
rl,ythm aie therefore ocher impohant
properties of concrete space. Finall)' it
ha.s to be mcmioncd that natural ele-

12
 8, Settl~me11l iu tl,e lamlscap1!. Ca1,r11a1U11,
lsemi:t,
.9, Url,tm imidi•. II Camp~,. Siena.

ments (such as hills) and settlements

may be clustered or grouped with -a J
I,. varying degree of proximity.
All the spatial properiies memioned are
of a ''topological" kind, ,md correspond
to the well-known ~'principles of or-
ganization'' Qf Gescak theory. The prim-
at)' cxistemi;tl impor'lance of these prin-
ciples is confirmed by the reseMches of
Piaget on the child's conception of
spacc'N.
GeoJnerrical modes of orgnnizarion onl)r-
develop later in life to serve parricular
purposes, and may in gcncr,11 be undcr-
s.tond a$ :i more prccise'' definition of
0

the basic topological srruccures. The

copologic;1I enclosure thus becomes ·a
circle, the "free'· curve a straight line,
and t he cluster a .grid. In nrchitccturc
geometry is used to make a general
comprehensive system manifesr, Such as
an inferred •1czosmic order''.
-\!'Y enclosure is defined by a boundary.
Hcidc-gger says: "A boundary is not that
at whicll .something srops bur, .ts che
Greeks recognized , the boundary is that,
~ from which something begins its pre-
scncing'•is. The boundaries of a built
~ace arc known as floor , wall and
ceiling. The boundaries of a landscape
:ue structurally similar, .tnd consist of
ground, horizon, and sky. This simpk
strucrura1 similarity is of basic im-
portance for the relationship becw:ecn
L natural .;111d man-made places. The en-
closing pcopenies of a boundary arc
determined by its openings 1 as was
poetically- inmited by Trakl wh en using
rh_e images of window , door and thre-
shold. In general the boundary, ,ind in
particular the w:,11, makes the spatial
structure visible as. Cominuous or dis-
continuous e>:.r~nsion, direction :u1d
rhythm.
"Characwr0 is at rhe same time a more
general and a more concrete concept
than "space". On the one · hand it
dei101es a gener;1I comprehensive at-

13
10. w,,11, S. Gim;gmma, Tuumu,.

Q ; ~ \ \\: N r!l\" mosphcrc, and on the orher chc concrete

fo rm ;rnd substance of the space:definint
clcmcms. Any real pres,mce is imilil.atclt
linked wirh a charactcf'U. A pheno-
menology o( characrer has l'O ·comprise
;;1 sur\'cy of m:111i fesr characters as well
:,s an investigation of t·heir Concrete:
determi11ams. \Ve have pointed our char
,-d i-ffcrenracti•ons- d cmaiid- places with ~
f\llffo,cnt cliarac1er. ·k dwdling has_ 10 be / ---.
\ 'i rotectivc", an office. ''prnctkalt'-1 :,
' ball-room "fei.fr~vc'' ;\nd ;1 church 11so- . ·\
?...,..,
·! t-l~mn"._S(lhcn 1,\;..C_\li.sit a foreign 'a[f;.,_,\1
~ re usuall>; ~truck by it, p~uricu1ar
character, which becomes :lfl impona1u
• pMt of the experience. Landscap6s rilso
pos.se.s~ character ~ some of which arc 0£
a parricula( "natural" kind . Thus ,ve
rnlk :1bout "barren" and ·•'fcrdle' 1, "smil-
ing" and "thrcmcning" hmdscapcs. In
general we have to emphasize that till
places hnue cbamcter, {m<I l'hac character
is t ht basic mode in which rhe, world i.s
"given,'. To some extent the characre.r of
a p!:1cc is a function C>f rime;.it changes
wi,h the seasons, the courst! of che 'day
and t he weather, factors which abo,•e all
determine different conditions of light,
The character is determined bv the
m:ucrial and formal constirntion ~f the
place. We musr therefore ask: /,ow is
l'hc ground on which we walk, bou1 is
che sky abo"e our heads, or in gen.eral;
how are the bbumlaries whi'ch define the
place. Ho,_, a boundary is <leP,e11ds u·pon
its form;ll arcicuhttion1 which is again
related to the wa>' ic is ' 'buile\ Looking
at :1 ·building from rhis poinc of view, :we
have to consiclCT how i1 resfa on tht
ground and how it rises row(lrdS the
sky.
Particular attentioo has to be given to its
lateral boundaries, or walls, which alsp
contribute ~edsively to determine dlc
char~\Cter of the urban environment.
We are indebted to Ro bert Venturi for
having recognized this facr, after it had
f been considered .for ,n·uoy years "im-

14
 I I . f/vor. Stri·•:I in Si•m10,1cw, L<1~io.
J l. Making. St. M:,ry'.s \ttooluotl,, l.01rdo11 l>y
1'/0wksmo'?"·

moral1' talk about 1:facadcs".? 7• Usuallv

the chariictcr of a "faniily" of build ings
wliich constitute a· place, is . •ico1ldensed''
in characteristic motifs, such as pm:-
tic.ular types o( w indows, doors .and
c_c,pfs-. Such 11\0tifs may becp me "con-
vCi1tiOnal elements", which serve ro
transpose a characcer from one place to
Ltln<>thcr. In the bound:H;y, thus, charac-
ter ,mil sp,ice come wgcthcr, and w.c
m;ty agree wirh Venturi wh<:n he defines
archicecmre as "the w;1ll between che
I, inside and the outsidc".?s.
E;xcept for the intuirions o( Venturi, the
pcoblcm of ch,iraccer has hardly been
cqnsidered in curp::nt archirecmral
cheory. As a result, theory h:1s 10 a high
extenr lost comacL w irh rhe concrete
lif~-world. This is parricularly the case
~,•itb t<;5'hn.oloi;i•, w.hich is roday con-
_sitkred a mere mc~ms to satisfl _prncric~-11
7':iiemandS:-Charnctcr liowevei·, depends/
f I ~,~;p<>n l,orv things arc ,·wuht, :md i~
~,., therefore determined by the technical
' f e:Jlizorion ("building"). Heidegg1r
poims out th::n the Greek wol'.'d l !fc/Jlle
meant a crc~uivc ··re-vc~tling" (E111ber -
~~11) of truth , ""d belonged ro po;esis,
that .i's~ "making".?~. A phcnomCnolog),
of pl:!c_c therefore has to comprise die
basic modc.s of construction :-m d the~
relationship to form~11 arricuhuion. OnlY,
, in this way :,rchirccrurnl theory gets ;\
\ J rul)'..concrcre,~nsis. - ----- 1
lfke struc1t1rc of place becomes manifest
.:is environmental conilitics which com-
prise the :1i;pecrs of char~tctcr and spa.c c ..
Such places MC known as ''countries",
''regions'\ "landsc,1pcs'', •isecrlemerlts''
and ''buildings)'. Here we return to the
cOncrtcc "thing~/' or our cvctyday life~
world, which w~is our point of dcp.,tr•
turc. and remember Rilke's words; '"Are
we Perhaps here to Si1y • . • " \Xlhen phlces
are dassificd we should rherefore use
ttrms such :1s ''island", " promontory'' ,
;~bay·•, "forest", ''tm)ve·,, or "square",
''sn:eer", "courtyard'', and "flc:'.lor",

15
 "wall'\ "roof'.., "'ceiling'', "window" and
"aoor".
Places are hence designated by 1101111s.
This implies thar rhey arc considered
real ''things that e.xi'se', which is the
priginal meaning of the w.o rd "sub-
srnmive". sp~1cc. instead, as a system of ..
rehuions.., is dcnoced by />repositions. In
ou, daily life we hardly talk about
"space", but :1bouc thinSs that ::ire ''over"
or ''under", "before'' or "behind/' each
~dJer, 'or we use prepositions such as
1
'"at' , 11 in 1' , ''within'•, ''on", "upon'', "to",
"from'\ ..along", "nextH. All these pre-
P<l$itions denote topologrcal rel;1cions of
r' the kind mentioned before. Clwr:ictcr,
"' finnll)'.., is denoted by· atljecli11es, as was
indicated abcwe. A character is a com-
plex toraiiry, and a single adjective
evidently cannot cover more than one
aspect of this totality. Often., howtver , a
character is so distinct ,·hat one word
seems Suffidem to gr.asp its essence. \V/e
sec, thus, rhar l ht' very strucrure of
everyda)' language confirms o ur analysis
ofpbce.
( CountriCs; icgions, landsc.apcs, senle-
mcnts, b_uildings (and t heir sub-places)
form 11 st!rics with a gradually diminish-
ing scale. The srcps in this series ma)' bt
ca11e.d '"environmenrnl lcvcls' 1•1\I, At the
·~rop" of the. series we fi nd the. more
comprch~nsive natural pJ ..lce~ which
,;conra!n"' the man-made ph1ces on l'l,c
''lower· levels. · The latter have the
"gathering•~ and " focusi ng'' function
mentioned above. In o·th<:r worcls 1 man
''receh•es" tile environmC'~t and makes it
focus in building., and things. The things
thereby "cxpf..1in" rhc enviromnc1ic and
make.: it.s charncrcr manifest. T hereby the
things chemselves become meaningfu.J.
Thar is the basic function of delllil in
t_ our surroundingsJ 1• This does nbr imply,
' however, that the different levels musr
have the same srructurc. Architeccural
history in fact shows char rhis is rarely
rite case. Vernacular ·settlements usually
 JJ. l~lact, Nt:rt'$hrtim with mam1stt:r)' by 16. Wsualiw1i,:m muf SJ?nboliz.ati<Jn, Castle in
NeUm:11111. Alto A,1,g,.••
1-1, EmtimmiM111al f.rvds. 17-. Syml,olizatiou. /1etra in j(mlan.
r51 Wsm1l1wtiQ11, Cri!cnta~ Ltiuo,

h.ave a topolpgical Organization , i\l•

though the single houses may be strictly
gcometrirnl.' l_n larger cicics we often
find topologically org,mizcd neighbour•
hoods within a general ge9metrical
struct_u rc, ctC. \'X1e shall remrn ro'· rhe
P."rticular problems of strucrurnl cor-
...respondence hit.er, .but hav<: to say some
words ab.o ut the main ''.step" in the scale
of environmental levels: rhc relation
·,. bct,Y -Cl!nJ!atfuaLand man-ruade.pla ~
• Man•made places are rebued to nature
in three basic W[lys. "Firstlyt man wanes
to rn~ke tht natural scrucnirc more
precise. That is, he wa1lts ro visualize
his '~understanding·• of narurc, express-
ing" the ex.istential foothold he h:is
gained. T 9 achieve this, he builds wha~
he has seen. \'v'hcrt nature suggc,scs n
deliniited space he builds mt enclosure;
where nature :1ppe~t(S "ccnrr;llizcd'' ~ l)c I
erects a Ma./32; where nature indicatt-s ja
direction, he makes a path. Secondly ,
Rl~Q has to .c,,01J]JJl!}w!Wf: the giv~n '
i.situacion, by ,a<lding wliaf itis- hlackingr d
finally, he has to .§.Y.IIW,.Q/Lze his unde'r-
I smfding of nature /inc:ludi;,g himset/). \
S)'mbolization implies that an expt r-
icnCl'(I meaning is ''translated" inro J n- 1
1 other medium. A nnrural character is/for
insrnnce t.r;]nsl:.ued into. a building
pr~1~.C!ti_<;s S!)meh9w make the char~ctcr.
whose)
._manifcsrJ' . "(he purpiise · of -;;ymhdt\·,.•
-alibn is co free rhe--,ncanlng fro1n:-:f le ,-"'f'.,
immediate situation, whereby- it becomes ~....~t
~ ' cuhural object'\ which may form
1

~,arr of a more complex situation, or be

moved to another place. All the rliree
relationships i)nply char- man g<llher the
expg_1'i_e.oced me;)nings: to crtatc for -hi.m-
~ lf -<-1 n imtigo mmu/; or mforocosmos .
. . ._ ,vhic~b conccctizes: his woi ld-. ,Gatheri1tg
cvidentl)'depefills- o1r syrnboliz~lrion, and
implies a rransposition of meanings to
:,1nother place, \,~hkh thcrcl,y bCcomcs
an e,'-istential <:<:ntrc!'.
11

Visualizatioi1, complemcnrarion ~rnd

_symbolization are .~1specrs o( the general

17
 18. Cathitrmg. Sal~bu,g,
19. T'11• brMge. Zmi,,b.

processes of settling; nnd dwelling, in ' ch.a ngcs or gees lqsr. Later we shall o( Louis K:1hn. It is not nccesSary in oi1r
the existenrial sense of the word, de- / sho"" thar Mkillg place _presupposes rhnr context to go info the hismry ' of rhe
pends on these functions. Heidegger the places conserve their identity during concept of genius and its relationship to
iJ~1strates the· problem by means- of- thc;::,ra certain Streich of time. S.tabilitas loci is rhe daimo11 of rhe Greeks. Ir suffices to
0
bridge; a "building which visuali1.e,5, a nece,Ssary condition for human life. poinr our that ;mcient man expt i:iCnccd
syn~bolizes and gathers, and makes the How .-hen is this smbiliry CO!_OP.i!!:i.!!!!< his environment 'as consisting of definite
env.i ronment be.c ome a umficd whole. with the dynamics of change? First of all characcers. In particular he recognized
Thus he says: '•The bridge swings over we ma.y point: out that any place-. oughc that ir i.s of great existential importance
the· stream wlth case and power. Ir do~ c({ hoivc the ·~capacicy" of recei\'ing to co111c tO terms wid1 the g,mius of the
not jusr connect banks char arc already differeut "concenrs", n~uur:,lty within locality where his life mkes place. lo the
there, tbe banks emerge as banks only rcer[;lin limics-'' . A pl;ice which is only past survival depended on a "ggpa"
as the bridge crosses rhe stream. The fitted for one parti!'ular purpose would relationship co the 1>l:-1Cc in a physic:1J 'ftS:
bridge designedly causes them . to lie soon become useless. Secondly it is well as a . psychic sense. In :mcicnt,
across, from each other. One side is set • •-vidcmt that a pl,!ce may be ''inter- E,g)'Pt-t for inst:111cc, thC country was nol!
off against rhe other by the bridge. Nor J:~rered" in differenc ways. To protect only cultiv:nc::d in accordance wirh the
do rhe banks srrercl, along che scream ;is "· and conserve chc genius loci in fact Nile lloods, but clic very scructure of che
indifferent border strips of the dry land . mc:;;.ms ' to concrctize its essence in ever landscape served as a model for the
Wich the banks, chc bridge brings co the c nd,, historical coriccxts . \V/e might ~lso lay-our of rhe "public' buildings whkh
stream the one ::1nd the other expanse of saY thi:lc the history of a place pught to should gi~c m:m a sense of securiry by
the landscape lying behind chern. k be its "self-realization". What w.is there symbolizing an eternal cnvironrilcn't!tl
brings stream and bank. and land into l as possibilities :tt the,- outset, is un, ordcr31t.
each ,ocher's neighborhood. T he bridge covered th·r ough human action, illumi- Ouring the course of history the ge11f11s
gathcrs the earth as landscape arou·nd nated and ''kept" in WQrks of ..ir- loci has remained a living rcalit)', al•
chc stre;101"·1.;. Heidegger also describes chitecrure which are simulraneousl)' "Old though it ma)' not havC been exP,rfS•
what the -bridge g;ithers and thereby and new"" · A place therefore comprises sivel)' named :ts such. Artists and writers
uncovers its valu_e as a symbol. We properties having a varying degree of have found inspiration in 1.ocal character
cannot here cc)tC.t into these details, but invariance. m1d have •'exph}incd'' t:he phenomena of
w:mt to emphasize ch,u the landscape as- In g~ncral we may conclude char place is everyday life a~ \\icll as an, rCf~rring ro
such gets ics value- through che bridge. ,he point of deparcure as well as . the landsc:tpes and urban milieus·. Thus
Sefore, rhe meaning of chc landsc~pe goal o( our strucruraJ investigation;' af Goethe says: "It is evident, chat che eie
was "hidden'\ and the buil~i1ig of the •the-'OutSCc-plact:' is presented as a given, is cducaced by the chings it sees from·
bridge brings it o.~t' into the open. "The f spoptancousl)' experienced cotaliry, a~ childhood on, and therefore Venetian
bridge. gathers Being into a certain ~the end it appears as a srruccured world, painters must see c.vcryth'ing clc,uec and
" locarion" rhar we may call a ''place". illuminated by rhe analysis of che nspects' with more jO}' chan mher people'"'o.
1
This 14plaCe'', however, did n.ot exist as 0 6space➔'\J)dchai:acter. _ · Still in 1960 Lawrence Durrell wrore:
an entity before the bridge_ (although "As you get 10 know Europe slowly,
there were always many "s1tc-s~• along 3. 1'he,Spirit ofPlace ca.sting the wines, ehccses and_cha~:lctcrl
cite river•bank where it could arise)_, bur Genius loci is a Roman concept. Ac- of the differenr countries you begin ,g
comes-ro-presence with and as .che brid- cording to ancient Roman belief every realize that the impqrtant derermim\m of

u
-h,-g'1;""· The existenti:tl purpo_sc o V buil<l- "independenr'' t;•~ing haS.. its genius; its· any culture is afcer all the spirit of
g (architecture) is therefore 10 make a gu~cdiao spirit. This spicir gives life to place'··11 .
£C become a place, chat is, to uncover people _ and places.1 accompanies them 1Modern· ttrism pro,•es that rhc •~"
... ~ me~rn.ings pocencially presenr in the from birth to death , and determines perience of different places is a mojo,
given environment. ,heir character o r. essence. Even the gods human, imcrcst,. although also•t.his-,,~ue
r The structure of a pl:tce is not ;1 fixed, hail cheir ge11it1s, a fact which illustrates today rends io gee lost. In facr. modem
eternal stare. As a. rule places <::hangc , the fundamental nature of the concept''. 1 man for a long rime believed tha~
sometimes rapidlr. This does not mean , The genius thus denotes what a thing is, science ·and technology had freed hi,m
however, that rhe genius loci necessa·rily or what it "wanes co be'', co use a word ,frorn ;1 direct dependence on pl~Y.
- - 18
 ----
l T.1,is belief has proved an illusion; "
\ Poll_ur1on ,and environmC.nr:11 ch31()s H~\i?!\
' s11daendly appeared as 11 fr1ghte111ns!
\.,111m1esis, and as a result the prbblem 01/
p)a~as..rc •aine.d itS·true imporcanco'.,:'/
r "\'<le h;we l1se thc~ V<ird "dwelling'' to
• indknce rhe rornl m:m-pl¼_ce rel.lLionship.
To undersfand more fully whal' this
word implies, ir is useful to return to the
distin<rtion between •'sp.:lC(t and "char-
;.1ctl!r''-. .\Xfhc.ri man clwcll!;i, he i~ simul•
rnneous!y located in space and exposed
to n ce__rmin s.nvi.fo~11!<;n~aL c~~ acr~r:.
The•. two. psycnolog,c;il functrons in-
volvccl,....may be c~1llcd ''qrienrariOn" allQ-
1'iderftificariori''iJ. .. T p sain . en ex-istenJial
foothold man· H,1s •ro be able 10 orientate
hi,nself, he has ro know "'here ·he is .
.But he also has to i/lentify_ himself \\'.i.t.h.,
the environme.nr1 chat. i.s, he ·ha:,S~fo--Rtfo\,,
L houi h·e is a cen;1iil place.
The problem of orientation has been
gi\len a con,siderable•atten tion in recent
the.oreticml lite.ramrc on planning lind
;u chiteCrure. Again we nfa>, refer to d).e
\\IOl'k of Kevin ~ynch, whose. conc,epts
0£ •~node"\ pat'h"~ and "district" denote
0

the basic sp:uial structures which arc the

o bject of man's o riemation. T he per•
ceived inrcrrel:uionship of these elemems
consri~Ll'C-irn-·uenv-ironme1nTtl in\;!gc'".
and.."1.ynch -asserts: "A good c.nviron-
/ mental image:. .gives its possessor au
inl portanc sense of emotional sec4r...
ity."" . Accordingly all culrures l\i,v{
Oe.velopedA•~s)'JiemS of or·ie,itari'bii'-:- rhar
is, '1spatfal structures which facilitate the
developm'c nt of a good cnvironnicntal
image·•. ''T he world 1"11;1y be .org..uiized
,ttound a scr of focal points, o_, be
broken into named rcgions; o r_be linked
by _rcmcmbcrtd coutes'~5 • Often the.sc_
systems of ·orienr:uio n ~·re hased on or
d.eri\led from :-i given nacuq1I srr:ucmre.
\'Vhere , rhe system is weak, the im;ige-
making becomes dif£iculr, and man feels
"lost''. ''Th<: t'crr9r of being. lost ~omcs
from the ncccssi,y that a mobile or-
20. ldentifica titm. Nordit ivt11ter.
21. Jdemificatfon. Kli.utoum, S1t1l%111.

ganism be oriented in its surr9\md-

ing.stt.;i; _ To he· lost is evidently ,~e
opposice of che feeling of security which
distinguishes dwelling. The environment•
al quaJity ,vhich pi'otects man against
getting lost, Lynch calls ,;imageabilicy'\
which llleans "that shape, coJor Or
arrnngcincnt which faCilitates. the mak·
ing of vividly idcncificd, powerfully
srructurcd , highly useful mental images
of rfie cnviroil.r11enr"·11• Here lynch im•
plies that the clcmcms which constiturtl'
the spatial structure arc concrete
''things" with ''character" ;,t'nd ,rmean~
intf , He limits himself, how~v~c_, to
discuss the spacial function of thew·
clements, and thus leaves us, with a
fragmentary understanding of dwelling;
Nevercheless, che work of lynch co~•
stitutes an essential cOncrib~tion to th,e
theory of place. Its importance alsl>
consists in the face that his cmgiricaJ
studies of concrete urban srrucnu·,e con•
firm the. genei:al "principles of or'ganii-
:nion'' ·defined by Gesralt psychology
a nd by the researches into child psy·
chology ot Piager'' .
Witl,our reducing the importance of
oricnrntion , we h~wc- to stress chat
dwelling itbm•e . all pres upposes ide11-
1ifjca1iou wirh rhe enviiOnmeor:--;o:-
rhough orienrnlion 1:1nd identificmion ~re
:,spects of one to.rnl relationship; t.hey
ha"c a certain indepcndcrlcc within the
r' totality. le is e.videncly possible to
orienrnce oneself without crue idemif•
ication; one 'ge,s :·dong wichouc fc~ling
"at home". And it is possible to Itcl 3t .
hoi:ne without being well acquaimtd
w.ith the spacial structure of the place,
,hat is, ,he place is only experienced as
:i grmifyiug ·general chai'acttr: True
belonging however prcsuP,pq~cs th.a t·
both psychological functions are fully
developed. In pri1niiive societies we find
char even che smallest environmcnml
details ~m: known and mCani,rgful; -and
t hat they make up complex sp~cial

20

structu[(:S4~ In modern society, how}
ereF;Trrc1ition has almost ex_tlusivd.y
1 bcen concentrated 011 the " practic~l1
fu_nt ri_on of orientation, w he,_e a~ iclc11:1
rifkacion h~ts: been le.fr to ·c han0 As ~1
rcsidt t rue dweiling, i n • psychological
sense, has been su bstiruted by alien,
11ti,o n. Jr is tl,ercfore urg,,ntly nccdi:a to.
~rrivc at a fuller understanding of the
concepts of "i'dcntificacion ·· nnd "char,~
acu!r,t.
In our comext ''identification" means td
bt-come 0 lrl.cncls1• with ·a particular en.·
vironmcnt. Nordic man has to be friend
with fog, ice :md cold winds; he has co
enjQy che er.caking souod of snow under
the feet when he walks around, he ha~
to ,cxpc:riCnce the poetical value of being
fmmerscd in fog:. .as Hermann Hesse did
when he wrote the lines : "'Srr;1nge to
walk in fog! Lonely is every b ush a nd
stone.) no tree st($ the other, e",1erything
is al<"mc ... ••.so. The ArnbJ instead, has to
be :t friend of the in fll'1i1:e ly extended,
sandy .desccr and the burni.ng sun. This
Goes not mean that his sccth:mcnts
..should noc protect him ag;tinst the~
nnrur:tl "forccS''; ;,1 cleserr sertlemcnr in
fact primarily aims ar the exclusion, o(
sand and s,u n and t herefore tomplcmt nis
chc natural situatio n. But ic, implies _that
che en\'irc:,mme11r is experienced as
metmingful, Bollnow s:1ys appropriately:
"Jede Stfn~m1111g isl 0 bereh~slimmm1g" ,
chut iS., ~Very. charactCr consists: in a
eorrespondence hcfween o mer, and inner
,. world, and between body and psyche"•" .
. ror mo,dern urban. man the friendship
with a natural environment is reduced to
fragmcnrar.y relations. ln~cead he has tO
identi(y with m;,tn-m:-tde rhings, such as
\. srrce,s and houses. The Gcrman•bom
Amcripn arc,hitcct Gerliard K:illmann
o nce t0ld 11 sto ry whiCh illusrrate·s ,,,har
this means. Vi!;iring at rhe e nd o f rhe
Second \-Vorld W~fr !,is n:-tiive. Berlin
after many years of absence, he wanted
to sec die lfouse where he had g,r own
21
22. Memificmirm. $, G,:esorio, Costmza.
2.1. lrl(111ifi:cmio;1, N11p__les.
up. ,.\s musr be expected in Berlin, the
house had disappeared , and M;r. Kall•
mann felt somewhat lost. The n he
suddenly, recognized the 1ypic~I p:tyc-
mdnr- of the Sidcw'alk: the floor on
which he had p layed as ·a child , And he
expericn_c_e_d n strong feeling of hai•ing
rtrumed Imme,
The story reaches us that tl,e objects. of
identification ·arc eoncrctc Cmtirorimcntal
pf<)pc(iics and t hat m~m 1s .rclationshi).? to
t hese is usually <lcve.lnped during child-
hood. The cnild grows up in gr.cen,
brown or white S(?aCCS_j fr walks or Plays
o n sand, earth, stane or· moss, under a
cloud-r o r serene sRy; it grnsp~ and li (t~
J,ard lJncl soft thin,,;s; ir hears n'oiscS,
such ;ts rhe sou nd Qf the \virld moving
the ICaves o f a ~n rticular kind of t ree;-
and it experiences hear and cold. T hus
t he d ii!d gets_ ac_quaimed wich che
e-1wir:.<:m menr, :lnd develops perceprnal
stl,emata which determine ··all futu tc
expcricncesn .' T he schemata comprise
.universal strucrures whioh a re inter-
huma n, .~$ -well .as lo~.lll~· decermined
arrt.f.....,_culruraU)' conditioned ,s tr~c.mrc;s.
Evidently every 1u!man being h as tO
possess schemata of orientation as wdl
~sii:le!!.!.ifiq ciQo. _
Th-e ide11til)• of n persm1 is -defined in
t<:rms of the· schcmat:1 developed·, be•
cause they determine the 1\vorld!I which
is '1.Ccessible. This fact is confirmed by
common 'linguistic usage. \X1hen a per-
SOil wants to t<:Jl w ho he is, it is in fact
usual 10 say : " I am a New Yorker", or
"Jam a Roman". T his means something
mlich more concrete than co S.1)' : .. I a1ri
:m acchitecr'', or perha.Ps: "l am an
optimise•. WI<: understand that hum:11.1
idcnciry is ro ,1 high extent a function of.
places and things. Thus Heidegger sai•s:
"\'v'ir sind die Bl~•Dingten''jJ. It is there~
fore not o nl.y important t hat 09r <:n-
vironment has a spatial structure which
facHirates or:ienc-acion , but r.hat ir con•
sisrs of concrece. objeccs of idencificarion.
24. Sidt:rViJ/k. l~erli,t.
lS. E.11( /o$t1T~. Afom~riggicmi, Tos(:(Hltl.

Hmmm itlculily presuppose..1- the idenHIJ1

of plt1ce.
ldCntification and ()riemarion a re prim•
ary aspecrs: of m:m·.s being-in-1he.:wor.lO.
Whereas identification is the basis for
n1an1s sense of belonging_, orientation is
the funcrion which enables hinl co be
that homo viator, whi~h iS pa'rt o{J1is
1l;uure. Ir is character'istic for modern
man chat for a long time he. gave the
role as a wandcn:r pride ot ))bee. He
wanted tO be. "free" :mcl conquer che
world. Today we srnrr ro realize that,
m ,e freedom presupposes belonging,
and l'h;n '·dwelling'' means belonging to
a concrete place:.
T he word co "dwell" h:ts severnl con•
notations which confirm and il1umJnarc
our rhesis. Firstly it ought to be men-
tioned th:1t 11dwcll" is derived frdm the
Old Norse dvelja, which mea1it 10 linger
or remain. Analogously J♦!ei.degger rela-
ted the German ''wohneLl1 ' ro "blcibcn.,
and "sich :1ufhalrcn"-". Furthermore he
points our char the Gothic w1mitm
meant to "he ;tr peace1' , "to rem.tin in
peace'' . The Germ-a n word for Peace,
Friede, means to be free:, that ,is,
protected from harm and danger. This
protection is achieved by means of ;m
Umfriedung or endos.urc. "Friede'' is
also related to w/riede11 (content),
Freund (friend) and the Gothic /rijo11
(love). Heidegger uses rhes¢ linguistic
relationships 10 sliow that dwe/li11g
m,!ans to b,! at peace in ,, protectQiJ
place. We should also mention that. rhc
German word for dwcl1ing, Wlolm,mg,
derives fr9m dos Ccwolmte, which
means whar is known or habitual.
"H :.l bil" and "h,lbitat'' show an an-
aloguous rdacionship. In other WO(~s,
man knows whar has become a('.cessible
co hi1i1 d)rough dwelling. We here r.Ctum
to the Ubercinstimmung or correspon-
dence between man and his environ•
mcnt, and arrive at t he very root of. the
problem of ·'gathering", To gathrr

22
 II
NATURAL PLACE

means 1ha1 the everyday life-world has d.oes not flv :ibo,•e and surmount the, 1. T/,e Pbe11ome11a.of Natural Place
become "gewoh111,t or "habit\lal". But eijrth in.. order 10 escape it and ho,•er To be able to d,vell between heaven :md
gathering is a concrete phenomenon, ov:er it. Poct(y is what first brings man earth, man has to undersrandt' these
11

and thus leads us ro rhe final con- into the earrh , mal<ing him belong to it, rwo e1emenrs; as well . ::1s rhci~ imCr.
noHttion Of 1'dwelling'', Ag~in ft is and thus _bdngs him into dwelling''·Hi: action. The wo~d "understand" here
He\deggcr who has uncovered a fun- Only p9etry in all its (9rins (:ilso as the does not mean scientifi'c knowledge; it is
damcnnil relationship. Thus he po\nts "art of living") makes human existence rathe• an exismui:11 concept wb'ich
out that the. Old English and High meaningful , ·a nd met111i111r is ,he !tin- denotes the experience of meamngs.
t c·rman word for '1building,'., b1.1an, d;!.!11,,~
. ~Lhum.ao~ ed.- - . \'Q..hcn rhe. environfent is meaningful
meaur 10 dwell, and th:it ir is imimarely- Arclmecmre belongs to poetry , and 1tS\ man feels ''at Jiome '. The places where
related ro the verb 10 be. "What then purpose is to· help _ n,an to dwdl. J3ur we have grown up ,\re such "homes"; we
docs ich bin mean? The old ·,;,o,d archir_t'Cture is a difficult arc. To make know exactly how it feels to walk on
b.aucn, co which rhe bin beJongs, an- pr.actic~l towns and bui1dings is not that par:ricufar ground~ to be under that
·swers: id, bin, du bist. n1ean: I gwell, enough. Ardiirecrurc comes inro being pa<ticular sky, or between those par-
you ..dwc!I. The way in which_ you ,;1re when ~ •~total cnviroamenr is 111.adc ricular cre'es; we know the warm aU-
and I am , the manner in which we visible'', tO quote rhe aefinition of embracing sunshine of the South ouhc
humans are· on e-:irth> is bua,1 , dwell- Susanne L.ange,S~. In general, thi~ means mysterious summer nights of the North.
ing••u, ~V/.e m~y conclude chat dwelling to coner:ecize' rhe genius loci. We have In general we know ... re.aliticsv which
nleah~ to gather the world as a concrere see.n rhm this is done by mr:ans of carr,y our exisrence. Bur ''undersranding"
liijilding or "thing'', and that the ar- b,uilaings which gather the prop.e nies o( goes beyond -such immediate sensations.
chetypal act of building is the lfm- the place -and bring rhcm close to man . Fronr the beg.inning of time man has
Jriedrmg or enclosure. Trakl's poetic ';l;he basic act of architecture is therefore n..-cognized that nature consists o( imer-
j·muirfon of rhc inside-outside rclacion• to undersrnn<J the "vocati(m" of the related clemems which express fonda-
ship thus- gers its confirmation, ai,d we place. In this way we prq,ecr the c:wh mental •~pects of being. The landscape
understand that our concept of con- and become ourselve,s par:r of a com- where he lives is not a mere flux of
c.reiitaliou denore-s the essence of dwd- prchcnsiVe toralit}', What is here. ad- phenomena, it has strucrurc and ern•
ling56. vocated is no.r son,e Kind of ''environ• bodies meanings. T hese structures and
Man dwells when he is able co con- ment,il de1er.minism''. \"i/e only recognize mcanin@,s have given rise to myrho]ogies
crctize the ,~orld in buildings and ,he fac.t that ma□ is an integral part of (cosmogonies and cosmologies) which
tilings. As. =we have mentioned .abov..c, ,he environrncnt 1 and that it can OrJly have foe.med the basis of dwelling'. A
"aoncrerization" is the funcricm of the lead to human alienation and environ- phenomenology of natural place ought
work of"<m, as ,opposed co the "~b- mental disruption if he f<:>rge,s rhar. To to take these mythologies as its point of
- -:trracci01\" of science,Si. Works of iur belong to a, place means ro have an departure. In doing this, we do not have
corlcrctizc whar rtmains "between'' the existential foothold, in a coI1crc1·e every- to re-tell the mies, rather we should ask
g_ure obje<rs -of .science. Our everyday day sense, When God said to Adam: which concrete categories of undemand-
life-world consisls of such ''imermedi- "You shall be a fugitive and a wanderer ing they represent.
ary" objects, :ind we undersmnd thanhe. on the carrh"""; he put man in from 9f In general any understanding . of the
...J#ndamcntal' functiowpf·art is to gather •his mq_s_t basic prob]cni: to cro~ rh·e natural environment grows ~mt of a
f '~e contradicrions and complexities of, threshold and regain the lost place. primev:11 experience of nature as· a
the life-world. Being an imago 1111111,fj., multitude of living "forces". The world
t~e worl<o~ .arr .ne1ps ~mairfo - <iwell. is experienced as ,a ''Thou·· rnthcr than
1;1/;l<\erlin wils,rightwJ,cn he said : an "it"'. Man was thus imbcddcd in
''Full of merit, y~t poetically, man n:tture' and dependent upon the naru.ral
dwells-on this earth". forces. The growth of man's memaJ
This means·: man's merits do not count faculties proceeds from ~he grasping ·of
much if he is unable to tlwell poetic(!lly, such diffuse qualities, into more ar-
that is.• to dwell in the true sense of the ciculate experiences where tlie pans and
word. Thus Heidegger says: " Poetr.y , he interrelationships within the rotalitf

23
26. Mo11ti.. Bi.1,m ,.
27. Vt•st111i'o.
28. Rod.·s ill Rc•Jm. Jord,m.

3re understood. This process mil)' hap-

pen in_different ways according tS) the
local cnvirQnmcnr, and ir .does nor me.an
char rhe world loses ics concrere , live
c har~crer. Such- a loss imp Iies pure
<Jmmtificntioni and is thus linked wid1
th~ modern scientific attiru•dcJ. \"le may
distinguish between five Qasic modt-s o f
11l)1 rhical undcr:scanding, which h;we d if•
ferent weight in different cultures.
The first mode of n:11ural understand-
ing- takes tlt(: forces· as its poinl of
departure and relates them co concrete
narural elemems o r ...,hings"4 • Most
-ancient cosmogonies concentrate on this
aspect and explain how "L"vcryrhing" has
come into being. Usuall}' creation is
understood as :l ""m;uriagc" of hi:nuen
and ear//1. Thus Hesiod savs: ''E;1rth
(Gaia) first of all gave birth ·w a bdng
equal r6 herself, who could overspread_
her complecel)', the srarr>' heaven
(Ournnos). . .''·! . This primeval .couple
generated the gods end t he ,other myth-
ical creatures, that is, al,I those •'forces''
which make up rhe "multifarious in--
ber\,1eerlH. A similar image is found in
Egypt where ,he world was represented
as a ''space11 between heaven {Nut) and
earrh (Geb); rhe only difference being . . - .
that the sexes of rhe two elemems are '
here exchanged. The c:orth is rhe "serv- .-
ing bear~r" fr.om which li fe emerges, the
veiy foundation of e~istcnce (Jel/us
Wllter). The. sk.y1 instc.'1d, is so_merhing
"high" and inaccessible. Its shape is
described by "the vaulting path of t he
sunt\ and its pr<)pcrcic.s in ·general arc
experi"e nccd :1s rranscenclc!lce.l' ordt'!r an<J
creative power (rain). The sk)' primarily
has "cosmic'' implical'ions, whcre:.ts the
earth may satisfy man's need for prot-
ection ,rnO intimac)"", Ar rhc same rime,
however, the e;1rth constirutes the ex•
cendc<l ground on which his actions rnke
plate. ~- .5, -
..
~ r
The marriage between heaven and earth
forms the poim of depanure for chc ~;~
-;:;.•t,.•
.,....,..h.
-
~-l
<I """~ -
. • - ·.
:--~y,.;,J,.
: ~-----:,.~_;' .... ~ '\I.., • ' •.

-
 19. ]111? Romrm cam/Jf1gnn.
JO. l1/,1( t• in tht.• sluuluw uudcr a l ft!-C, Pein,,
}ortlm,.

further diffetcnriarion ,of '' things:,,. Tlie

mow11ain, rhus 1 belongs co the e;trth,
hue it ciscs towards ·the sky .. It is <thigh'\
ir is dose co hcave11, it is •a meeting
.place wli"erc rhe rw<'> ba~ic. clcmcnrs
come cog~ther. Mountains ,;,,~ere there-
fore co.nsider.ed '"ccnrres" l'hrough wbich
the ti.tis• ,mindi.goct.-, ... a spor ·" 'here one
<:;;111 pass from Qile cos'mic zone ro
1

anorher•06 • In Of.her words, mountains

are p·ftu:es .wirhin the comprchensjv~
landscape, places• which make the struc-
ture- of Bein"!; maniftst. 1\s such they
"Sad:ici?? v:i.riOus pro·pcn1es. To the
general ones alrea~ly mcnti9n~d., we
m~sr add the h.1rdne,ss :md pt·rm:mence
of stoue as a material. Rocks and st6nes
lrnve licen g iven ptimary impocra.nce by
!]lany culiuces because of rbcir i m-
perishableness. lo gener;il, h,iwever,
Jnounr.ains remain ·'distant'' and some-
what friglltehing,. and do noc constitute
"insides'' where man qm dwell. In
Medieval pa·incii1g, thus, rocks and
mounrnins were symbols of "wild~r-
ness'';·a meaning which was still alive in
the fandsc.1pe painting of Roman0cism7 •
But ,here arc ocher kinds of natural
"things'' which reveal meanings. In the
tree hcavc.n and c·arth arc also united,
not onl}r in a spacial sense because the
tree rises .up from the gcound, but
because it grows and ~s "'::tlivcn. Ev~ry
year the tree re-enacts the ,•er)' process
of creation, and ''to a primitive religious
mindt the rrec is che universe, and it is
so because it reproduces it and sums it
up ... "•. In general vegetlltion is the
manifoscarion ·of living reality. But vegec-
.,:ttion has also forms- which are less
friendly or even frightening, The forest,
chus, is primarily a "wilderness" full of
strange and menacing forces. Bachclard
writes: "We do not ha,•c to be long in
the woods r6 exptdence the racher
anxious impre$sion of 'lgoing deeper and
deeper" imo a limitless world. Soon, if
we do not know where we. are going,
J I. \"1()-0l/ Jt/ Aricci.i, Albm, !,ills. JJ.. (:rove- ,H Klu,rtqum, S1,d(m.
J2. NQr1t-·cgi.1rr FOrest. J -1. OHvt• grew~. S. Grecorfo. Catan;aro,

,,,
>-1, W' ...

~& ◄s .~

26
 .1.5. Hro(Jk at Veio. /,a:io.

we l!O longer Know where we are 1"J .

Only when ,he wood is of limited
extension and becomes a grove, fr
remains intelligible ;ind positively
meaningful. The Paradise has fo fact
been •irhaglne<l as a delimited or cnclos~d
grove or garden.
In rhe inrngcs of Paradise we encounl'cr
:1norher basic element of :cuutienr cos-
tnOgonics: wnter. The very particular
n:ilurc bf water has always been recog.-
nizea. In the Genesis, God separates the
dr)' la,,d from the water :1frcr the
creation of heaven and earth, light and
dncRnCss, ;r nd in ocher CO$mOgonic·s
,·,•atcr is, th,! primeval subsr,mcc from
which ;ll1 forms Gome'". 17,e presence of
water, l'hus gives identity to the land,
1
and the legend pf the Deluge prt.sc,us
the "l1>ss of _place'' ;is a grear AoocL
Although it is rhe opposicc of place;
water belongs intim~ucly t·o living real:.
iry. As a fertilizer it c:.vcn bc.>camc a
sy,ribol of life, and in the images of
Paradise four rivers now from a spring
in the very centre. The history of
landscape painting illustr:1tcs ihe im-
p.orrance of Water . :is .• Jife-sgcnding
&mcnc. The ''idc:il" landscapes of che
fi'fceenrh .and the sixrecmh centuries
usually ~onrain a ~cntr:illy placed river
or h1Kf ;1JOng which man ·s .secdcnlcni:s
are located~ ind from which the cul•
tiv:.ucd land extends. Lmer, water Is
j~stl)" understood and depicted as " local
ele~cnc, of primary characterizing im•
po.nanc4, and in .Romantic Jandsc;1p-es,
it rtaP-pears ~s :.t dr_n~unic dnhonic
fo'.cc .._ . - ~
Bemg the pnmMy natural ''thmgs'\ . . _
(o.cks..) \•tgctation an·a water m,a kc· a
plac.e meaningful oi' ·•sacred", ro use the
term of Mircea Eli:ide. He writes: "The
n,osr prin,irive of the "sacred pJaccs'~. we::''
kn'ow of constituted a micr9cOS~ : /.1
b11,1~ apc oLston~s;,vt~'ancj, rrces"1 1•
Moreover_ l~ n.£_s _Q..1,1t....,...;fl-lat "'such
places arc never ·choSeu by man, thC)'

21
 J6. Oeyr•d•Dahr)'. hw1pf._, vf I l:m.i/mJU:t' i,r tl,.i
lmulscup,·.

1
:·u·e merely clisc<wered by him; in other li mit ro the univtrsc· • 1-.lciwcn was
words the SaCl'cd place in some way or imagined to rcsl <>n four posts ar chc
:mother rC\'C:.lls i1self to hii11 1• 1i . In the corncrs 15 • In 1he·NQrdk countries where
cnvironm~nr the sacred plac·e s functio n the sun loses much of it.s impor·rnnce, nn
as "cenrres"; t hey serve :ts objects of abstract "heaven(), axis" running north-
m:m's oriem:uion and iclenrificarion? :rncl south was imagined l around which chc
constitute a s1xuia.J srructurc. In m~rn·s world turns. This ;1xis ends in the Pol;u
unders~:mdint;, of mnure we diu.s rccog- Snu·, wh<ire it is c:uriccl liy a column , .ln
niic rhe origin of rhe c.o ncepr of space as lrmiw;u/16 • A similar (l:ds m,mdi was
,1 sys~em of p laces. Onlr a sysrcm of imagined by the Romans, whose heav.en-
mc:mingful pl;1ccs makes ;\ truly hum:111 I)' cardo runs somh from thll- Polar Srar,
1ifc possibJc. ---=-- ~ crossing at a riC:ht angle. che tlec11mam,s,
The 'sc.cOnd m,ode of nacucal un(~ y]_,ich represents the course of the sun
sp;rndi,ng con~ists iu ~bsrr;,1cring a sys- froh~~\~ east to t he west 17• In Rome,
tenumc cosnuf order from d~e flux of t hu~ ·.~ ary el~~us 0£ ~omhern and
o-e:currences. Such ,1n order 1s usually ~ptd1c;.cos1nolog1cs..\,\~~rC"un~d .
based on rhc course of rhc_sun, us r1!_~ he rhird) modc of ,rnnirlll_, u~r._o;tand-
'\tosc mvanant ;.lnd gr:rn~1c1~ ;.tH1r:1} mg _g,ns1sts m the dcfinmon o ~ ~e
phcno1ncnon_, a nd chc...car~ n::d,.H._QJ1_1t...-. In....- chamcter ~>f natural . pl~ces. relattnS\'\
some place-s it m~ty also-De rel~ted to di then'I ffJ basic lnun:111 traits.
local geogrnphict\l ~truct ure. . as . in TJ., ~.... abstr:11.:., io n c,f c ha~c!S!-S. was fhc .,1
/

£.g)1pr., whcc,e th e so~nh--norch dtrl'ctwn :.ic.:h1cV.('11J_Cnt- uf=.t.h..e $reeks~ :m<l was /

of the Nile constitutes a primary clement cvidendy · made possible b)~- thc v~ry
of man~s oricnr:1cionl.i .J\a order of rhis sn:ucrure of rhe Greek landscape. Topo~
kind implies that the wl)rld is under- gr~phic:illy Greece consis,s of numerous
srood as a st.rnctured "space•·, where the disrincr bur v:uiccl sites. E;1eh Jandsc~1pe
m~in directions cepre~cm difforcnt is a cle~uly delimited . easil)1 imagcable
1
'qu.alitics'' or meanings. l!l ancient "·person~11ity" 1" . lntcn~c s'unligltt~ and
.Eg)•pt, l'hus, the east, fhc direction of dear air give rhe forms :in unusual
the sun's rising, was rhe domain of birth presence. "Because o( thC o rdered varic-
a11d life, whereas the we.st was the ty, darit)' and scale in the hrndscapc:, the
. domain Of ae:1tk. ''\'v'hen thou seucst on hum;.111 be.ing is neither engulfed nor
t~c wescern horizon, the l:rnd is in adrift in Greece. He can corne close to
dackncss in the manner of dc,uh ... (~ur) rhe earth to experience either its ,nfort
when rhc day breaks, as" thou rises on or lrs chre;1t'"!I. The b~1slc property of
the horizon. .. they :twake and stand the Creek e1ivirOnme nr,. therefore, is rhc
upon thei,· 'feer. .. ,hey liv~ because thou individual and intelligible character of
has arisen for t hem"H . The belief in a P.laccs. In sorne ph1ccs the surro undings
cosmic order js usu:,Hy connected with a ;tppear to offer prote~cion, jn othcrs-
conc,·ete inrnge of some kind. ln Egypt t hey men;.1e;:c; and in others again we feel
rhc world w:ts imagined :1s "a Oar p1atrcr :1t l'he cemre of a well-defined cosmos.
wich a corrug:-ucd rim. The inside In some places there a rc natural e1e~
borcom o f this p laner was t he flm- mencs of a \iCry garcicular shape or
alluvia) plain of E-gypi , ;1_nd the cor- function , such as ho rned rocks, caves or
rugate_d rim was chc: rim of mountain wells. lit '\andcrstanding'' th~se drnracte-
countdcs... This p latter flo,ued in riscics, the Greeks per.soui/ie,J them as
water ... Above ~he c.1nh was the l11• . . nrhropomorfic gods, :rnd every ph,ce
ver.ted pan of the sky, setting the outer with p,ronounccd properties became :.l
 J i . Dclpl,i, thOlt>sOf t\tlww.
;J8. OclpM, thtti1tr,•. mttl wmvl,;, ()j t\f>QIIQ•
.19. Tri:c:$ 11ml trght. Stu:m SJ1•1t:r.>,, S11bil.tco •

.manifestation of ;, P,:trticular god. Places

whece the fcctile. canh feels close were
dedicated to rhf old chrhooic deities
D£m~ctcr .:md Hera, nnd Rlaccs where
nrnri's incellecr , and clisdplin,c comple-
ment and oppQsc the chchonic forces
were dedicarcil w Apollo. T lferc ac.e
places whc·rc the envil'.onmcnt is. cx-
pericnc<:d as. an order,~d whole, such as
rnc,unti1ins wirh :H\ all-ro1,m'd view,,
dcdic:u ect m Zeus, and groves cl9se t:,O
water or .s w-nmpy land · decli'carcd to
Artemis. Before :-my temple w;1s builc,
_opCn-air alrnrs we~~ erected "in che ideal
position from wh:ich th~. whole sncred
'landsc,1pe could be grctsped''' "· We
,u nder.stand thus how G reek-- nrchitcctuie
wok the., meaningful P,face ,.; .tS· lts point.~
of Mj,.acture. ~y relating natural an.9
hunM,n dt::tr~cters, ~he_(! rcek,; a_c hieved .a
''rcconciliatio1)'' of man and nature
-which is p,uticularl}' well concrctized -at
Delph1. Herc che old symbols ,of ch.e
c.t itth, the om/)lu,los. or ''n,wcl c;,f tile
world" :rn<I /,ot/,ros or offering cave of
che Grear Goddess of the earth; were
enclosed within Apollo's temple. Thus
they were rnkeh over by the "ncyv'' god
and r11adc parr of a toc,,I vision o(
nature and man.
,..But na,u~~ also, C.OJ)lprisa ~ ourth
, c:u~gory of phenomen,1 wh.icl,t are~{ess
palpable. Light has. of ·course ~wayf
been exl'enenced as a bas,c par\ of
reality , Out ancient man concemrat'e~ his
U[tCnfltm~ e _~1,mc9~ a '1thing»,-father
.chan the more -gencr)\1- conciepc of
11
ljglit'!, In 'Greek civilization, h·9wever,
light was undersc0<>d as a symbo l of
~k1!0Wledge, artistic a.s well ;1s imcl-
lectu,al; and was connecred with Apollo,
w ho absorbed rhe old sun·-go d Helio~.
In Chrisrianiry light licqme an "ele-
menr" of p'rimc, importance, a srmbol of
conjunctiop and unit)' which was con-
nected with che ·~oocept of lo.pc. God
was . c_;orn;idered /),a l.tr luminis, i\q~
1 11
• Divinc l.ighr n. manifesrntion of the
 .,o. Nonu~i'm1 Jordt i,r wiu1.-r.
41. fxt,mJ,?d liluef. Va lle 1/f;l M art!f.Chla, 1:urli.

spirir. In 13yz.a1'1 t111c paiming Di\•inc imprcssionism.!.i . elemenr, ,1lthough some of it~ properties.
Light w;,s .concretizcd as a gQlden Jn m.ythopoeic thought time is· just as change with du.,· sc.asons I but the more
ground which ".surrounds the main qualfracivc and concrete ;1s other narurnl variable and Jes,; concrete sky also play;;
figures as wich ;1 halo of ~ancrit.y"1 1 , phenomena, and is ex·perienced in rhc a ''char:1ccerizing'' role of <JcciSive im~
srrcsstng the iconographic foci. A sacred periodichy and rh)•thnt of 01(1.r'l·s own porrnnce. It is natural to rnke t·he more.
place, rhus ) was distioguished by the life as wc·II ns in rhe life of nature. stable properties as the point of depar-
presence of light, and accorclingl)' D<1ntc Jvlan's P,~1nicipation in the natural cornl- rurc: for our d iscussio n ; in relation to tl10.
wr'c;,te: ''The Divine Light penetrates the iry is concrcciz.cd in ritul1/s, in ,vhi.c.h e1wironmem;1l level which serves ;1s. the
universe according co irs dignirv"ll.The ucosmic ·events", such as cre:nion, de~nh c(l111prchensivc m1ge for everyday life,
Renaissance, instead, undcrsrOod rhe ~1i1d resurrection ,,re re-enacted. As such, (hat is: ltmtlscape.
world as a microtheus which Cod is rit ua ls do not howcv.cr belong I'<> t he T he distincth•c quality of any landscape
mrinifcst in cverr thing. As a rtsuh , the natural e nvironment, :md will be dis- is extensio n, and •its p,:uticuhu character
hmdsca'p e p~-iinrers depicrcd t he environ- cussed in the nexr chapter, lOgerher with :rnd spacial l>ropcrcics a(e determined by
menr as a rornliry o f ... focrs" ~ where the general problem of representing how it exrcmls. Extension, thus, may be
everything down co the smallest derail time. more or Jess continuous, sub·_places
seems full)• understood and loved. "Facts Thing, order, c h~trnctcr, light and rime .w it hin the all~embrncing la ndscape may
bec9111c art through love, which U'l,ifics :tre rl)e basic: catcgor'ies of co11crctc be formed and its cap,a cicy- of receiving
them and lifts them to ,1 higher plal1 of n:nur;1l undcrst;111<Jing. \'\l hcrc:,1$ thing J11;1n-niade clements: varies accordingl)'.
re~~lityj .ind, in landscape , rhis all and order, are spatial (in a cont rcte The 1•how" of. cxtcns.i on primaril)' de-
embrac ing love i:n•xpresscd by light "l.\. quaUradvc sense}, charnccer and lighr pe nds on the nature of the ground, that
Light is not onl)1 the most general refer co the ge,ncr;il annospherc of a is, on the co pographical · conditions.
natural pl1cnomcnon . but also the less pl;1ce·2r.. \Y./e m:-t~' also p'o inr out tha1 '"Topogr:,phy" simpl)' means ''pl:tce·-ie•
consram. Light condicions change from ''thing" m1e.J "character" {in chc sense scriptio□", but i\ is gene ml Ly used to
morning to evenin.g, .tnd during che here used} art dimensions of the earth, denote the physical configuration of ~
night darkness fills the world, as light whereas ''order)) and ''light" are deter• place. In our c ontext '"topographt
docs during the \Ja)', [ ight, thus, is mined by the sky . Time, finally, is rhc primarily means- what geographers call
i,ncimatdy connecrcil wirh the· temporal dimension of cor1st·anq1 and change, and the surface relief. Oil a flat ph,in,
rh ythm$ of nature which ·form a fifch m~tkcs space and charncter pans of a (•xtcnsion is general and infinite} but
dimension of undersrnnding. The phe- living reality, which at ;rny moment is usually variations in the surface relief
a·o mc~a which · distinguish a natu ral give n as ~l parricular place, as a gcmiu$ c reace directio ns and defined spaces.
place cannot be separated from thcs<: loci. 111 general rhe categories designate Ir is imporcam ,o 5liStingtiish OCtween
rhythms2-+. The seasons, thus, ch~mge the meanings man has nbstracttd from rhe stcucture and the scale of the relief.
the appearance of places; in some the. Oux of phenomena ("forces"). la bis The structure may be described ·in terms-
regions more, in others less. (n the· clas~ical work on t he relationship bet- o f nodes·, p:uhs and dom;,1ins, rhat is,
northern cbu.ncrics g reen Sl;ln'll'ncrs and ween n;uure ;r nd the "human sduP', elemen1s which "'ee111r.a1i1.e" space su~h
·white wimcrs ~thcrnatc, and both Willy Hellpach call$ s,,ch mei111ings :as isolated hills and mount:)ins or
seasons ,are characteri1,ed by very di£• "existential contents)\ ~tnd s;1ys: liEx- circumscribed basins, d t mcnts which
fercnr conditions of light. The. tcmpor~I istcnti:11 c-ontent.,;,l:,a\lC their source in the dir:ccr spa ce. such as ,•aflers, rivcr.s a nd
rhythms obviously do not change• rhe landscmpe'21• wadis, and eleme·n~ w hich define an
basic elements which consti.ture a na- extended spatial parcern, such as "
rural place., buc in many casc.s they 2 . The.Structure oJNaJural plac:'(! relativelv uniform .duster of fields or
contribute decisively ro its charncrer ;111d The term oarucal pl;tce'' denor~s ~1
11
hills. E;•idenrlv the effect of such ele-
are therefore oftc;, reflected iu loc;il series o( Cnvi.t:Qnmcntal lc)1cls , from ments is very different ;.1ecording to rhci[:
myths a□d fairyrnlcs. In landscape p:iint- .continents and c,oimtrics down tO the dimen~ions:·For o ur purpo~c; ic is pracr~
ing, the local importance of temporal sh.1deO arc~t under ·;m inclividual rrec. All i~al 1·0 distinguish between three le1•els:
rhythms and lighr conditions were these . c1>hlces,.. ~1re derermined by the micro, medium and macro. The micfo
studied from the eis lltecnch century on, concrete pc:opertics o( earth and .sky. dcmcms defin(' sp:,cc-s- which .trc coo
a dc\,e)opincnt which culmin;ued wirh The ground is ob\•ic~usl )' the most stable .sm a ll to serve human purpo,ses, while
42, E.xte.mln/ l,,,,u/, Vi·,l!t• d'/dri;S, P11,i:lia,
-13. £i!1111d,•J ltmd. Romag,m.
44. £:i:1e,tdetl l:111d. Norw11y / mm thr: air in
wlirta.

t'he macro clemems arc analogously too

large. Spaces which ;:ire directly Suited
f<ir or dimensionally rel,ued to huma n
dwelli(1g have a medium or " human"
scale. As cx:unples of dilferenr en-
viromncnrnl scales ,ve may mentio n t he
Norvegian forest, the plain~ of Northern
Fraoct (the ca111pt<g11e), and ,he rolling
coumryside of Denmark. In ,he Nor-
vegian forest the ground is covered by
minuscule hillocks and tufts. The
ground is never open ;rnd free, bur cut
through by tiny "vallc>1s" betwc.cn mi•
nusculc "hills''.' A kind of micro-land-
scape is formed, which seems ro have
been made for gno mes or dw:1rfs. In
N o rthern Fr:mcc, inSl'ead, the sur.foce
relief consistes of extended but low,
ondula ting mounds, whose super-human
scale creates a feeling of infinite ,
"cosmic", extcn~ion. In Denma rk che
!andschpc is somewhat similar, bur che
sc:.,le is sma11er. and an intimate
" human"' environment results. If we
maintain che uDanish'' scale ho rizon..
rn11)', but accemu~te the vert ical di men•
sions of the relief, a "human hill
landscape" is fo rmed. As examples we
ma)r me ntion the central p·a ns of Tu-
sc,my nnd chc lvl'onferrato in lrnly.
\X1 hcrc rhe depressions reach ~ ccrt~in
depth . however. che hills become scpa•
rared and rhe ground loses its con•
tinuit )' . As . a rcsulr chc landscape a·p -
pcars forbidding and "wild,,. Thts is rhe
c~tse in Liguria; where che hmd is cue
thro ugh by a network of narrow
ravines28 • A rehni\.rely srnaJI change thus
suffices to tra nsform the inviting a nd
ordered hill landscape of t he nbighbour
·r egions into a kind of confused maze.
Our examples have indicated how varia•
t io ns in the sucfoce relief determine the
spatial properties of the landscape, nnd
to shmC excenr its charncrcr. Characters
such. as ''wild'' and ufriendlt' arc thus
functions of the relief, "!though t hey
may b_e accenrua,ed or contradicted b)'
 -IS. Norruegia,~ forest._
•IG. Cam!Jag,w in Cemwl,IM(,\'.
47. Rolling c'.(Umtrysic/1• ;,r Dtmnark.

tt xturc, , olour and v~gela1io11. The

weirds '·cexrure" :-md "colour'' l'efer co
the · material su_bsrance ·o f the ground,
rhat. is, whether it consists' of sand,
earth•, sto1'c, grass o r,. watei:_;· w,hcreas
•·,1 gerncion" der.1_otes elements whic~ are
·add.ea to encl rransfom, rhe surface
rtlicf. The cha«lctcr 1>f rhe landscape is
e,1idcntly to a high extent determined by
rhese ·•~ecqndaq1" elements. Similr,1.r re-
liefs may ap1fenr ~s • ''barren" desert of
"fertile" p.lain, ac_cording .ro the absence
or presence of vcgci:,tion. At the same
dme~ J10wever, ~imiiar. (elicfs preserve
funclame11tal common r.roRercies, such
as- ''infinite" exrcn~~on. ~he un-clulacing
plains- of Northern France, for insi:ancc,
possess the ••cosmic•' gualiry, which i:;
usually found in the desert, bur simul•
raneously die Ian.fl is fertile: A fa.
·sain:iting ~'ynthesis is thus experienced" .
\Xlhen vegetation becomes ·a primary
feanu;e_. the landscaP.e in general gets ics
n·i11ne from chis properry. as in rile
various t)'pes 6f forest l:indscapcs. In rhe
foresr landscape the surface relief is less
prominent than the ~paclal effect of the
vegetation . Often relief and vegerarion
combine ro form· very parricular land-
s.cap·es. l.n Finfand 1 fol' instance, the
continuous forest is '"interpenetratcd'' 0)'
a conlpl<:x S)'StC-m of inrerconnccred
l:lkes. As a resulr an eminendr Nordic
character is crearcd, where the mi-
crostructure of the forest is cmph:1sized
by the mobile and ''live" element of the
watci-3-0. Jn general the presence of water
adds a· certain nlicro-scale co Jffndsc<1pes
whose relief lncks this .tlimension',' or it
adds to the mystery of landsc:1pes which
already posse.ss the micro. level. When
warcr is pre~ent as a swifc river or
cascade, narure itself becomes mobile
and dynamic. The reflecting surface of
hikes ,111d ponds also has a de111;iteri;1J.
i'Zing effect whi'ch cou ntcraas t'hc
.- stable top~gT:1phic:1I structure, Ja a
• ...i• r•· •• . ¥ - - - - • ~ - : - - ~ . : . . _.

swamp hrndsc;lpe, finally, the ground

. . .
___. ___..,,. -· -
~ . . . . . .
'
. ..
, ·,
. ,..:.. -·.
48 1-lillt •in the Alon/emlUJ. SJ. Co,w/iuc iri IJasilfrat.1. Man1u..i.
49: f-i,mislJ lm1</Jcupi!.
SO, Raum(. Vit0rt lmm1J. /...(i;:;(),

36
S2. Volley U1 Nonlln)',
S3. Nomt(·g l.m fsl(lnds.
S-,. Noru,-egtrm fjo rd.

gets a maximum of indcrerminacy. T·he

banks _of rivCrS and lakes, on the
cl)nrcary, (orm precise edges which
usu.ally funcrion .is primary structural
clements in the bndsCa.:tpe: Such edges
have the douBle foncrion of giving
d.efi'nirion ro the water itself as " ;ell as
the i\fljoining land. Evidently .this dtfini-
tion may happen on all en,v itonmental
·1cvels•, and on the mosr comprehensi\re it
is the ocean which forms- the ''fin:;1I"
ground on which the conrinen~ts ~,ppe,u
as d isrinct'~figures1" 31 • ·
Tl;iroug.h c,he ime.racrion of surface,
_relief, vegcracion and water, character•
istic tot3litics 6r places are £orn,ed
.wh.idl , eo~n·s tirure the bask clements of
IMdsc:ipes, A.. phenomenology of natural
place obviously o,ughr tb · c.Onrain a
sr,sremaric s urvey of such concr.ete ro~
rnlities'i . Variations in t he ·Sur.face relief
generate a series ·of places, for which
o ur language has well•known -names;
plain , valley", ha.s in, ravine, platCau, hill ,
moumai.n . All these pla~es possess dis-
rii1ctive phenomenological characterist-
ics. Tlie pla'in , thus 1 make.s extension as
such rnanifosr, \,1hereas the · valle)• is a
delimited and directed space. A basin is
• cenmilizcd vallc)'' ,vb
ere S[>aCe be-
comes enclosed a nd static. -\'vhcrtas
,,:,llevs and b~\sins have a macro or
mcdi'um scale, a ravine (cleft, gorge) is
distinguished by ,\ "forbidding'.' nar-
rowness. le has rhc quality of an
1
\ 111der•world'' which gives access to the
''inside" .Of the e{uth . ln a ra\".il.ie we feel
caught or trapped, and the etymology of
rhe word in fact leads us Dack, tO rapere.
that is to useize". H,ilJs and mounrainS
a rc spatial conwlemcms to valleys and
l?asins, and function as primary space-
defiriing uthings" in the em1ironmcnt.
The general ·strucrurol properti.es of hills
and mountains are <lenoied by words
such .a s "slope", ·"crest'', '\idge" and
"peak", We bave already suggested thi1t
rhe pcej ence c)f water may c~phasiZc the
 ss: Clo,,ds. /.ii,i,:burgt!r Heidt•.
56. Valley a1td •iill,oucue. Sulliaco.
57. f-r(}m tlu: Syri,m d,•serl.
S8. (:Q:mrrysidc in Dem1111rk.

p lace-srrucrure of rhc·• Su.face reLief. A

valley is licernlly ''undedi□cd·•· by a river,
.a nd t he im~gc qf'a basin is stcengthcned
by a lake. Uur W:Her also generates
particular kinds of 'S pathtl configura•

I
cjo11s: island, point•, P.tomontory, penin-
sula, b:iy ancl fjo rd , all of which muse
be counted among chC mosr distinctive
natural places. The island thus, Is a
place /Jar t~xcelle,,c.e, appearing as an
•'isol.uc<I", clearly defined figure. Ex-
istentiall y the island brings us back to
the origins; ir f1seS o·ur of the elcmCl)t
from which every1hing was• originally
born . The word "peninsula:• means
'":llmosr ~n \slancl", !md rhus langa.{lge
expressc~· a n jmp.orc,a nt spari;ll st,ructure.
A gulf l>r ~ay is ,,lso a strong· archetypal
p lace, which may be characterized {1S a n
"iiwerted periins,~a". The typical places
gc,1cratcd b); \•cgctarion> such a~ for~s,,
grove, and field , h,we illreudy been.
menrioned; we only have to remind of
rheir importance• as pares of "living"
r~aliry·'-',
Being on the cart.h implies to be under
t he sky. Although rhe sky is dismnt anc!
intangible; it h:is concrete ''properties>\
:md a very important charncreriz.ing
function. In daily life we rake the sky
for granted; we notice rha, it changes
with the wc:uher, •but· hardly recognize
its imporrnnce for the general "'atmos•
phere". It is o nly when we visit p laces
very cliffereilt from our home th;1t we
suddently experience the sky as "low'' or
'"high", or ocherwise different from whar
we are used to. The effect of rhe sky is
basically d ue ro two facrors. Firstly ,he
constitution ,of rhe sky itself, that is, the
quality of light and colour, and ihc
presence of characteristic douds3".
Secondly its relationship co che i;round,
that is, ho\v ir appe~u·s, from btlow.
Seen from an extended open plain, tlie
sky becomes a complete hemisphere,
. and when the weather is "ggod", its
appearance is all~embracing and truly
 grandiose. h1 places with a pronounced
surface relief or rich vegcration. how-
ever. onlY a sc.-ccor of the sky is seen ar
rhe time. Sp~1ce conrrncts, and the
la ndscape becomes intimate or even
consrricred. T har rhis is nor a modern
cxp~rience , is con(irmcd by the report of
an a nci(:nt Egyptian scribe: "Thou hast
1101 trodden the road ro Meger (in
Syri:i), in which the sky is dark by day,
which is overgrown with cypresses. o,1ks
and cedars rh:u reach che heavens . ..
Shuddering sei,cs thee, (rhe hair of) 1hy
head srnnds on end and rhc soul lies in
rhv hand . .. The:: rnvine is on one side of
thCe, while t hC mount,1in rises on rhe
othcr"';U. ;\ frighrening experience indeed
for an Egypti;rn who was used to see the
sun in :,II irs cou rse. 111 gener:11 we may
say th.tr the sky is ti$ lt1rge lls the s/>aet:
from which it is se<m. Remembering that
a sp,,ce begins its "prescncing" from rhc
boundary, we understand how the
silhoue11e o( the surrounding ''walls"
becomes imporranr when the space is
narrow. Instead o( being o comprehen-
sive hemisphere withia ;-t line~,r horizon,
rhc sky is reduced to " background for
the contours of the surface relief. The
landscape c haracter thus becomes m:1n-
ifest as a silhouette against the sky,
sometimes gently undulating, sometimes
serrate and wi)d.ir..
The climatically determined appearance
of the sky acts as :\ coumerpoint to its
gener:il spacial properties. In the desert
al'eas of North Africa and the N,·,or
E,m, the cloudless blue sky gives cm•
phasis co the infinite extension of the
land, and we experience rhc landsc.a pc
as embodying an eternal order, centered
on ourselves . On the plains of Northern
Europe, instead, the sky is u.slwlly 11fow"
and "flm". E,•en on cloudless days its
colour is relatively pale, and the feeling
o.f being under an embracing dome is
usually absent. The horizontal direction
is therefore experienced as mere ex-
tension. Many variarions arc ~however
possible according ro the lornl surface
relief and the quality of the ligh1. In
areas which :1re not too disrnm from the
coast, the atmosphc.ric conditions are
continuously changing and l.ighr be•
comes a live and .s, rongly poeric cle-
ment. In a countrv like Holland, wh(•rc
the ground is fl,;, a nd subdivided in
small spaces, light remains :, local ;rnd
intimate vnluc. In Northern Fr:rnce,
instead, the landscape opens up a11d rht
exrcmkd sky becomes a comprehensive
ustagc" for the continuously changing
quality of ligh1. A " light-world" is
cxperic11ccd 1 which C\lidcntly inspired
the luminous w,1lls of the Go1hic c,11h-
edmls and rhc impressionistic paintings
of Monee·". In Southern Europe these
poetic qualities of light ;\re mostly
absem; the strong and warm sun " (ills
the sp:1ctu :md bring.s om rhe plastic
qualities of n:uur:11 forms and ''things".
As a consequence , l(;llian hmdscapc
painring has always conccntrnced it.s
anencion on the sculpturnl object, and
depicts an cnvironinent cQnsisting of
evenly illumin:ned discrete objects3s.
In general the earth is che ..stage' where
man's daily life takes place. To some
extent it may be conl'rollcd end shaped,
and a friendly relationship results. Na-
1ural landscape thus becomes c11/111ra/
landscape, rha r is, an cm•ironmenr
where man has found his meaningful
place within 1he totality. Tht sky,
instead, remains disr,un .and is dis-
04
tinguished b)' its orherncss". In srruc-
rur.-11 terms these basic faces are ex-
pressed by rhe horizo111al and the uor•
tic(l/. T he simple.st model of man's
existential sp;lce is therefore a horizonrnl
plane pierced by a vertical axis39 , On 1hc
pf..rnc man choses and creates centres,
paths and domains which make up the
conc.rcce space of his cvcr)1day world.
Our bric( excursion into rhc Structure of
narural place has implied thar ir pos-
sessi:.-s on severnl "lc,·cls''. t\ whole
counrry may be che object of concme
identification, in accordance "~th its
~)~lrticular strucrnre. lrnly is thus dis-
tinguished by its bei11g a peninsula wi1h
:1 c hain of mounrnius in the middle. On
borh sides of rhe central ridge, land-
scapes of ,1arious kinds a re forrricd:
plains, valleys, basins ;.tnd b,1ys, which,
because of the topography of the coun-
try, maintain a ccrrnin independence.
Within the landsc;ipes, sub-pl:ices offer
111:-111 the possibility of inrim;11e dwelling.
Among the sub-places we ;ilso find the
ard1ct)1 pal refreal where man may. stiU
experience the presenct· of rhc original
forces o( the earch. The ''Carceri" of St,
Francis outside Assisi or che S;_tcro Speco
of St. Bcnedic1 near Subiaco arc charac-
teristic cx:unpks. Jn the.sc places the
sainrs of the Middle Age~ experienced
rhc mystery of narnrc. which ru rhem
meant the presence of God·10 • Ueing a
peninsula divided by a raagc of moun-
tains, Sc;-tn<linavia is structurnlly similar
to lrnly. Bur rhe dimensions ;)re larger,
a11d the spa1i;1I properties of the regions
more vi1riecl, As a result, the peninsul:1
comprises two coururies with distin~1
characceristics, whereas ic would nor
make sense to split lraly longitudinally
in ·~halves". In southern Norwny we find
a primary ''hand-shaped'' sysiem of
\•~illcys wil'h the centre in Oslo_, which
therefore nets its a natural focus. \'ves•
tern Norway is subdivided by a series of,
p;-l ralld fjords b<·tween ,~,II mounc:.-tins 1
and therefore consi$rs of more separate,
albeir "similar" hu1dscap~s. Nof(hcm
Sweden possesses an analogous system
of long, parallel valleys, whcre:1s 1he
southern p;lrt of t he country r:uher ma)'
be called a cluster of domains defined by
lakes ,ind hills. The coast of bmh
countries is ,1ccompm1ied by a beh of
islands and skerries, wh.ich introduces a
"microscructure'' enrircly h1cking in ft.a•
ly.
40
 6 J. lw/y, nwp.

--
----
_--:-..;:-

=~~
;;,...;:.,::-
Qii',_
I
. i:~v .~
, ' • • 1/:v'~ ("

;;!~-
~~
. . . , ,_-, · -.~:: "'=-\17.,,.7 ~i"W\__
,_ (✓ (
=-";"-":°='"" !,¥-~
,:C'~ ~ "
~ ! ;· ,.. ,.......
~ ' ~
' / '- )

...
Structurally orienrntion and idcntific;,-
tion thus means t he experience:: of
natural place within natur~t1 place. The
different '"inside$" are "'known'' in ac•
cordancc with their scructural proper-
ties. In all countries in focc we find thnt
the n,m1ing of regions and landscapes
reflect the existancc of natural places
which h:1ve a mucturally dercrmi11ed
idencit}r-1 1 • The individu;,1I gc:nius loci is
therefore part of a hierarchical system ,.
and must be seen in this conrext to be
full y understood.
3. The spii"it of Nt1t11ml Place
Our discussion of the phenomena of
natural pl.1ce has uncovered several
basic types o( narural fact0rs, which in
general arc related ro rhe earth or the.
sky, o r express nn interaccion of che cwo
basic "elements~~. Our discussion has
furthermore implied that in some
regions the sky may appear the domin-
anr factor, whereas in others the earth
comribuccs the primary presence. Al-
rhough sonie kind of intcrnction be-
tween the: two element$ exists every•
where , there arc places where sk~· and
earth seem to ha"e realized a par-
ticularly happy " marri:1gc::". In rhese
ph,ces the environmenr becomes m:tnl•
fest as a harmonious whole of medium
scale which all,1ws for rela{ively easy
and complete identification . . Among the
krndscapes w here the sky dominates we
may distir,1guish l1etwecn those where the
·•cosmic o rder" is of primary importance
and chose w here t he changing atmos•
pheric conditions contribute decish•dy to
the environmental char:tcter, Where the
earth is do1nin::1nr. a dassificmion must
be based on the presence of a rchetypal
"'ch_ings" as well as v;uiarions in ,scale
(micro-macro).
Rom"aulic Laudsca/Je
Ir is natural to stare a discussion of
archetypal natural places with the kind
of landscape whel'e t he original forcl's e ncounter the nwthical inhabitants of
arc still mosr strongly felt: rhe Nordic this world: gnomCs, dwarfs and trol.ls"z.
forest, as it is known in certain parts of Still today Nordic man carries these
Cemr;il Europe and particularly In Scan- beings within his ps>1cbe, and when he
dirrnvia. The Nordic forest is distin- wanes co "'live'', he leaves the city to
guished by :111 i11termi11:1b le mulritude of experience the mystt·ries of the Nordic
different phenomena: l:indscape. In doing ,his he looks for,
The g ro u nd is rnrtly continuous, bm ir the genius loci, which he h;1s to llllder•
is subdivided and h as a v:1ried relief; st,rnd m gain :111 existential foothold. In
rocks and depre·s sions, groves :md .general we mar characterize l'hc Nordic
glades, b ushes and tufo• crc;ue :1 rich world ;1s it romantic world , in the
"microstructurc... sense char it brings m:111 back co a
The sky is lrnrdly experienced as ;i tornl distant "·p:1st'', which is experienced
hemisphere. bur is narrowed in between emotfonallv rather than understood l'lS
the contours of t recs ;rnd rocks, and is allegory o r.history.
morco vl'r continuously modified b)' Whar kind of dwelling is pnssiblc in
clouds . the Nordic landscape? We have already
The sun is relatively low and crl'ates a suggested that Nordic man has 10
vmicd play of spots of lighr a nd :a pproach nature with tm1p(t//1y, he h,,s "
shadow, with clouds and vegerntion to live with namre in an intimatt
;teeing as enriching "filters". \Xl:1tcr is sense. Direct participmion is thus more
ever presenc ;ls a dynamic clement, both important than abstraction o( elements
.tS running srrc;uns and quiet. reflecting and order~ This partlCip•ttion, howcw:r,
ponds. is not social. R,.u her it implies that the
The quality of th(• air is co,,srnmly individual finds his: own ''hiding-place"
changing, fro m moist fog tO rcfereshing in nature. ''M>' home is my castle") i~
ozone. in fact a Nordic saying. The process of
As a whole, the environment seems to e·m path}' :111d p,ucicipation obviousl)'
make a mutable :-,nd r:uher incom- takes place in different ways in dif-
prehensible world man ifcst. where sur- forcnt regions. In Denm.uk, where the
prises belong "' rhc order of the day. scall' is human and idyllic, dwelling
The general insrnbilicy is emphasized by means co settll' betwCl'n the. 1ow
the t(mtrast between the seasons and by mounds, under t he large trees, ¢m-
frequent changes of weather. In j,eneral braced by the changing sky. In Nor-
we may say th,u rhe N ordic landscape is way, instead , ir me:rns ro find a place
characterized by au iJuJe.finite multitude in ''wi]d'' naturl', between rocks :md
of different placl!s. Behind every hillock d,1rk , gloomy conifers. prefcra.b ly _next
mld rock there is a ne,v place, a nd only to a swifr stre;un o( wmcr"J. In both
exceptionally the landscape is unified to cases however, the " forces" of narure,
form a simple, u nivoc.1I space. In the arc present a nd m;1ke dwelling become
Nordic landscape ther.cforc, men en- am iuleracticm bctwel'n man and his
cou nters :, host of natural "forces'', en,•ironmenc. The essential property
whereas a general unifying o rder is which makes chese forces manifest, is
lacking. This becomes clearly manifesr microstructure. The Nordic landscape
in the liternture, arc and music of che is therefore domin:1ted bv the eartb. It
Nordic coumries1 where , natural im- is a chthonic landscape, {vhich docs no,
pressions ;11\d moods pby :1 primary with ease rise up co ;,1ppro:1ch che sk)•,
role. In legends and foiry-tales we and its char;1ccc1· is delermincd by ;tn
42
 ~z. Lnug f,;•1wt:,·11 1.1ml tmd(•r th,· tri:c'i>, D,:m,r,irk.
t,J, Romamic lm,d.,c:t1f11•. Noru:t·gimt /ort'SI.
6.J'. ..\rU•101tm r.111ri", Nom"-'J:itm fo,nt.

43
.~,.. "-:~:j, ,-
. .- ·, ...
--
 65, Cosmil' /,1ntlt,·,1p,:. O,rs,,,, w;1J, c:unels,
JanWu.
66. °'sis m t,,.,, ,t·o r-,
interacting muttiwdc of unintclhg.ible
demi I.
Cosmic L(lm/sc,1/J1!
In rhc des,:rt rhe cqmplexiries o( our
concrete life-world are reduced to :l few,
simple phenomena"'~ :
The infinite extension of rhl· monom-
nous barren ground; rhe
embracing vaulr of the doudlcss sky
(which is r.trcl>' experienced as a sector
'between rocks and trees); the burning
sun which gives a n almosr sh:idowless
light; the dry, w,1rm air, which tells us
how important bre,uhing is for the
experience of phlce.
As :, whole, the environment seems co
m~kc ;m absoluce and ercrn.ll ofder
manifest, a world which is disting.uished
hy p-crm.incncc and structure. Even the
dimension o[ time docs not introduce
;.tny ambiguities. The course of the sun
,hus describe~ an almost exact meridian ,
'and divides space inw '\,riem", ' 1oc-
ctdenr'', "midnight", and "midday'', th;u
is, qualilative domain s which in the
South arc commonl>' used ,1s: denot,uions
for the c:1rdin;1I poimS'1J . Sunset and
sunrise connect day an<I night withom
transitional effects of lighc , and creare a
simple temporal rhytbm . Even rhe an-
imals of the desen p;inicipate in the
infinite, monotonous environmental
rhrrhms:, as it becomes manifes.t in the
movements of the camel, ... rhe sh ip of
thedcserr".
The on)>, surprise one might encounter
jn 1he desert is the sand-storm, the
l,11bool, of the Arabs. llut , he sandscorm
is also monomnous. le docs noc re-
prnsent a d ifferent kind of order; it hides
the world, bur does not change ir.
In the desert, thus, the et1rth does nor
offer m,m a sufficient existential foo-
.thold. II does not co11tt1iu iudi11idm1/
plt1ces, bur forms a continuous ncutrnl
ground. The sky, instead, is srrucrurcd
~)' the sun (:md a lso by 1he moon and
45
the: stars} ;.r nd lts sllnp\c order ls not
obscured by atmospheric changes. In
che desert, therefore, m~111 docs nut
t~ncouncer the mulrifarfous "fo,·cc:s'' of
nature, bur experiences ils most absolute
cosmic properties. This is the cxisrenrial
situation behind the Arabic prOl'trb:
"The fun hcr you go inro the desert, ,he
i nune11se , closer )' OU come co God'', The belief
that there is only one God, monotheism,
h:ts· in fact come into being in the desert
countries 0£ the Near East. Both Juda-
ism and Christianity stem from the
desert, although t.heir doctrines have
become "humanized" by the more
friendly l:lrldscape of Palest ine. In Is-
lam, however, the dcs:err has found its
supreme expressi~n. For the Muslim rhe
concepcion of the one God is the only
dog1na, and five times a d:ay _he curns
towards ~1ecca to s:-1r: "la ilalus ill-
111/11/,", there is no God but Allah"'' · By
thus proclaiming rhe unity of God? the
Muslim confirms rhe uniry of h is world,
" world which has the genius loci of the
desert ;1s its natural model.. For the
desert-dweller the genius loci is a marii-
fc-sracion of ,he Ahsoluee"' 7 • Exisren-
li◄1ll)'. the desert ii in ;.1 very p;.lnicular
W<lY , und its being has co be known i\S
such to make dwelling possible. Islam
therefore confirms that rhc Arab has
become a friend of the desert. Ir is no
longer .understood .as "death .. , ~1s it was
by the ancienr Egypri,rns, but has
become a basis for lifo, This docs not
mean however, that the Arnb seufos in
rhe desert. For sctding he needs the
on:;is, that is, he needs: an imimme place
within the cosmic rnacroworld"s. In the
o;isis the slender trunks of the 1>alms
which rise from the flat expanse of the
ground seem to make che order of
horizontals and verticals which con-
stitute Arabic space manifos,. Within
this abscrncr. order no truly p last ic
objects ;ire possible, rhc ''play of light
and shadow" is extinguished, ;md every-
thing is reduced 10 smfocc and line. ln
,he oasis dwelling gets its full range,
comprising the totality r1s well as the
individual /oc:rliry.
Classic:lll Ltmd$t.tl{JC
Between the Sourh and the Nonh we
find the classical landsc,;1pe. le was
11
discovered" in Greece, ~md later it
bec,une one of the prim:lry components
of the Ro1n:rn e1wironment. The clas-
sical landscape is neither char'1cterizcd by
monotony nor by multiforiousncss. R:1•
thcr we 1ind an imelligible co111positio11
of disrinc, clemenrs: clearly defined hills
and mounrnins which :1re rarely covered
by che shaggy woods of the Nord,,
clear))' delimited, imageable nacurnJ
spaces such as valleys a nd basins, which
appear as individual "worlds~';' a strong
and evenly distributed light and a
transparent· air which gl\•c chc forms a
maximum of sculptural presence. T he
ground is: simult;:1neously continuous and
varied, ,md the sky is high and em-
bracing wit·hout however possessing the
absolm<: quality cncoumered in the
desert. A true microstruc:.rure is lacking,
a ll dimensions ;lre "human" and con-
sciture ;.1 total, hnrmonious equi1ibrit1m.
T he en"ironmem thus consisrs of p.llp-
:iblc "things" which stand ouc (ck-sisr) in
light. The classic landsc;lpC "receives"
light wichour losing its concrete pre•
scnce"9 •
Jn gcncr:ll the classical bndsc,1pe may be
described as ;J 111ca11i11,e ful ortler of
distinct, i11dividual plclces. Thus Ludwig
Curdus writes: .iThe single Greek land-
scape is naturally given as a dearly
delimited unit~ which ro che eye apptars
as an inrcgrnred rornlicy (geschlossem!s
Gebild,, ). The Greek sense for plastic
form and boundary, for , he w hole and
the p;irts, is found«!,, on the land-
SC.'tpe. .. "R1. \'\'e have already pointed ouc
that the Greeks personified 1hc various
c harnccers experienced in the landscape
67. Classlc,11 l:wdsc;1p1·. l,µg.:, ,U Allum() ,,Irr/,
Af 1) '1((' C(U:V,
68. \Vim: tcrraci:·s m C.·il,1brw.

as :tnthropomorphi~ gbcls> iritCrrc-1:tting

thus natural and human prop-crtit:s, In
rrnturc Greek man found himsdf., rather
than the absolurc God of the desert or
the rrolls of rhe Nordic forcsr. 111:\t
1neans rh:tt by knowing himself he. kn,ew
rhe world, and bcc.unc freed from rhe-
total abstraction as well .ts the-c1npa;1hy
discussed in connection with rhe cosmic
and .the rom:rnric hrndsc:ipes. The cJa:.:;.
sical l:rndsc~,pc therefore makes a hu,1u:u,
fellowship possible, where C\'ccy pact
consCr\'CS its ident ity wirhiil the romHty.
Herc the individual ncirhcr is a bsorb«!
by :,n abstr.act S)'Stem, nor h:,S t0 find
his priv:;1re hiding-ph,cc. A c-ruc "ga-
rhcring" rims becomes possiblc.1 which
fulfills the most b:isic ,,spcots of dwell-
ing.
How then do-c-s "classical man" dwell in
chc landscape? Uasic:allv we may .s:l)' thal
he pl.ices himscl/ in (ro111 of n;iturc .as
:rn equal "partner''. Me is wht're ht' ir1
and looks ar nature as a friendly
complcmcm m his own bci11g.. This
simple and smble relationship helps to
release hum:u1 vitnlity, whereas the
mumble Nordic world makes mlm
search securit)' in introvert he~wine-is.
\X1hen man places himself ''in front of•
nacure, he reduces landscape to a ve,/11-
ta, ;ind the cl;issical l:indsc:1pe is in• fo~t
hardly "used" in the Nordic .sense of
i.going into nature'' '. The union of man
:.m d narure is rather expressed through
rhc practical use of ._,griculturc, which
hccenl'UHtes the li.lndsd,pe structure as.an
"addition~' of relarivdy independent, in-
dividual places. T he genius lod of the
classical landscape is rhercfore firsr of nil
manifcsc where clearhr defined narur:i1
places "" emphasized ·by che lovi11g care
of man. As a well known example we
mt,y mention .the Valdarno, in ltaJ)',
where the cul~urnl l:mds'b1pc indeed
expresses chc c lassical '"reconciliatiOn'",
In general the reconcili::uion is 111;.rnifost
as a h~trmonious equilibrium of carch

46
 69, S.cnlemi:m ln tlu: ltwdstape. Sori'tmo ai'
Cimino.
70. Fumcl, •·c,mt/1:i,i:11t' .. m•,~r Amfo1Js.

,rnd sky. Plasrically r>rescnr, rhc carrh

rises up without drarrw, and blossoms iu
free.... which have their individual plas.ric
value. The golden lighr of rhc sky
answers gently~ and pl'ornises m;rn
•'brc~d .-nd wine'',

Cpnt{1lex fA ndScfl/)es
~he romantic, cosmic and d assical
l:mdscapl'.S ,m: archetypes of narurnl
place. lldng gencrared by cbe basic
rel:uionship:i bcrwcen c~1rc h and sk>' ,
dicr are relc~•ant c,uegoric.s which m:1y
help us to ''undcrStirnd" the genius loci
of ~\ny concr~tc situation. As types,
howe.vcr, they hardl}' appear in ' 1pure''
fom1, bur p,irricip.tce in v:1rious kinds of
·symheses. \X1e h~wc already mentioned
tlte ''fenile desert'' of the French cmn•
{U1g11e, where cosmic, rom~mtic and
_class-icaJ, properrics unif), ro form a
pl,lrcicuhlrly me:,ning(ul totality, a l.1nd-
scape which made Corhic architecture
possible. and hcncc ,1 particularly com•
_plett ia/<rprccarion of che Chrisrian
message. \'Ve mighr ::tlso mention a
place _like Naples, where classical spaces
and characters meet the romantic at-
1nospherc of the sea and the chrhoni.c
forces of the volcano, or Venice where
cosmic extension comes rogerher wirh
the evcrc.hanging, glincring surfocc of
tht l:,go·on. In Brandt·nburg, instead,
ex1c1ls-ion is squeezed in between a
·sand)' moor and a low, grey sky,
creating a landsc~pe which seems sawn-t-
eed by the monotonous, cheerless
rhythm of marching soldiers. In the
Alps, on the contrary, we find a
"wild-romantic'' character. which is
primarily dcrcrmined by l'he contr.as1·
between serrnre silhouettes and impenc-
trilble ravines. T he possibilitic.s arc
'Jg;ion and determine 3 corresponding
.multicude of ''existemial meanings".
T>he nocion rhac che landscape decer-
min~ fund~n,cnra1 e~i~tenrial .meanings
or contents, is confirmed by rhe facr
71. Naples, Jumo,m.11:i.
n. "f/,c CnJto'f of lht~ Vt•$1ttllO,
73. V,-nlt:1• u(..r<)$$ t/11~ l,rgoo,r,
74. N,m,,.-·g,i:•w Jmrrl.<t:flp,!.
75. A/pin,• lmuls,:11p<t.

rh:u mosr peo1>le feel "lost" when they

;trc moved t'o a "foreign" landscape. Ir is.
well known th,u people of rhe grcar
plains ca,, ily suffer from clausrrophobin
when the}' have ro live. in a hill)'
counrrv, ;,u'ld thar those who are used ro
be ·suri-oundcd by intimate spaces easily
become victims of agoraph()bi;1. In ;rn)'
c-asc., however, hmdscape fonctio,ls as a n
extended grottud ro the man-made:
pbces. Jr concains these pl:1ces, and as a
''preparation'' for them , it also contains
natura] 1' insides 1' . \V./c ll,we described
l'hes~ its ' 1mcaning(ul places" \vhich are
"known" hcc:msc they possess p:-tnicu1ar
srrucruntl pr.opertics. OwclJing in natun:
is there fore not a simple question. of
"refugc1' . Rather it means co undersr:rnd
(he gi\'cn cnvironmenr as a set of
11
insidcl", from rhe l'nacro do\,111 to the
micro leve1. In rhe l'01n:1ntic landscape
dwelling me:u1s r·o rise up from the
micro to the macro level; here rhc
immediately gi\'en are rhe forces o( rhc
earth, whereas God is hidden. In the
cosmic l.:tndsc-ape the procC'ss has the
o pposire direct.ion, an·d the enclosed
garden or "paradise" becomes che ul•
timarc goal. In the classical landscape ,
fin:1lly, man finds h imself ii, , he har-
monious "middle" :llld I\Ht\f n::1ch i.ouc" a$
,;s
well as '" in", Rilke told · whac it is a ll
abou r: ''Earth , is not this; wh~t you
want: invisibly co arise in us?".Sl _
 Ill 76. Umes Stai,•e clmrch, No,w-1y.
MAN-MADE PLACE 77, M,:g,1/itJ,;c slmttu,v:, S<!j!ni, /-'1~io.

I. The Phe11011u:11a of Ma11-made Place

To dwell · between heaven and earth
me;rns to .:settle"' in rhc ·' multifarious
in-between..,, rhac is, ro concreri1.e rhe
general simarion as a man-made place.
T he word Hserde" here d oes not mean a
mere ec<;momicul relatio nship; it is ra-
ther an existential concepc which de•
notes the ability to symbolize meanings,
\X1hcn the man .. m.-1de Cll\'ironmcnt is
meaningful, m.an is "at home''. The
pl:"es where we h:we g rm:vn up an.' .such
..homes11; we know cxaccly how it feels
ro walk on that p;uricular pavcmem. ro
be between chose p:11·1icut1r walls, or
under thar particuJar ctlling; we know
the cool. enclosure o f the Southern
ho usct an<l the conforting warmch of rhc
Nordic dwelling. In gener;1I , we k1,ow
~•realities'' which c;ury o ut e;,:·istencc. But
"scrtling" .goc~ bcYond such i.mmcdi.nc
grmificntions. f rom rhe beginning of
time man has recognized rhar ro crcnte a
place means co express che essence of
being. The m:.1n -m:u.Jc cnvironmenc
where he livts is nor a mere practical
rool or the result of ~1rbitr;H>' hap-
pcnings, it has structure . t1nd embodies
meanings. These me-anings and scruc-
rurcs ~ue rcflccrions of man 'S under-
standing of the ·natural c11\'ironrnenr and
his cxisccntial siru:trion in gcner~,lt , A
study of man-made pl:1ce therefor~
opght· ro· have a ,m111ral b:tsis: it should
rn kc the r(:hitionship' co· the n.,m rn)
(:nviro nmcnt a s its p o inr of dcparrure.
Architecmr:11 hisror)' shows chm· man's
primeval experience of everything a~ ~
'' Thou", ;1lso determined his rclatiomiliip
to buildings ,md :ntifocts. Like nattl ral
clcment.'it they were im bued wi1h li fe,
they h:td maun, o ,· nMgic,ll powe r.
Demonic povilers in fact :,re:- conquered
b.).' giving ·them a "(h vclling'·. In !his way
they arc fixed to a place :md may be
influenced by nrnn 1 . T he architccrur<: of
e;:rrly civiliz~Hions may therefore b<-: inter-
preted as .:1 concr<:tiz-a tion o f the under-

5.0
 78. S1,:1) pyramid III Saqqflm.
79. Ct.we tltf1.:llin>! ,,c Pl'lm.

smnding of nature, des.c rib~d ~bo.,~e in

ttrnls of rhingS, orcler, drn'n:i,cter, lighr
and rime. t he 1,rocesses inyolvcd ln
''tr,,nslmiog~' these mean!ngs into tnao-
macle forins h:lYc already bcei\ defined
as . •'visualizarltm,., '1cOmp1cmenratiQ.nt;1,
and "s)•rrilmli1.~1tio11·1 , whereas '·garher-
ing" :5erves the somcwhm di(forellt pur-
PQS¢ Of inul,:ing the rmln-madc place,
b:ccomc. <! 1itic.rqcpsmo§. l.n gcn~'f al ,\r(:
may say d1at m;ui '.•builds" his world.
T he firs, mode of building consists in
concrctizin; che m1cural forces. In the
•1•ly his1·1,ry of Wc.ccr11 nrt nnd archi-
rcC1rur.c we cncoumer two b:tsic w,1.vs- 1
of doing. Lhis. Either the: forC:cs :1rc
"ditcctl.y" expressed hy means or Jines,
a,nd ornament, Qr d,c)' ::ire cc)1~~rerizcd as
mm1-madc things, wMch tCprescnr- the.
nnrurnl rhings mentioned above. \~here•
;as the first w"y was employed by t he
"~.ordic'' peoples, the secor'l cl ,va~ de-
vdop.1',d by the Mcilit<:rrnncan civiliz,1-
tioqsl. \'Vic shall here. c;onccntratc our
1tttenrion on rhc '"Mcdirerranean" mode.
E~1rly M~dircn1a ne.an archite<:tul'e is- firsc
c)f 11II distinguished by the use of large
slo11iJs. lt is :l megr1/U/iiC ':lrcbitcctu_re
\\1hl'rc the inatMial ·symbolizes the solid-

ity :ind pcrqrnnencc. found in mountains

a.nd roc~s. l?ermanence was understood
;ls :1 primar)' cxist~ntirtl ne~d, and wa~
r~latco ro '"·'"'·s abilit)' of p·rocrcation.
The erect Stc>nc., menhir, w:ts simul•
mneo1.1sly a ''builL.. rock ;.t nd a phallic
symbol, and the massive, cydopic wall
<'tnbodicp the same forces' . T hrough n
ptoccss of aDs~a<..-rion, rhc clemenrar}'
forces were rr:m:lormed inm a system o(
ver.1;lc.1ls ~tod ho rizontals ("active'' and
•.1 1>:1~sh1e'' cl~mcnts}i ;1 dcvclopm~nt
which cuJminated in the 01thogonal
~<;tructutcs of Egyptian :trchicecture.
,Qr.her: narurnl meanings ,,,ere ;1Jso rela-
rcd cb this sysrcm. The Eg)'pti:rn Jl)'·
r:tmids arc 1'artifici:1l ltlOOnmins" which
w.c:rc built to make th_c pr~pcrrics of a
real mounra'in manifest; suah as :.m

t SI

inferred ven ical axis w h ich connects
c;trrh ;wd sky and "·receives'' the_ slip.
Thus tho pyrnmid unifies the primordial
mountain of Egyptian mythology with
the radiant sun-god R::1, and represents
the king as his son . At rhe same rime the
pyramids through their location becween
oasis and desert (life and dearl,), visual-
ize. ~he spnrial structure of the cou ntry; a
longirudi113l fertile va..llcy between _in-
fini te exp,tnst$ of barre n lands. ·Herc
buildings are used ro define n significant
boundary ("edge"). fin:illy we may
mcnrion rhar Egypri,1ns ' 1 buil r'' , he sky,
decoraring ceiJings of rombs, temples
::1nc.J houses wich sr~t1'S on a b lue ground .
By me:ms of v•isuali2ation and svm-
boliz.ation rhe ,111cic:nt Egyprians c·lms
concreri1,ed their kno,vn world .
\Ve gave ~tlrcady menrioned the cal!e as
another ,uchcrypal natural clemcnr. In
mcgalithic architecture arrifici:•tl caves,
do lmen, were built to viso:,lizc this
asp~ct of the earth. ·Being simultaneously
ime.rior spacc-s and fe1nininc symbols,
chc arti ficial c,wes \\•ere undersrood as
representations 6( the world :is :,
whQle6 , an intefprct~rion which was
complcrcd b)' the .introduction of vertical
..m;1sculim:" clcmentS, such as a pillar,
or an ortbogonal system of vertical a.nd
horizontal members. The ··m~trriage of
heaven ,rnd cnrrh'' which was the po.int
of departure for ancicoc cosmogonies
was thus conC:rec ized iri built fo rm.
Typical examples ate furnished by the
nwg~tlirhic rcmplcs of M ,1Jca, whcr"e the
apses comained .t m cnhir :.tncl the
boundaric.,; arc orrhogo11ally :uticu(-;ned.
In :rncicnr arch icecturc we also e_n-
counter orher rcpl'CScntations of nnrural
clements. T he Ionic remple \\lith its
numerous columns has rhus been de•
scribed as a '"sacred grove" 1 and che
expression "foreitt of columns" is ofccn
used to designate the hypo~r>•lec h,11ls of
earl)' ci,·ilizations. In rhc Egyptian ccm•
pies the columns are in foct derived
frorn pl;uu· forms~ such :ts palm, papyrus
and lotus. T he Eg)'l>tfan fo rest of
columns represented "the land and the
sncrecl pl.uus which rose ouc o( the
Jertilized soil to bring prorection, per-
manence and susccn:tncc ro the land ,rnd
its pc9plt" 7• ln general man~s u nde r-
.standing o( d,e fertile: soil is visu:11iz.cd
through ag,-icuft.u re. In 1·hc cultural
landsc:ape the: n:trurnl forces art "domes~
lic.·ucd" and living realicy is made
manifc:st as :;1n ordered process where
man p~1nicipMCS. T he garde11 is hence a
place where living narure is concrcrizcd
as ,u1 organic tocaliry. M~111·s inrngc of
P:tra dise was i11 foct always an enclosed
garden. In the g~Hden rhe knowu <:lc-
mems of narure arc g:nhcred: fruit trees,
fl owe I'S :rnd i"•ramcd" warer, ln Medhte•
v;d painting it is depicted :ts a horJ.uJ
conc/usus wirh the T rec of Life" and a
11
fou ncain in the middle. surrounded by :1
"wilderness" of mountains ;md foresrs11 •
Evert w.ucr may rhus be ''builr", rhac is,
given precise definiti~n as p;trr o( a
culturnl ln ndsc~lp(.•_, or visu:t li7.ed in a
fountain. In the c ultural landscape mom
"builds" the carrh_, :md makes its poren•
ri;•1l structure m:.tnifesr :,s a meaningful
totality. A culrural landscape is b,1scd on
"culrivacion:-, and contains deGntd pla·
ces, 1>aths and clc;>111ains which concrttizc
Jl1an's undcrsrnnding. of the n:uural
euvironnicnr.
Orthogonal space, tcavc-l ike interior and
cultur'al landscape suggesr gcnernl <:om-
prehensiv<: orders, which to some c.xcenr
s·a.risfy man•s ·need for un~krsrnndin$
narure ;ts a sr(ucn1r~d whole. compl'ising.
all c11vironme1ual levels from the artifact
to the region. T he quest for order,
however, above all become$ manifesr
through the ''building" of one of chc
cosmic ordr:rs· ntcntioncd in connection
wirh n;ttur:-11 pince. \'Ve undersrnnd im•
mecfiarely that the orthogonal sp:1cc of
rhe Egypl'ians comprised this aspecr,
uni(ying the.•. east•wcsr course of rhe sun
SO. •re.mp.'.r of A111e1t()J,/m Ill. l 10:or.
81. Vollq.1t>.mpl,; v/ Ch.:,,lmm, El Cm:h,
:rnd che sourh-norch direcrioa of the
Ni le. Moreover the Egyptians over and
over again ,eproducccl rheir general
image of he:w<:n a nd carch iil the floors,
walls and ceilings of rheir temples. \"Ile
have also reason to believe t~ar th~
imagim:d four posts on which ,he sky
rests, are a derivation from :.ln ar-
chetypal building \vifl; ,., flat ceiling and
·a column at each corner. The! uncler•
srnnding of che natu ral C!1vi'ron111cnt
therefore does not ncccss:1rily precede
building. The vvry act of buildin@may
become ~t means ro chis understandiil~,
and l'he house may :.tct :l$ a ''model" for
the cosmic irn;lgc, at b :st i( :t structuraJ
simibriry is prcsC:.nt. \Yle 1hus realize the
fundamental imporcance of .architectur_c
as .t means ro give man an cxisrcn1fal
foothold . The Nordic image of the
cos,nos :•ts a house where: the heavemly
axis forms the ridge.-be.anr and the
Jrmiusul che northern of the t~vo posts
on which it res,s. is :1ls.o a projection of
che structure o( a simple :tf.chctypal
house inro rhe cosmic. ~phere'} . And chc
Mcdirerr~lllcaa image o( :1 ''cosmic
cave", in obviously derived from nmural
caves as well as arcifid:11 cavc.-s such as
the: Rom:rn i\1mhcon1U. Jn chis case, we
find a tecipr.ocal refa.donship between
rhe n:ttui:aJ and rhc ril:in-nrndc phtce.
T.he Romans possessed bqrl, rhe cavc-
i n1;1g<: and the house-image, representing
~tg::1in a 111eeting of Nledirerr~U)Can, and
Nordic clements. Jn rhc Partthl'on rwo
crossing axes are inregr:trcd in rile
cave-l ike roruncla, expressing rhus th:tt
the world is borh o riented and 11 r.o-
undr'1 1~ Oi1 che urban level t he Rom:ms
visualized the cosmic O(dcr bv means p (
('\\ro main Srrrecs-cc6sSi~g each orher a a~
r"ight angle; rhe c~(1r,lo ru1111Tnf l1onh-
south arid the decummws east-west. l
TKis ·scheme has been known Dy m,rny
civilb:.;:nions and was stil..l alive in 1~t:
M iddlc Ages". The word ·"quarter" in
I
conn<:ction ,Virh citic..-s srems from this
52
division in fou• parts by the crossing
axes . ln the Middle Ages whole coun-
tries like "I re);tnd and Iceland were divided
in four ·parts. A Medieval world n1ap
fr()m_ the 121"' or lJ1h cencur.y. shows
four symmetrically disposed conriocnrs,
separated b)' seas .and surro,mded by a
''mare magt1um"1.1. \V/e may also re-
min d in this cbunedion thar the Ch-
ristian. Qasilica.-wit.Q ti:m~ept is organized
~round a ...crossing". ~
Whereas a cosmic qrder is visualfzed-b:'.r
means- of spn_cial organizal/011, chir..1cter~
are symboli,,cd through form,11 artic1tl-
dtio11. (;:haraet,crs art more intangible
than natural "tKings" and spatial rela1
tionships, :tnd dernand particular at-\
1emion fro m the builder. In f~i:r th.ei~_\
c-Q_J1ere_tiza~ion p,1,su·pp·oses a. lnuguage of
symbolic forms (~tylc). --Such ·a language
consists or baSic elem~ncs whicl, may be
varied an_d combined ·in differenr ways.
ln ocher woc:ds it depends on systemacic
formal nrricul:uion . The decisive step in
the developme11r of a cohcrcnc formal
language was taken by the Greek$. We
have already poi11ted our thar the Greek
achievement consistc:<l in a precise de•
6nition o ( different kinds of narural
places, which were related to basic
human chartlCters. This definition rllcant
something more than the meaningful
dedication of a particular place to a
parricular god, although this mii;ht have
been the first· srep 14 • Primarily it con-
sisrcd in the building of symbolic srrnc-
tures, temples, which_gave the intended
ch,,racrer presence. The single temple
may be understood as an individual
member 0£ a '1mnil>,'', j,1st as the .gods
fo rmed a iamily- which symbolized the
v;uious roles and inrcrnctions of man on
earth, The indi.vidual differences within
the family were firsr of ;,II expressed by
the so called dassical Orders, bur also
by variations within the Orders .;1s well
as combin:~cions of traits from two or
more Orders. Our cheoredcal knowledge
82. Furwn of Ct·mm. j{mlari, wirh cartlo am/ b'4. "O/lt'Ttl 11; 1w11m1" am/ "o/1t:m 1/i ,wmo...
d,•ctmli111:t$ ifl 1h1• bt1CkKmu1t(I, R11pl1iu:I: f'1llr1 ~io V;do,,i, RQ,1w.
8 ,1. Seto11d Hi•r:1 tt·mpfo, f'a.-stum.

of the Orders goes back ro rhc· Roman

:1rchit<:cr 'Vitruvius. Virruvi,1s mainrain$
that temples oughr w be built in :.1
diffe,·enr style according to their ded-
ication, and proceeds by explaining the
rOW_~Ts' fll ccrfi_fs.....o f . hmmm e::hrtr:.1ctei'~
\ The Doric column "furnishes the pro•
portion of a man's body, its- StTCH}gtH
litnd bcaury", T he Ionic is characcer.iie~
.by ''feminine slenderness'', where:ls thi
Corinrhian "imirares the slight figule qf
a maidcn"u , The articulation of G,c~k
arclurec~urc therefore~ c:111110.t be und:f
stood m mere!)• visual or aesthetic
t('I mS. Articulation 1ne,ult ma,kirig pr\-
cisc a 1>articubr character, and th~
t d~aracrer, simple or comple_
~•1_1.!!~<L£l'ITY part of the building, In
Renaissance a.rctUc"ehure ·arricuJTcfID1
J
x ,. deter;\.

.....\\,as l)a.,;;f dO n rhe ''Virruvi.u-'I'' traaition. -

Scrlio calls rhe orders opera di ·11m110,
and implies that rher tcprcsent diffcrenc
modes of human existence, while rt(~r•
icaticm was opera di 11atum, th~u i.s, a
s)'mbol of the original forces of ,M
e:1rth. As late as the eighteenth century
the classical Orders formed the basis for
an exceprional1y se,isitivc tre.ttmCQ1' of
.• S:S,mboJic e:h:1r.:1cter'iZatiou!!•.
/ A.rchitecrural liistory; however;- 'iilso
knows other cohercnr symbolic la~-
guagcs, Jn M_ediaeval European ar'chite~ \
rure, ;1 S}'Stem;uic ~1pproach to architc~
tural form served the pur~osc of SYJll•
bolizing the: ordered Chriscian cosmosl.!i.
As the Christian world is founded on
rhe s/}irit ,1s ,rn existcnti;tl rcali~·-. .
.Mediaeval articulation aimed ar ''dct'na•, \
t.erializ.acion'', and negated che anchro•
pomocphic classical .Orders. Demarer-
ializaiion wa~ undcrstoQd as a functfOn
of light, as a divine innnifcstation. We
ma)' therefore s;iy that Mediaeval man
"built" light, the most inrangible of
ai.ucal phe□omena . Since then light h~s
~ ,ctn ··a prim;u}1 means Of architectural
clt 1i:accedtatio.n::
.~--- -,,:;,,
r addition to " forccs11, order , characrcr
 8S. Buitdillg ligl,t. Cop1,,·U,, l';,lafotn, Palerm<,,,
86. Buildir:g Ught. Amir.,is Qr1h,·,ltttl,

and lighc, the cmegoric.s of natural

understanding also comprise time, wJ,ich
is a basic:,lly different dimension . l'ime
is noc a phenomenon, bur the or:d.cr o~
phcriomenal successioa ::and change.
Buildings and sculCmencs, howe,1er, are
static, aparr from cercain mobile elc·
mcnts o( secondar)' imporrnnce. Non.ctl1e•
less man has succeeded in "buildin@'
time, by cr::msbting basi'c u:mporal
strnct11res into sp:ui:11 properrics1i ,
Primarily life is ''movement'\ and -:fs
sucli -ir posses·scs - Hdfrictloft~ .ind.._,
( "rhythm". The path is thercfo_rc n
fundamenrnl cxistenria1 symbol whicll
c'oncrctizcs the dimcnsion--Ofttrnc. Some'-'
cl;nes chc -p,uhleads'to a ,.neaniog("!_~

! go{1l, where the movement 1s ;trrestOO

and time becomes permanence. Anothei
J:>ask SfITiool ,Vti"i'ch- co·tlcretiz'es 1he-rehf.
po,,11 dimension is therefore the ce,1trl!!;,
'The archetypal buildings which visualize\
the concept of centre are the Mal and
rhe cncl6surc, which ofren appe-.ar in1
~combination.. The Mal used by ancienc
civilizations was usuall)• ur1dersrood-'as
an axis 1111,1,di, At the acropofis, M?il
(hill) and ~nclosure (phueau) .tre unifie.d.
In ancient architcctu.re we ·also usually
find :'l via stICra which )cads co t~e
centre, ~nd which is used for ritual
re•cnacting of "cosmic.. event~. ln the
Christian 1,osilica, path (nave) and goal
(,1lrnr) are united ro symbolize the ''l'ath
of Salv:uion'► of Christian doctrine. The
basic phenomena o( the urban e,wi-ron-
menr, the street and the ·square, ~ISO
belong to ,be categories of pach ,ana
centre.
The man-made place visualizes., qm1•
plemcnts and symbolizes mari,s under•
standing of his environment. In "1ddition
it may also ·gather a number of mean-
ings. Any cnic settlement is founded o~
gathering, and ,he basic forms are ,he
farm, the agr\culmr,1l vil1age0\ the ur-
ban dwelling, nod the town or city. /\II
these places arc essentially man•1nade or

56
i
-~- Ci ~ .- ~,

c::- =esp'~--
 90. Url,a11 ga1hcri11g. Prlt111c, ..\sir1 A1i11ur,
9 1. E1td0$11rc. Monte.ri,rilom, Tomm.:,.

"M1i(ici;-1I'\ bur rhey fal1 imo t~vo dis- instc-ad , ir is more comprehensive. The rather than posith1~ly present. z.\ n "en~
tinct categories . The first cwo are gcuius loci of ~1 town, rhus. ought ro closure" may even be created b)' a 1nerc
directly rdated to the land , th:n is, they comprise rhe spirit of the localit>' co get change in the texture of the ground.
form p:lrc o( a parlicular cnvironm<:nt, 11roots", bur it should also gat"ht~r con- T he cultural importanc_e of tlerinin~
:111d their srrucn1rc is clcrermintd b)' this t(•nts of general intt\rcst, contents which area which IS QW!hiauvdv aiffercnt froi
envico11menc In the urban dwelling :md have their roocs elsewhere., and which r}\e su.rro..unfling~ cannoti. c.. Q.vCrc~-
thc mwn :1s :1 whok , instead, rhe dirccr have been mo,·ed b}r means of sym- timatcd . The temenos is the :lrchetypal
relation--to -thc- natural c:nviro111ncnt is boliz~nion. Somt~ of these contents form of meaningful space, and con~
,veaken""C"d-ofiili11QSJ lo..s~., ;1l,'d gfilllcrii1g (meanings) arc so general that they stitures the point of dcp:irturc for
bccc5foes- :1 bringing ,ogc,her of forms apply mall places. human settlement. In Jap:tn , as h,IS' been
,vliiCh'";h.wc. . thciL' · roors in orher lo~ shown by Climer Nits:c;hkc_, basic eul-
calrties . This is tht· essential propert)' of 2. Tl,e Structure of Mau-m(Jc/e Plact! mr.al phenomena of various kinds were
life urban senlcmcnt. T he main his- T hl' term "m:m-madt'. place" dcnocc:~ ;t derived from the process of land de-
roricat d ries arc rherdorc hardly fo un{I SL'rics of cLwironmcnt,11 levels, from markation20 . The l:mdmarks rhemseh•CS
in places where a p;trriCul:u namrnl vill;lgcs and towns down m ~ousc_s and were bundles of grass Or reeds whicli
ch:1ractcr is rC\'l'aled (such ;1s Delphi Or,'" their intetiors . .!IJ .these " places.. !!$.!!! .were bou11d cogerher, in the middle m
Olympia), but somewhere l,e1t,1,te11 these their .. prcscncin&::,_ (bch.u;) from tliC..."'Yform :1 fon-like artifocr which visu:llizes
places. There!,y rhey become com;__ llimncldries:-WC h;1vc already poinie_4,-, a separation of earth and heaven (~o~-
prchcnsive ccn1 res for :l world which -"out thaf" fhc ~prcscncing • rhercb( "de.- ro1n and top). A chc1;c-<limensional
comprises .1 multitude or 1nea11ings. By fined, in principle implies p;trricul:lr "cosrnos" was rhus defined within the
moving the natural forces into the relationships ro the ground and to the given chaos. Nitschke furthennore
serdemenr, rhe forces were "clomcstica· sky. J\ gt•1H:ra.J introduc:tion to the po~s out-:-cl~tlif - vecy;: Ji:a_~d for
t~d'\ and rhc city became :-1 focr "which srrucutrt of m:.m-madt places thcrdorc .~ l~ .d). land t shimn , was Oiri~
helped to liberate man from rite terror has to invcsrigace chese rclacionships ~rom 'tile na'in~ the land Q.CS.llP•lli.91!...
of chc natural world wilh its dark with regatd to ,he different envil'on- n~k:; -~shimc-,- and--renifnds us.- Of a
powe(s and limiting laws'' 20. In ,1 town rncnml levels. How docs a building p~1rancl C onnect·iOJl Ot words in' ine.
~uch as Priene, the lll}lin gods art stand and rist:? (Evidently .srnnding" German Alarke. (mark, sign) and Mflrk
11 1

brought rogc,hcr and loc;ucd, :-lccording here comprises lareral cxrension and (land, e.g. D~nmark)LJ. ~'c. tna)' adcl
to rhdr particular nature, wi,hin chc conrncr with 1hc SUl'l'Ouncling,s by means rhat several t:-Jordic ttnns for ;111 en-
urban ~1rea. transforming thus the wwn oE openings). How is a scttl~!!£_nt closed '"i nside", lowu, tun {norw.t t)'n
inro a meaningful microcosmos. Bur also rclatccl to ics cnvironmcnt,... an.d hv.1v,__is (czcch) :tr<: derived fr0111 Zmm, rha,r is,,
the otl1er buil~ir1gs, public as well as i'fitsil~ j ' Qtie-;fnnS of chis kind puc ''fence\ vtdlis t ·'v;1lley'\ goes roge1-her
private, arc ;lrcicularcd by means of the rhe m:-.ucr of su·ucrure in concl'erc wirh uni/um, . "wall'', 1tpalisade', an.d
classic.;1) Orders. and arc rhus l'ehttcd to rcrms, anti give the phenomenology of vt,llusJ "polc"2•1 • Indeed the enclosure
the same system of meanings!' , It goes archit_ ccturc a realistic b:1s:is. began its pr('.SCncing from rhe-boundar-y.
wirhour s11ying dwr the gathering func- '[!,c distinctive guality.QW!.!!l'.-!11,!!J.:ID'ld_c;.. The "how'' qf the enclosure depend~s
!ion of the cown deu.•rmines -a ~~""!pk~ e,lacc 1s em:los~tre~ it11d its ch;uacrer and upon r~e conc.rcrc prop~rtics of ~he
mtcrnal strucrnrc, Ml urb;w 11)s1de• . spaonl properncs are determined by how boundaries. The boundaries dctCrtl)me
1
The s~mc holds true for the house. ir is enclosed. Enclosure, thus, may be the dcgce~ dosure ( '.otwJllcss:>-.a~
which Albeni c::llled a "small cit),~~. rnore or less complut~, opl·~tings and we.II as . ,thc spatii l direction , which are
Throt~gh building, lll(tn• m:-tdc- pJnces are imp.lied directions may b<± prcsc.nt~ .-ind ri\,o as.pe~tr<;>fl:lie same er~n..9.m-c~1.
created which possess their individual die ettp':lciry of- the piY u:~ varies ~c.- '\V~ opening 1Slnrroclucdl JO ii
g,mius locf. This genius is determined by19?.rdingly. Enclosure prinMtily means 2:1 c,enrralized enclosul'c, an axis is created
wh:-n is visualized, cornpleml·ntcd, sym- dlstinc(:1r.$l]'ilticnis separ~neO from t~e .<vhich implies longitudi11al mo\'eine)lt:.
bolized or g~uhered. In vernacular ;lr- surrounding_s b)!_fil_dms OfTBUik bouna:. 1 \~e find such ~l combination en;
chitccture the m:1n-m:1de genius loci ~ Tt~r ~ o.'O.Cuia'iiifc;s'r irl less str:1.ct dosut_~ :;t!}.U IJgltL! u1a l t)!. alrc.ad)' at
ought to correspond dos·cly to rhat of fonn ·as ,~1 dcnsC clusl'er of clemen~, Stonehenge. where che .. .almr" is m(wctl
rhe -naruraJ place. in urban ;1rchi,ecrnrc, where a conrinuous boundary is inferred away from rhe g_eomerrical ccmre in

58
 relaci9f1 to the processional path which
e.llt(;!~rhs ~;!_J ronLthc-north., casr!Jq
-h·e-/sp,mal srruccures dc,•clu11cd duri i1g'
the isrorv of archi1;.t(:tucc -are ah'-!.;\)'..S. in•.,,
OJJ! wax oc...the _othct-hased__ou... eel)-,'
wtlizmion ;mdjQOgicudiu:tlit):,.;nJ.cLt]ltjJ; I
combinations.... The genecaL_~igJ,1ific.a~e".,,,1
() the-conce(>ls 0( 1ccnrre---and pa-r~- is./
thus confirmed, l>ur the p:uricular W:l)'S
of using these themes are to a high
6xtCJll' loc.all)' dercrrnincd. Centralization
and longitudinality are. often C:-mphasizcd
by the upper boundary of the space, for
inscance by a hemispherical J!fW.HL or :1
barrel 11du//, The ceiling miiv i·hus
del'e·rrnine~ fif'<l- visuali1,e "he lmc:rnal
SJ)fltiaJ structure . fn gcn·eral the presence
of a ceiling defines 1he pnrticular kind of
cndosures ~nown as •'inrt.cior sp;•Jce".
When· there is no ceiling, rhe sky acrs ,1s
the upper bound:iry, and the sp:tce is", in
spite of lareral boundaries,. parr of
II ,,,,__
__.;..extcnor "'
~pace . n.n enc Ioscd space.
:ti - A~

r whiclr is lit fro111 abo"c d1crefote offers l

1.(1 strange expcricnCe of being inside an
ouLSidc at chc_s11me rime._
T he •mii11_ 1tdrnrt.._slcmcu·~ , s; -:,c:
,,:<;._- ::cen
-:::_J'.Les.
mc,l__g;ath~ A squ;ue obvlously funcrions
as a cencrc .-rnd :\ street as a pach. As
such rhc}' arc enclosures; rheir spatia l
idenritr in fact depends upon the prcsen-
&Jcc of rclarivc-ly continuous lateral boun-
ie:..,- d,1rics. In addirion to centre and pfith,
~ we: have introduced t he wcfrd do111i!i!LW
denote " bnsic t)'.PE of enclosu.r.£, An
urb::rn 01stric.t is such a dom~1in ~ · :incf'"
~ 'w'e"fiilclth~1.~....~·lic_ ,Presenc~
6ounclary 1s of <lec1s1vt 1mp_2rr:mc~, A
dlSfricr,'~.thUS,iscitHer Qc(fo-Cdl,y con-
spicuous edges of some klnd, or at le:isr
by a ,change in urben texture which
implies a boundary~ In cdmbfnarion,
cencrcs, p.aths and domains may form
complex totalicies which serve miin's
need for oriemation. Of particular inter-
est .ire th~ cases wh.e n :1 centre generates
a ,domain , or ••field" , to use the wo rd of
Paolo Pottoghcsi26 • T his happens for
 92, V,mlt. S. Caw/1/(t, P,,/,:mw.
91. l'ia~. ii Campo, Sf1•m1.
94, Strt'ct. S. Ci'mi,i;1t:r,m. Toit:111,1,
?S. Dinrrct. Plst1cd, Jl,·1$llie..f1 t;1 ,

instance when :l circuh\r piazw is

surrounded by a concent ric sysce m of
screcrs. The properties 0£ a "field" are
hence determined by the cencre, or by a
regular repcririon of s1ruccural propcr-
cies. \'v'hen several fields internet, rt
complex spatial Struccurc results, of
v~u ying dcnsiry, tension nnd dyna.m-
ism?7.
Centre, path and domain arc general
mtd abstracts concepts, which rra nslate
the Gesrnlr principles imo ,u·chitcctur:1J
terms. !vlore concrete :lrc certain ar-
cl1er)1pal configuratio ns which arc ge•
nerared by l'11esc principles, or rarhcr:
w hich may be classified as ccnrrcs, p;nhs
or dom~ins. In architecmral histOr)' ,
rhus, we enco um<:r cent ralized fonns

I
such as thc..,,w.t11uda - and the reg_uhtr
polygons, whic h gencrncc~ 1rec•dimcn-
ston·a1 ,,otumcs . Le Corbusie1· srHI con-
sidered rhc sphe re, the cube, the p )r-
ramid and the cylinder 1h(" ckmcnrs of
.uchircctural for1nU· . The basic longi•
tudin;t-1 forms stem frorn an o rganization
o f space a round ;1 curved or straight
line, and ;trc eq1t:1 l1y impon:mt in
buildings and wwnf. As built domains
we m;1y I fina lly, consider all kinds of
clusrl'rs ~u1e.l groups of sp:tccs o r build-
ings. \X1h1..·rcas chc clusl"cr il\ h~1scd on
simpl<- proximiry of the c:lc1m:nts, :md
shows r<:lmivcl)' indeccrminarc sp:11i;1I
rel.alionships, the word "group" is most•
Ir used to denote :1 regular, possibl)'
g,·omctrical, cwo• or 1hrcc-dimcnsional
spacial org;rniz;nion. T he imponance of
the a1·cherypal <:onfigurntions is con-
firml.'d by t he focr rh;u towns .:me.I
1•illagts in :1ny p:1rr of the world tithtr
hcdong C( > the centralized, the long i•
tudin~11 o r the clustered type.·. (n Ccrm;in
rhc types arc known .1s Rwrdling,
Rllihl!l1dorf and l·liwfeudorf'. Two
spatial p,nrcrns o f p;1tt icula r intt'rtst a rc
the grid a nd the fob,•ri11tb . T he grid is
:in "open", orthogo11;1) infrnsrrucrurc of
paths, which may be rilled in with

61
62
 97. t 111t• :1 r villux•·· C.1/ir,,ml.1, l..1~11,,
98. C/1uta 11ill.tgl' wi't/1 lal,yr:mhm1.• sJMc1•s.
Ositmi, f'ug/:.1. ·

buildings in diffrrcm w :l )' S111• The l.1by-

rinr.h inSt(•ad . is ch:1r:u:rcci1,cd bv a h1ck
Qf srraigln and cuminuuus pathS. :md ;1
high densil)'. Ir is rhe rrndilional Arnbic
:\Stt(J!JllerlLllattcrn 3J.
;rj(e rbaracter of a man -made ,b.cc is co
a i"1 h ex,em decerminc its c-grce:uf__
~cnncii..7 1c so 1 1tv or r.nmsP-arcncy
O Che boundaric.s make rhc space 'appS:!(_:1
~ d or as p;ur -~.:.Ll!tQfC- com-=·
prchcnsive cmalirt , \Y/e _hc1:e rct·ui·n to
the ~ ~urs,dc relafionship which
cons1irures tl1c very l'SSC:ncc of archiccc-
ture. t\ place may thus he an isolarecl
refuge, whose mc:ming is due to the
presence of symbolic elemc·nts 1 it may
CQmmm1icatc wil'h nn '~understood" con-
c:rccc cm•ironm!;!]J,JlLb~_rcl:.u.ed m ,m
id91l>- imaginccl world. The l»sr c"se is
f6und in rhc "double-shell" spaces' of'
!ac~ Baroque, architecture_, where_ the
( rns-1d~ proper 1!\ embedded m a lummous/
zone which symbolizes rhe omnipresence
"o~h1inc Light32 • Zones.-of rral\Si.t.l.QJl
~ may :ilso- be· use,i-to relate the internal
~ scrUcturc of Uieolacc1o the structure of
"-.l t~ natura or man-ma c cnvaronmcnt.
~c may m tli,s contexr again rerninclof
J Ofl1 rs ac rhe meeting of interio
11
Robert Vemuri, who says: Archi,tecture
J.11-
exterior forces o usc_ a,ncl__.~R,acc"3J .
ffidcni1yttiis meeting ls expressed in
the wall, and in 1>,Hricuhtr in the
Qpen;,,g$ which connect the two "do -
mnins"'.
A m8n-m,1dc place. however, is some-
thing more rhan a space wic-h a varying
degree of openness. As a b11ihli11g, it
Stands on the ground, and rises towards
rhc sky. Toe character of rhc p!ac.e is to
a high extent clercrrnined b~ bow 1his
siandiUg-and risio,g i,1..coocr.ecized. This
aiso'i,olas true for emire settlemen1s,
such ~rs towns. Whtln a towi1 pleases us
btc:msc 0£ its d1srmct cha rnc!.£!,_ ~t _i~.
u'siiiill)' ocoitl§e---:in'ia1oricv of irs b~_i];_'I"
lliligs are rclatca to the earth and che
sl1f,n rile sams.._war., -they-;--sccnr-io _

63 ---- J
99, Ouulil,·-slw/1 ~·rm,·tr",~· In da \\':r;·s l.,y J 00. On ,It.- gr<"mml under 1l1t· sky, Templt· of
Z1inm,•nmm11. J l1 •J 1;e11 , r•rkin,:,
J OJ. ··c ,•n;$, .., 01>,'JJ IJ:JW irl IWS( t ' rtl Norw,•1)',

64
 express a common fonn o( life, a
common way o( berng on the cairh.
Thus the ' constitute a 1e11ius loci which
allows for human i cntification .
The "how" of ;, building comprises "
general <Hld panicular aspect. In general
a n , b_uilding possesses a concrete snuc-
!.!!.!S. emSlfwliii'~may-ire~.~r~ea::r,i
formal-technical terms. and in .earticular
::111 m(Lividualar(iCul;llfQj)Q-.f ( his st.r.uC=.-
1~ •. An arcl1ctyp,1l building in chis
ense 1s a house whose mna rv scn,ccurc r
consi rs o.f a ri ge-be,m, carr,e )' ax,j
'(ll_able t>osr ar corher end. Such a ho'!~c ,.
possesses a clear c~, ii , 1ma cable ord er 1 /

w 1£..h in ancient time~ helpe man ro ~

•Sl.UJ-a..fc.c lloi;...~.ucirv. This fact is
onfirmed b)' rhe etymolog)• a nd rd-
;uionship of the terms which denote the
various pMts of the.- structure. l11e word
c'ridge", thus, in general means rhe crest
of somerhing., and in p:trtic ub1r n chain
o( mountai,ls. T he:- corresponding Nor•
vegian word fls mea ns "hill" and "god"
as well as the ridge of rhc house. The
Gc.rman First has m:Hl)1 C<.) nnorntions ,
among whic h Forst is particularly inter•
esting, as it' dl'nOccs an enclosed :1rea in
gcncrnlq. Of primary imporrnnce in the
structure is the point where the h orizon-
rnl ,rnd vcnical U1(.•mb(!rS nn.· connected ,
rhc '"gable''. In the Middle Ages rhe
G<:rm;tn world Giebd meanr g:1ble :1:;
well as t he poles of the skrJ,<. Hert Wl"
return :1g:lin co t he rcl::1tionship bl·twec::n
house ;H1d cos1uic o rder, which was
discussed nbovc. \'\lh,1t is impon:mr ro
stress in this conccxc however. is rh:u
t he me,ming o f a building is related to
ics srrucru re. rvlc:rning an<l c ha racter
cannot bt intcrpn•t('d in purely formal
o r aesthetic terms, bur :ue, as we have
already pointed our, iminrntel)' con-
nected wich maHng. Hcidtggcr in foct
defines l'he "mcl'hod'' of art ns ius-
werk-s<!lzen (to ··sct·inro~work"}-1" . I.biL
iLthl· meaning of a rchircctural CQ11;..
crcciz:nion: to set !! plm.:e into work, in

65
 J 02. 1\lt1l•m,t:, Cl,,.Y lwr.it'f. in /'ums.
J (H. M,,!·iuJt, Lt~ft ,II J.:.lt-·ir•i. A.mmt.>,l.1/, ,\ forw.1y.

the st.·nsc o( concrcrc build il\g. The

ch:1.mcrcr o( a wotk o( architecture is
-, the~£1'ore- fi"tsiu1:,1 1 d~ nincd- 6y tlfo
kind of con:~rruCtion used; whC:(her· it "is
s~dct:1l . o pen and -t'i·:,;1sparc111 {po~
ci:1lly or .. iii . raaror.. nl'assivc anll
enclosed. And secondly bv the making
;~ such: bimJing..i,J~>}1ili!,g->- ~~fug ere.
1 hcsc processes express how rhe 1nc~H\-
ing o( the work becom('S a 11.thing•·.
T hus Mies van der Rohl.' said: "Ar-
chitecture .-.tarts when you pur two
b ricks c:1refully upcm c;1ch o rher".
Making i:; :.111 :lS!)CCt of at1icuft11iou. The
other aspect is "form1 ' . Articulation
determines how a b uilding sc:md s a nd.
r'isCS:-:1ncl7ioi# itrCCCi\'cs _LighL: Tile
:ord "sr.111<f· dc110res itS rel:1tionship ro
t"he CMth, a nd "rise'' its rdmionship ro
the Sk)' · Standing is concrctizcd thro ugh
the treatment o( rhe bau aocl..the.Jtad/.
A massive and pcthaps conc,wc bast·
~nd accemuatcd horizontals "tic'' the
building co the ground , whc re.',s ~'"-
cmpliasis on , he vC'rriC:1l direction tends
to make ir "irce". Vertic;ll lines a nd
fo rms expres.,; ;111 active rchuionship to
the sk)1 ~rnd a wish £or receiving light.
Venicalism and rdigio us aspirnrion have
in facr ,1lwa)'s gone rogcrher. In the
w :1II , rhus, earrh a nd sk}' mtct , and thl·
,v:w ma n ••is" on earth is concrctizcd bv
the· solution of this meeting. Som~
buildings ~ire ''ground-hugging'\ others
rise freely, :ind ·in orhers .ag~1in we find ,i.l
meaningful equilibri um. Such an equili-
brium is fo r inslam::e fou nd in the Doric
temple- 1 wher<· rhc detai ls and the pro-
portions of rh(.' columns express th;n
chC}' srnnd 1111d rise. B}' mc;rns o ( subtle
v:trim·ions in the rre;umcnc. 1he Greeks
could express signific:wr nu~u1cc-s within
the gc:ncral cquilibrium..\7 • In th,· first
Hera lcmplc in P:t(.'stum rhc stro ng
cutasis of che columns as wd l as otht•r
dcrnils btings us close lO the earth~ in
accordance with the choractcr of the
goddess. In the rcmplc of Apollo in

66
 104, M(,J,:Jug. Stmw lmlldm.s: m Mmtl1·1mkuw o.
105. S11nuli1tg .,ml rh.i11.~. Sm:r:I It, lmuhrm.:{•.
106. S1:1,u/i,,g d1td ri,;iug. lirmplt· ill Sdimmfl•.

€'orimh, instead, enlasis is entirely ,1..

bolishcd to express the mc>rc absrrac,,
imcllc_cn~•I s1rcngrh 1>fthe god.
A meaningful relarionshi1> b~twc,en
horizontals and verticals also depends
on the form o( rhe roof. Flat or sloping
roofs; g:1blis, d_omes and. pointed spire.<
e~pr.ess different rclmio ns tO earr~ and
sl.:.y, nnd dt:re.rmine. the general character
ot the building. In his b.ouscs,-Erank./
Lloyll \17riglitwaiiteJ simultaneously to
•~press belonging ro , he earrh an;I
" freedom).' iii space38 • Thus he compose~
the building of planes of ''infinite"
extension parallel to tht ground, bm
inrroduced a wnict1J Core a.s well as low
hipped roofs ro give it an :inchoragc,
The (horirnnrnl) freedom in sp:icc is also
concrcrizecl by an o pening up of che
wplls by mc:ins of bands of glass. The
wall is no longer there co enclose space,
bur rather tb direct it and tO achit\'C a
unificacion o f inside.and outsidt .
ln general Ql!.JWUIJ!t serve ro concretjzc
diff~rcru insidc.-oursidc. tel:mgusb•P.!-
'''Flolts~' in a m~ssive wall give- emphas.ii;
co,endosnre :.nd interiority, wh.erc.1s the
filling in of a skclct.11 wall by l:1rge
1s urfaces of glass "dc-mnrcrializc" the
building and create qn· imernc.~rion.. bet-
ween exreripr and interior. Opening{
ltlSo'reCCiVe and tr:msmir_)ig/£, a'rid'are
therefore m:1incletcrn11nanrs of archi-
t~crural ch,1raccc.'r, Large-scale envir:on-
mc:1;1t,; are often ch:tr:icl'erized by par..
ricular rypes o ( \Vindows end doors,
which thereby become motifs which
condense :ind visualize the local ch,1rnc-
!••· Finall)', it ought to be mentioned
thnt nrnteri~1J and colour may concribure
decisivcl>• to charactcrizacion. Srone,
brick and wood arc different "presences"
which express the wa)' buildings 1".1rc-"
on earth. ln FlO,c-ncc, for instance,
rusricatcd stone was used to concrerizc a
rarlonal, "buill" environment possessing
11
cl:lssicnl" substance and order. In Sie-
na, instead, the use orcontinuous ~ , ,.. ...

67
 I Oi . Roof , I$ fo m1;1( fi,.ror. c~t,•w.,rr .,, G,Jw,,<J,l.! J Jn. Hol~ ,111,I 1mmivlh•. hm11 Imus~ i,:
l;y I lildt'/,r,111d1. 8:mlm1,•,:d1i.i, Pi,i,lmoni.
J(),t ..F,,,nd1·· wim/1)w. P,ui;. I I I. Co,1ti1m,w:. Jrthit,-,nur(!, Slrt'i!I 1wSic:1t:1.
J09. l;11ilt .u;; l ,it('Clm<. l',1l: 1:;:;o Stm :;;;i . ,:/,)rl'lt,:,·.

-•.,.r .....
II
-=--
□ ,__
11
.~~....::t,i
·IIJ
---

68
 I
"dc-marcrialize<l'' brick surfaces creme place within man-made pl:icc. The dif- chitccturc distinguishc'.%(y nmltiplicit)'
an atmosphere of Mediaev;,J spiricualioy, fcrenr '"insides~· are " known.. in ~1c- :md variety. It e;mn~ e asily be under•
U gqes without snyi11g that the choice of cq rda ncc with l'heir stru cturnl prupt·r- srood in 1.ogic~I rc rms, bur s.eemr, ir•
m:uer:inl hnd tolouc is intimately. linked ries. 111 most scttlcmt.-nts ia foct we find rMion:,I and "subjective'' {;1lrhough the
with ''making" in gcnernl, alchough :1 L ·h:,r chc naming of rhe urb:in sp:1.ces inherent meanings may be of Scncr;ll
certain independence may be me:ming- rl'flccts the cxis{cncc of distinct man- "aluc). Rom;111tic :trchitec wre is charac-
ful , as when buih walls .are p::,i urcd in made places which have a structur.illy terized by a strong •·,mnosphrrc:'', and
colours which have. a mere charactcr- dcrermincd identity40 • T he m,111-made m a )r appe;u '·ph:1nr:1sric'' and "mysrer~
iiing function. A " frccdomH of this: ·kind gt:uiu$ Jod dcpl'nds on h()w rhese pbccs ious' ' , bur a lso '' inrimarc" a nd '' id yllic".
is obviously more common in cnclQscd are in terms <">f SJMCe and ch~1r:1cccr-, lhar In general it is distinguish ed by :1 live·
interior spaces, w here che direcr cooracr is., in rerms of o rganization and ar- and d ynamic char;1Ctt.~r I and .1ims :1t
with rhe c1wirrnlment i.s weaker, an~ ricul:uion . ·'cxprcssion"~1 • Jr.,; forms seem ro be a
wh1°re chnrncter therefore Implies . t1 resulr of ''growrh') rarhc.r rh:rn ()rg;•10i1.-
'-.gathering of ""distant" meanings~ - 3. The S11irit 11/ Ma11-i\1adi, Place :ttio11, :tnd resemble the forms of livi11g
li wolilcl- Jn rhls conrexr carrv us roo fo1· Our discussion of the phenomena of nature.
to develop " ·sysremmic typology uf m::in-made pbce has uncovered seve.r;ll Romantic span· is wpological rnrhcr
man-m:1dc place~. \Vic have al ready b:isic types of man-made focror.s, which ch·a n geomerrk:1I. On rhe urban level
mCnrio ned t he fo rm, t ht vilbge, the helped our undcrst..1nding of rhc struc- this mc:rns thar the basic configuratio ns
urban house and the rown a s p rima ry ture of man•made pl:~ce~ as well ~,s its :Ire the dense a nd indcrcrminarc duster
quegories. A furchc1· differentiation rcbtio nship ro narnral place. Any con- ,md the "free" ;md varied row. The
ought [6 bt bas~d on the various crete situation is distinguished by a urban sp:;tccs are distinguished by ir ..
;'building-t.aSks" which make up a Im• particular combination pf these facrors regular enclosure, and i.:ournin fu nctions
mnn .scnlemenr''. Ir ought co be repea- which cc.msrinne rhe gcmits foci ns :Ul in n gencc:11 way. w ithoul nimini; :1t
rccl, however, that 1ri:m-madc pl.lees incegr:ucd romliry. T here ~1re man-made regula r , d('fincd distributit)n. "Strong~•
form .-i hier:1rchy elf cnvi.ro1~ment~11 places where the variety and mystery of rom:tnlic spacl!s and configur:,ricms
levels. T ht secrlemcnr as a whole is the natural forces a rc s trongly felt-, the re demand ~l continuo us but gcornerric~1lly
exrenrnfly re-bced ro a narur:,I or cul- arc places where the in:111ifesr.:uion of :to indererminate hou11d.1rv. In relation 10
nirol landsc:1pe b)' ,vhich ir ·is contoined. absrrac, general order h:,s been rhe main the surroundings the ro.mantic sc·u1emc~nl
Internally the. settlement contains sub- inremion_,. :'Ind thcr<· urc.- places where is id<.·mificd b>· th(' proximity of its
plaCc.s such as squares, streets and force ,md order have fou nd a com- c lements. or by gcne r;ll e nclosure.
dis,ricts ("quarrcrs"). These sub-places prehensible equilibrium . \1<1e rhu~ rc rurn T he «:u111os1l hc r~.. ;111d expressive
again contain 1H1d :ire defined by buil- ro rhe categories of "ro1nMHic'', "cos- character of rormmric :1rchitcctur<.· is
oings serving different purposes. \V/ithin mic'! and uclassk:11''. Although these obtaint d b)' 111c{111S of fornrn l complexiry
the buiJdings we find rhc interio r spaces, categories arc a bscr:1ctions which :1rc: and contrndicrion. Simple. inrclligible
in the common sense of rhe word. lllC hardly concreci1.cd in i•~mre" form~ they volume:, arc ;1voided :111d rr~,nsforrnc<l
imerior cOnrnins ~u·tifo..::rs which define express concrece rcndencics. and rhcre.. ·i'mo tr'~lnsp;u·,·nt. skcktal s tructures,
an inncrmoSL'goal (such as the ~1ltar of a fore serve ;1 gener.,11 undcrst;H1di11s o( rhc whcr<s rhc line becomes a symbol uf
church, or the table in T rnkl's poem). spiri t of place. Any concrete situation force and clyn,1111is111 . Alt hough rhe co n •
The.- Structural propcrfies of the v:ufous may in fac:t be understo<Jd ~,s a syntht.:sis srruc1 io n ;1s such rn~,y be logic;,I, it
levels as well :is their formal inter- of these basic catego ries. Using thL· word usLmlly appears irnuio·nal due to the
relations, concrctizc the "form of life"' as ";ll'chi1ecmre" ro dcnorc 1he concl'etiz- multiplicatio n of 111<.·mba s, variation in
a whole, in an ·indi\'idual as well as a arion of nrnn-made places in gen<-ral , we dt·rniling, and imrodu<:.r ion of ''free"
social sense. \Ve shall l:i,cr imroducc the mav h<.~ncc talk about "romantic :tr- o rnament. T he oucside•insidc relat io n-
conc~prs o f •'private" :rnd ''pul>lic" ro chi;ccrnrc", ••cosmic :,rch icccture:.·". a nd s hip is usually comp lex, and tht.~ rom-
a<rivc at a fuller undcrsr.nding of the "classical :uchitccmre". · antic building and S<.·ttkml·nt ;ul'
pl:lcc as a "lhiing'' rornlity. chnracc~rzizcd by a scrrntc and "wild"
Structur:1lly, orientatio n :md iclenrific- Romantic archiJecr.ure silhoucrtc. 1.ighr is used ro e111ph:1sizc
acion means the experience o f man-made As "rOm:.m tic'' we designate ,111 ~n- v:1riccy ;111d :mnosphcre rather than

69
<.:omprdu.·nsible elcmc1us:. Usually it h:lS
a srrong loc;) I quality. which mar be
sHcssecl th ro ugh th(: application of p.ir•
ricular colours.
T hL· M(:dbcv:-11 cown is the rom,rntic
scrrleme111 par e,xcdleucu, particularly in
Ccnrr:,I Europe, whtrc cb ssic:11 inAucn•
Cl' (na tur:tl o r hiswrical ) is less s1 ro11gl>1
kit rha n for insr:mcc. in lralr. The
Medfac\•al rown makes its J}r('seucc
vis ib le in 10wc1·s and spin.•s,, :md its
sp;1ccs :-1rc.:.· charnctL·fized by rhc poinred
S:\bles of the housts, ;1s wcl I as by rich
irrntion.11 cktaiJ. According ro rhc na-
tural cnviro11111en1 1he cl1~1ractcr v;·1 ric.:.·s,
from , he ·\vi ld-rom:mtk" Alpine scr-
dcmeut to t he idyllic imer:1ctio1l of
buildings :tnd surroundings in Northern
Gcrma1w and Dcnma,k. In Innsbruck,
for ins1:l11c<:, the houses ~m..~ heavy and
1nas.si\ C down at the ground wirh low
1

:rnd mysterious arctdcs. hur rhe)1 rise

tow;1rcls rhc.- sky with steppc.~d and
undubting g:1blc.s. In :l northern town
like Celle, the gabled h,1uses bccc:imc
s ke1ctal mid .ire.· transformed into a n
atmosphl'ric pla t of colours. In Norwar.
fin.illy, rhc Nordic char~1c1·c:r culminatt:s
in the eminentl>' rom:1ntic structures of
rhc sr;wc-church and thL· loft, and in rhc
white-painted housl's which ,oncret izc
t he.- luminosity of chc Nordic summer
n ight. The summe, night in fact bcc.a me
p;IJT o( m ;111's buik e nvironment when
tlw colo ur whirc was invcnrcd. Before,
th<: houses were dark, rencc1h1g the
mrswry o( rhc winrct sky> which is also
1hc liglu u ( 1hc sravc-dmrch imcrior. In
, he st:wc-church it makes sc.·nsc r<> rnlk
:tbour ·•cf:.ttk fight". as a Oivinc m,rni-
fosr:t1io11.
In more recent :trchitcccurc, thL· rom-
:rnric ch;:i.racrcr is full)' prL·St·nt and
wo11dcrfullr inrcrprctt'd in the Ari N {w-
VC!au. Later ir appc,us , in :1 diffcr-cri t'
kc>'. in the ••fo,·est" arch itecture of Alv,1r
Aalro , d iffcr-emly :ig~1in, in t ht· works of
Hugo H:iring, w ho aimtd m m:1king an

70
 11.l. lt'Qm,w1tk 1udJ1i,·,·1ur,•. D111lubbiil,/, J JS, Rom,.,.mit. 11rcl1i1t•curte. Oum lumsc: I>)'
J IJ. Rm,t,mtk 11;,·hit('t:hm•. Sttt't:t in C:dll'. Guinw;d, P,m·s.
11.J. Rom,mtit .m:1, lt~•t' tltJ't". f),uk ,md ruhi11••
JJ1Jj11t,,'I/ lo/ts ,fl 'IJOm,w,·i t. N umcil(1/, Nu w ht)'.

n1'j!,1111ha/t :,rchitccrure, that is, bui ldings

whi<:h are •·org,ms·' to the func tions they
sen•c, like l'hc orgm1s of our body.
Thereb)' Haring g,wc the romanric ;lp-
proach an :1cnrnl dcfinitio1r12• In ger1cral,
rhe 111:~ilt,ipliciry :~ml variety o( rom:mtic
:m.:hitcccurc is uni fied by a basic Stim-
mung. which corresponds to panicul.1r
form,-uiv<· principles. Romantic ;uchitcc-
nirc is therefore emi1wntf>• local.

Cosmic ttrchit,!c 1t1re

,,,,....As ·-.::osn~1ic" WC dcsignatl" an archire-c-
rure distinguished by unifonnit)' and
' ...!"absolute·· order. Jt can be understood
as an imcgra{(:<l logica1 system, and
seems rational ;rnd "abstract"'. in rhe
sense of trnnsce11ding the iridiviclual
concn.·tc sim:-11io11. Cosmic ,irchitcccurc
is discinguishccl by ;:1 cenain lack of
"a<mos1>he1•c''. and by a vcrr limirecl
number of b.asic c h;,racters. It is JlCither
''phanrnstic:" nor ..idyllic", words which
denote.- direct human parricipMion , but
r<..'nrnins ,1100(. Its fo rms ~ire static rather
1lian dv"i't'iinic. and seems ro be rhc
rcvehu iOn of a "hidden" order. r.\ther
than the res.u lr of concrcrc composition.
fr aims ,u ·'necessity'' nuhcr than ex-
pression.
C:osrnic space: is s1ricrl)1 gcomcrrical ;1nc.J
is usually concl'cth .<·d as ;-1 regular grid,
or as ~1 c ross of onhogonal axes
(c:ardo-thu;umanus ). h is uniform :;rnd
isoll'opic. nlthough its directions :-ire
quali1,1til•d y differem. T har is, t he
<.1ualit;1tivc cliffor-encc:s arc not e;x1>ressed
:1s such, bur :1re absorbed by the S)'Stem.
Cosmic span· , howcvc1· , also knows :111
"inversion·, w hich w<· may L·all ''l:1br-
rinrhinc: s1>:u::c... Tht.· labyrint h dot.·s nor
posst:ss any ddinccl or go;1l-oric.·nrcd
dir<:-ction, it rcsrs iri itsdf wirhout
beginning and end-4,I, Basic,11f), it is
rhcreforc ''cosmic'', although ir seems to
bdong to another spacial fomil y than rhe
grid . "Stl.'ong" co.smic spaces demand a
clc,u visualization of rhc system. ln

71
J 16., Cmmic .1rd1i1c~C114't '. D,·cuttttWu$ it/ G<·nu.r. I JS. 1.Abyrlntl1h1c rt'<tdd. Vill.Jga M Tr,ti isla,rd,
I 17. Cosmic Jrc:l1ilt'Wm:. C,)mly:mJ of tlJe Kh,1rtoum.
Miri,,u1h mosqrnr, lsMnbuf. I 19. 0/u,: gritl. 1\IMmdnm:tts {IIJ.!1111,~,
Caml1ridg,r, Ma$S.

rclmion to the surroundings ic may

rcm:iin ''open", :1s ic does nor rnkc the
local microstrucwrc into consideration.
The character of cosmic architecture: is
;~so disting.uishtJ!._ !J:,:,_ "abscr:tc1Lqi[.
1
- Tbus 1L shuns sculpmral presence,
tends ro dem:ucri~lize volumt~s and
~HHD
surl';_lce:;, by 111.i::ms of '\::upcL-lih··· 1.k·t·
'-oration ( mosaic~ gbzc<l n lcs ,:1<.:...)~c....h.•
the i11tr'<:>OlKri01r'fif l iii"Fic:,te geometrical
webs. Horizonc:11s. a nd verticals i,i o nor
. forcc.s, but arc put
reprcsenr :tc..:ove I '
111 :1
simf)lc ju~raposition ,1s manifcsrndons of
the gencrnl order .
In Isla m ic ,1rchi1ccrure the cosmic ap-
pro;lch finds irs major mani festation.
The lsl:Hnic cil )', thus, consists of a
combinaLiun of gcc)mc1rk.il anJ !:thy•
rinthinc sp;1Cc. \X1 hcrc;-ls rhc mnin pu-
b lic buildin~s ;uc b::lscd un :10 orthogonal
grid (!Vlosquc, lvlcdresc, ,·re. ), the
residencial quarters arc labyrinthine, a
fact which cxprcssc.-s the desert origin o(
Islamic culture as well :1s 1hc so-ci:11
structure of rhe Arabic settlement'\
which , afrer ~ll, are two aspects of the
same rornliry. The. "abstrnct'' presence of
horizontals and verticals (rhe Minaret),
concrttizcs the gcner:11 Ol'dcr, and gives
a fi rsr sugges1ion of the cosmic char3t:-
rer. In interior sp,1ec this char;1crer
Uecomes the manifestation <>f ;10 ideal
world , a paradise of white, green, and
blue, chac is, rhe colours of pure lighc,
vegcrarion and w:uer, which represents
rhe go,11o( man's desert \IC>}•age.
But cosmic ,1rchitccrure may be inter-
preted in orher w:1ys. \Y./e have already
described , he absolute systems of rhe
Egyptians a nd the Romans. The latter is
of particul;ir inrcrc.sr in our conrext, as
it was brought along ,ind implm1t(-d
everywhere regardless of the loc;1I cir-
Curnsrnnces. In general the Rom:1ns
rherby expressed that every individu:tl
p lace forms part of a comprehensive
cosmic (:md political! ) system which i1
has co obey. In Rc)man architectu re rhis

72
 order pencl'ratcd all ltvels, down ro the
interior space of i1idividual buildings.
Thus the Ruman conquest of the world
happened as the manifesnuion of a
preesrnblished cosmic order, 11in agree-
ment wic h the gods:"45 •
In modern times, the im:ige of a cosmic
order has degenenued into spmial sys:-
rems which c:oncretize political, social or
eco11omic structures. The grid-i ron plans
of Amtrk:m cities, for insr:rn~, do noc
t:xprcss any cosmologic:11 concept, bur
makt: :rn ..open'' world of opporrunitic-~
-.
manifesr. This world is open horizon-
tally as well as vertically. Whereas the
Gommunity expands horizomally, the
success of the individual is indicated b)'
rhc high, of the building erecte/1 on the
srnndard lot. Although the grid•iron
thus possesses :1 certain ''freedom", ir
hardlv allows for ,he cqncrerization of :l
0

d.isrjn~r ge1ii11s loci. Sp.ati:11 systems of

rhe cosmic type therefore ought to form
p~ut of more comp)('.x tornlirics.

Classical nrchitccwre
As ··c1assical'• we design:ue ,m ;.1rchircc•
cure distinguished b)' imagtabilit)' ;md
articulate order. Its organization c;Jn be
understood in logical terms: whcre:1s its
''substance'' asks for emp;u hy. It there-
fore appear:-:; "objecrive", in t'hc: double
sense of ,he word. Classical archicccmrt::
is c.:harncu:rizcd b}' concrere prcse11ce,
an<l c~~ch clcmenr i.s a distinct "pcr-
sonalin•t•. lts forms ~1re neither static nor
dyn;unic, brn pregnant with "organic
li fe''. They seem the result of :< con-
scious com-position of individu:11 elc-
mems, and give m:rn simu ltaneously .i
sense of beloaging and fr~edom. _
el\iss,c:il space unifies topological and)
gcomC<dcal traits. T he inclividY,aL bµild-
G
ing may p·o~sc~s' l1 sm c1· geometric.al
order, which forms the basis for its·
idenrity-16, whereas the organization of
several buildings is torologic:il. A cer-
tain ,;democraric'' freedom is thereby

73
I 20. ClaMic!II (l rcl1it(•(.111r('. D<•t:1il / m m ti,.: 121. Cl(,ssic:al tm:hitt·ctut;:, Tiu! t1crqpo/is, t\llu:,rs.
p,-oJ>ylaet,, Atlum.

expressed. CbssicaJ archlrccrnrc is t hus

distinguished h>' the absence of :1 gencr-
;~( t dominant system, and i·ts space may
be defined as an additive grouping of
individu:ll places . \'(l hereas rhc classical
landscape w;lS understood as :1 tN1dula 1
classical arc hitecture is desctibcd br
means of persp,!ctioe. In relation to .rhe
surroundings rhe cbssirnl settlJmem ap-
pi:ars as :1 distinct, ch:1r;1crerisric f rcscn-
cc.
This presence is achieved by meaos of
plastic. Jrricubcion. In rhc cl:\ssical
building all the J).lflS h:we their in-
dividu.11 identity, at the same rime ::is
rhey condense, explain and perha1>s
difforenti.ue the general character of the
whole. Each ch;,racrer forms parr of a
••family" of characte.rs-, which are cJe•
liber:ttcl}' related to human qualities. ln
classical arc hireccurc the orig.in~,! forces
M(' thus " hum;rni1.ed", and present
themselves as indivictu:il p,uricipams in
a comprehensive, meaningful world.
The logic of construction is interpreted
as an interncri"on of accive and passi"c
members, and I he classical building
thtrdore appc.·,lrS "built·': i!.! ~ irect and
inrelligiblc way. Light, finallr,is-used~ o.
give .emplwsis ro rhc plastic presence of~
r!ie parts and the whole by means of a_
1 play of light and sh:1dow which "mo•
dels" rhc form.
\'(le h;lve ;;ilre:tdy made several references
to Greek archi1ecrure, and should only
add that ir, in itS developed Classical
phase, repres.en~, rhe ardicry1>e of d as•
sical architecture-. Throughou t hiswry the
h;;1nnonio11s and meaningful equilibrium
of Greek buildings and settlements has
remained an idc:1I , which bas been
reviv('d in ever new contexts. In Rom::in
architecture the classic:1I component was
srrong, bur it faded awa)1 towards late
Anriquir)' , when pla~tic presence was
substimced by dc-nrnrerialirnrion and 1hc
symbolic "building" of lighr'' · In 1he
Florcmim: R<:naisstmce) however, cerrnin

74
 122, Tnup/1~ of Nikt·, Al/Jrmr.
I 23. R1!tmissmtt.t,', Osp1•tlflli' dl'gli lm1occnti.
Flo,~11(.e l>y 8r:mt'll1:sdn'.

nspects of classic~1I architccmrc reap-

peared. Again we find rhc wish for
gh•ing.- rhc lmifc1ings indi\ii(hral :phlst ic
presence ~rnd anthl'opomo rph o us
charncrerizmion, in t:Ombination wifh
--simplc....intclligibh.H ;onst•FUGtion. \Xle :tlso
find thar spath1I organization was under-
stood as an :1ddido11 or .. independent"
units. Wh,11 is differcm form Classical
G1·eck ;1rchi1ccturc, is the coordination
of all parts within a comprehensive,
homqgcneous sp,.1cc, a concept· whic h
has tcosmic implicarions and rd k·cts a
belief in a " h:1nnonious" universe. T he
<lc\•C'lopmcnr of homogeneous space}
howc\lcr, did nor prevcm mcaning(l1I
sp;uial difforem ial'ion"$,
In our own rime the classical attitude
has playc<l a n important p:in . Thus Le
Corbusicr wrme: ;•Archirccrure is the
masr~rly, correct ;1nd magnificent play
of volumes brought together in light.
Our C)'CS arc made 10 sec forms in lighr;
lighr and shade reveal these forms;
cubes, cones, spheres, C>•Jindcrs :m<l
pyramids are rhe gre;,t primary forms ... ;
chc image of these is distinct... ;md
without :unbiguity,'49. Le Corbusier e,vi-
<lcntly wanted p lastic presence and in-
rclligibiliry, bur :l certain °abstraction'' is
also felr, which differs from the ·'or-
g~mic,, approach of Greek arChitccrure.
T hr true presence w~icl1 brings rhe
world .iclose•· l was ill foc r lrnrdly under-
stood by early modern architecture.
Com/1/ex nrcbitec/ure
Romantic. cosmic and classical :trchicec-
rure :tre ;1rchetypes of m;u1-made place.
As rhey are related w the basic ca-
tegories of natural understanding, rhq•
help us ro interpret rhe g,:uius loci of
any parricul.1r senlemem . Heing rypes,
howe\ter, they hal'dl)' appe;ll' in pur<:
form , but participate in various kinds of
synthcsts. In the history of European
arch itecture rwo such symhcses :trt of
particular imerest: The Gorhic c:11 hedral
JN . COthi.: auMtel!tur(r. Stmslxmrg C.11/,,~1/ml.
I 25. &roqutf gimli:11 p t,/act•. Vaux•lt!-1/ic()mt.. Ii)•
U V,111 muJ t..- N,tm:.

and the Baroque garde n-palace, The

Gothic cathedral belongs co the rom-
antic Mediaeval town, bu t tr:mscends its
an:u;hmcnt in the natural environment .
In the intNior of the c.at hl'dr.il ,umos•
phcric lighr is rr~m·s lated into :-1 J)ivine
manififscarion. ;111d rhe svsteinm icallv sub-
divided strucCurC 1:cpreSents a \•i.Sl~~liz;1-
tion of the ordered cosmos dc~cribcd
by scholastic p hilos<Jphy'". ~
The c,1thedral therefore unites romantic
and cosmic qu:tliries, anc:I through its
transparent walls the locally inrerpreted
existential meanings of Christianity were
transmitred ro the rown, whose cveryd,1y
life-world thereby -i;or a cosmic dimt n·
sion, l.n the Baroque garden-palace we
find a differe nt kind of S)'nthcsis" . Herc
the cosmic dimensi()n is nor represented
by lighr,as .i synibol of the spirit and by
a Sl'tuCtural system which rises up ro
receive this light. bur by a horizonc:,lly
extended gcomerric..tl network of p~uhs
which concretizes rhe absolut ist pretcn-
cions of the Sovereign located at the
centre of the system. T he cemre is
moreover nsed to d i\Tide rhe "wodd'' in
two lrnlvcs: a man-nrnde, urban cn-
vironmenr o n o ne side, :md ''infinite!)•''
cxrended nature on the ocher. Close ro
the cc.mrc nature. appears as a culrural
lands~~pc (p,m crre). further <1,v.1y it
bec()mes more •·n~uural" (bosquel ), to
end in :l "wildcrncSs11 • In the Baroque
garden-palace, t hus , m:m --nrnde ,u1d
natur,11 place ;ue united ro form a
comprehensive whole, wich rom:mtic
:-m d cosmic implic:uions as w<:IJ as a
built form of ·classical derivation in , he
palace itself".
As t he urban cnvironrnenr is bnsed oll
g,nhering, ir usually offers ma ny pos-"'-
sibilities of idencific<1tio11. It is t herefore
e~1sier to feel "':u home" in a foreign city
than in a foreign hmdscape. The geniu!
loci of the human scnl.c mcnt in fact
rcprcscms .:1 microcosmos 1 :md dties
differ in what thci· g,,rhcr. In some, che
 JV
PRAGUE

forces of the earth ore stro11gly fck, in J. Image

orhcrs thl' o rdering power of t he sky, Few places excn such :1 fasci nation as
od1t.•rs ag;1in h:wc the presence o ( Prague. Other cities may be grander,
hum;rni1,ed n;uure, o r arc s:nurared with more charming, oc more " beautiful'',
lighr. All cities, hmve\•er, h;wc to pos- Prague. however. seizes )' OU and n.'mains
sess somerhing o( nII these catcgoric:s of with you as lrardly any other place.
meaning to nrnkc utbrm dwdliug pos- "Prague does not let go - either of )'OU
sible. Urb:rn dwelling consisL~ i11 rhe or of me. This little morhcr has claws.
:1ss11rin.g c_xpcril'.'rlCc o f hl·inµ sim11lt;111l·- T hcrt is noching for ir bur ro give in or
ously locawd a nd 11pc..· n H• rh~· world, - . \V/e would have to set it on fire from
that is: loc:1tcd in thl· 11:1rur:1l g,,11hr$ lod rwo sides, a l' the VyS,·hr.td and ar rhe
a nd open tu tfo: world t hrou~h I he HtadCan>•, only thus could we free
gmhcri11g of rhc m:111-ma<l,,: g•·• nhti-lo( j<l. ourselves='•.
T he fasci nation of Prague resides fi rst of
(tll i 11 ,, strong scnsl' of mysrery. Here
you have rhe feeling rhar ir is possible to
pt.~nctrntc ever deeper imo things.
Strccrs, gares, cou rtynrds, St;1ircas.cs lead
you inro an cndl<.'sS '"inside". Over and
over ag:1in rhis theme comes our in the
literature o f Prague; in K:1fka it forms
the g rouocl fo r h is imagts and char;lc-
rers, and in Gusrnv 1v1eyrink's novel
'The Golcm" , the unf:uhomable spac,·s
of the Old Town become rhe bearing
theme. These spaces do nor only lose
t hemselves ho rizont ally, but ::1lso under
the ground of everyd ay li fe. The S)' lll-
bolic conrcm of 'The Golcm'' is thus
ccnrret.i on an empty room which Im~ :1
window but no door1. T n re:.1ch it one
has to go through :1 subre1·r~l0(':u1 labr-
rinrh :1nd (ind an opt'nini; in the Aoor.
The s:imc we havt.· w do if we w:mt to
under:srnnd rht genius loci o( Prague.
Herc all houses h:wc deep roots in layers
of history, and from these roors rhcy
•rise: up, having individual names wh ich
s_uggcst a le~endary past. Archi1ccrurally
these roots•nr~ .expressed by heavy ancl
rnassive grouad'-flQor.li t, low arcades and
deeply-set opening~, ,W :1lking a round in
old Prague, one· alw;1ys has the Jccling
of being ·" down" in sp:.cc-s rhar arc
mysterious and friihrcning t bur ;llso
w:1rin and protective.
Th.is dosentss to the e:nth., however , is
o nly o ne ~1spccr of its genius loci. Prngu,·
 •
.. .

•
 127. Old sire~, in l'rag"1'..
118. 'ff ,: dnm;h f ,om 1hc Old Toum Sq:mn·.
I 29. Tl,,· ''Prague vit•w". Tl1r. Sumi/ Towu ar:r()ss
rl,e Vltava.

is also known ;1s t ht• ''city o f hundred

steeples•·; and its ;1rchitCcturc is in fact
S~\turmcd with vertic;1I rnovemenr. The
urban spaces are focused on towers and
spires, ;1nd the dorm,· rs and gables of
rhe old houses accomp;m>' us every-
where. Simple \1errical :.iccems do not
seem to be enough in Prngue, ,1nd t he
mediaeval steeples of churche~ town-
halls :rnd bridge-towers ar.c surrounded
by clusters of pointed spires. In rhe
Baroque churches, the vertical move-
ment seems tr;msformcd into flames
which rise toward rbe sky. T hus t he
mysteries of the earth find rheir coun-
terpart in heavenly i:1.Spiration.
The srrengrh of Prague as a place
depends first of all on the fdt presence
of the genius loci throughour; pracdcally
every old house is simul1aneously.
ground-hugging: ~,nd :lspiring. In some
buildings, however, the local character
is given particular emphasis, and it is
very significant rh~t these buildings serve
as foci to rhe different parts of the city.
In the Old Town, t hus, the Tvn church
w ith its clustered Gothic sreCples rise.s
above che low arcades of t he main
square, whereas the Srn:.111 Town on rhc
ocher side of the riv·u is dmninated bv
rhe Baroque do,m.· and tower of sl.
Nicholas, which grow our of a massin·
,md heavy b~semem. But this is nor all;
also ;;ts un urban tornlit): Prngue is
distinguished by the conrrnst between
earth ,md sky. Thus the steep hill of the
l-lrad6rnv cascle contrasts with the
horiwm,illy extended cluster of rhe Old
Town, and t he castle itself gathers the
local characte r in its long horiz<>nt~1l
lines over which the Cathedral of St.
Vims rises vcrcic., lty towards t he sky.
This fast juxtaposition is the crowning
motif of the famous "Pr;:igue viewH: the
vcrtic.all}1 cHrnbing SmalJ T own seen
over the horizont:11 expanse of che
Vlmvn . Js there an)' m her city in the
world where rhe ch;,~r;1crcr is thus

81
 130. Cl;:ul,·1 Bridge from above. l JI. Prog11t• 111 wbm:r.
132, Di'r,grmmmuh: map (Jj &,l,,·mfr,.
IJJ. l)r,1,g111! ;,, tl1r: l:mdst «JJ•·•

concrerizecl in o ne single vcduta which

comprises all environmental levels from
the fonclscapc down ro rhe aniculmion
of the individual building?
The rwo m:lin pnrts of Prague, rhe O ld
Town down on the flat hmd wit hin rhe
<:urvc of the rh•er, and rhc. Sm;lll Town
and casrle hill o n the other. side , a rc
linked by the Ch~rlcs llridgc . In Prague
indeed ''the bridge g,,rhers chc carrh as
landscape around rhe .Stl'e;-u n... but it
a lso gachcrs whar man h;.ts contributed
ro the place, ;.\s a townsc ape of unique
qw1licy. Landscape ,md townscape ;1l'e
thus un ified ; the "Prngue view" is in face
s.icurnu:d with g:1rdens, withoul reduc-
ing howevc1·, the (igural charactc.·r of
rhc man-madc.· pl~1cc:. From rhe bridge
the whole is txpcrie nccd as a n ,m-
viromnent in the full sense o( the word;
the bridge constimtcs t he vtr)• centre o f
this worldt whkh evidently gmhcrs so
111:my meanings.
The Charles llridi;e is a work of arr in
its own right; its broken and partly
curved movement collects the srreecs on
eirhcr side, and its rowers and srmues
forin :1 counterpoint to rhe horizontal
series of arches across the river.
Mcn,nnd women crossing dark bridges,
past the statues of saints
with t heir faint glimmer of light.
Clo uds drifting over grey skits,
past churches .
with mist)' towers.
A m:rn lean ing over the parapet
and gazing into rhc r iver at evening
J1is hands rt.·sring o n :rncient s1·one·l ,
T he strength of Prague as a place
rhercfore ;11so d epends on irs imagcabil~
ity. Its secrets do not m:1kc us get losr,
rhc unfathomable insides alw~t)'S fo rm
p;an o( :t mcaoingful general srructurc
which tics them together as the facets of
a mysteriousl)' glimmering gem. Like a
gc:m, indeed , Prngue ch~rnges w it h rhe
 ,ve:1rher, rhe cime of rhe d.-1y and rhe
seasons. Only rnrel)' , llowe\ler, the sun
gil'CS its buildings tbei~ full plasticity.
Mostly the light is filtered through
clouds, rhe cowers become '"miscy" and
the sky is hidden . Aud still, this does
not mt.~ai1 n loss of presence. In Prague
whm is hidden seems even ~nort real
ch,u what is direcrlr perce1Ved. The
presence of rhe i,wisible is used by
Kafka a, the very beginning of "The
C.istle11 to inmaatc the u~,sic atmosphere
of the novel. Jn Prngue-t thus, we
encounter a parcicubr kind o f "mi·
crostrucrurc''; a srruccure. whose richness
docs not'o n1)' _reside in the micro scale,
but in whar is dimly suggested. ln t he
night the screec lights make this
charncreristic p:trricu.larly evident. The
illumination is not contim1o u:; tind even;
strongly lit a nd da rk ~1:oncs altcm a t<:~
and make us remember rhc t imes when
.a sncc1 h11np created ~, phlce .
T he nrchitt!Cturc of Pr.ague is cosmo-
poliran wirl·\ our cva losing its local
flavour. Ro m:lnesquct Gothic, Rcn,-1is-
s~ncel }3;u·oque, Jugend ;1nd "Cubisr"
building.s live togcl'hcr :\S i( t'hey were
_,.,, ,-~~=. . .~~
'G
~

.
~tff..,-f ~
-·
y.1•\
--...·~ ---=-~
·•"'- .!i5.,.,.,..,_ '
- ,:j, ,.,,· ~
~ .,,
~
:'
.
,A.\\'._§J',llll.\~'.
:., , _:,- , .. variations on rhr 'iamc theme". Medh-tt·
val and ch1ssic:1l forms :1rr transformed
_ 'Cf; p;; .. , . . . . ~ - -:, -• ~ . . ;~ co m~tki: the S:\mc local ch;1t;\Cl'f:r m:111 i-
. .. ,;· "· ,._ fcsr; motifs from rhc Sl:wk (•:isl, the
Gcnn:rnic north , , he Gallic w<.·st and the
Lnrin south meet in Prngue :md b lend

.,·-~,.;, y) > imo :1 singul:11· !i}'nrhesis. The cf!rnlyst

which m;1dc this process possible w:,s
thl· genius loci prupa, which, as we
h;1vc already suggesrecl, consists in a
p,micul;,r sense of earrh and sky. In
"~ i; Prague dnssical :orchirecrure becomes
-~~ ,cl romantic, ;1nd roman tic a rc hitecture ab-
c- I sorbs the das~dcal characters ro endow
'./

the earth with a particul:u kind of

--~..r-e"
=- surreal hum:111i·cy. Boch become cos1nic.
not in rhe sense o( abstract o rder, bur ,1s
spiritu;1I :1spirarion. E.viclcnrly Prague is
one of the great meeting-places wher~ a
mulrimde of rne,rnings ;1re garhcrcd.

- - "'"' ,l,C
I J4. Noriwntflls am/ va1ii:r1/,t. TIJt! l:limlltm\'
orJi~r 1/Jc Sm,1/1 Tow11. ~

2. Sp/lc1,
If we take a look at the map of Central
Europe , the particular location of Prag-
ue is inuncdi:ucl}, cvidcnr. Nor only is
Prague sim,11ed ar the ccnrre of Bohe-
mia, but Bohemia is also in the ver)'
middle: of those countries :which for
cenmries have consrimrecl th~ complex
and turbulcnr co,·e of the Western
world , The cc:nrral loc:nion of Bohcmi:,
is: emphasized by the a lmost continuous
range of- moUnrains a nd hills which
surround 1he area. A kind o( b;lsin is
thus crc:ucd, although the land has a
vl·ry varied su rface relief and natural
"conrcnr". The feeling of a bound:U)' is
str-engthcncd by the vegctatiou; the
fertile intcri.o r is cndoscd b>, forests
whic h accomp;my t he mountains. Ln
gcnernl Bo hemia appe:irs as a rolling
and friendly cou 1ul'ysicle, bur it conrnins
ma ny ~urpriscs such ;1s wilcl and strange
rock formations. From chc south to the
norch rhe coumry is divided in rwo
h;ilvcs l>y the river Vlrnv:, (Moldau) ;,nd
irs conrinuation, the L:ibe (Elbe). In the
past it was difficult to cross these rh•crs;
onl}• one ford had :-1 convenicnr_, ccncrnl
loca tioll. He rc rhe :rncienc ro::1d from
Ucraina and Poland crossed t he. Vltava
and concinucd into Gtrm<m)' · Ar the
ford, ir met rhe ro;1d which led from
t\usrri:1 in che sourh , to S.1:-:ony ;,nd
Prussia. t\ \'try important node was thus
creared, and alrc.·ady in t he sixrh cencury
ir gave rise to :1 scrtlcmcnr which should
bcco,nc the city of Pr.1gue.
The geographical pcoperrics of Bohemia
made the country predestined ro becQme
a cosmopolirnn centre. A simila r role is-
pla)•Cd b)' Switzerland, bur here the
geographical definition is less distinct ,
and a primary nodal point is lacking. In
Europe~ with irS m:111y crhnic groups
and civiliz.nio11s, a m~eling place ncccs-
saril)• means problems. Mardi)' any orhcr
European country, in fact , has h:.id ;1
more complc:-: :tncl difficulr history than

84
llohcmi;i. It is obviously due tu the dear
geographical definition that the fi rst
permancnr senk·rs, t.hc Czechs, have
been able to survive. Possessing their
own Jimitcd world, they have fo r ccn•
turit1 resisted the pr<.'Ssurc of rhe 11eigh-
bo~rs_, wbo managed, )H)we ve r , to oc-
c~py the zo nes along the borders.
Thr.oughout history, t'11us, Bohcmi., has
b~en both ;1 meeting pl:1c.c and an ethnic
.iiShmd'' wirh its own cliscincr identity,
T he double nature CJf the country is a
nrni_n reason for its very parricubr
ch:lractcr. As an ethnic island i, has
-always c9nserv<:d its roms in rhe propc-r
soil. imd as a mcNing pbc<: it has bee n
C-\:,posed to the imp~1ct of the entire
European culture. The fact rh:u rhc
foreign impon has always been tr(lnS-
formed when it came ro Bohcmi:1 proves
rhe ·str~mgrh of irs people :ul<l its genius
loci.
,\t Prague the rolling landscape of
cencr.-1 Bohemia is condensed to form a
P.Mli(..'lllarly bc:1u1i ful configur;uio n . A-
long ,he large bend of rhc Vlrnva an
cx{'endcd hill ris(:S: which visu,llizcs the
curve of the river. The hill ond the river
arc opposed bur complementary forces,
which make· nature become :-ilivc wirh
expressive power. \X1 ithin rhe curve,
opposite chc hill, the land CJf>ens up in
h·orizontal expanse before it starts to rise
gendy towards r~c south-L'.a st. At eicher
end of the river - bend rwo marked
isolated hi lls give definicion ro t he are;,.
The two halves of this extraordinary
landscape ,vcre linked by a ford, a little
to the norrh of the presem Clrn,·les
Bridge. On the left bank ar the height of
the ford, there is a valley which nwkcs it
possible to 'reach the castle hill and the
land~ rowar.ds the wesr. As prcdesri ned
f"Or: an· urbrm settlement was this sire,
nor only because of its bi·auty, bur
because it satisfied the duce b,,sic
demands of the early Middle Ages: t:he
flar plain for n market place, the hill for
85
a protecting castle . and rhe ford for
communic,uio n and commerc e.
In the nine h ...:entury the Czech l>fomys-
lids builc rhc fi rst castle and in 890 the
first histo rically known Czech king
Bo/ivoj added rhe first church in llohe-
mia , wh ich w;\s clcdicaccd ro l he Holy
Virgin. The Czech word for c..1.srlc,
hmd, determined irs name , Hrnd6my.
T he oldcsc repon on Prague stems from
.965, and w:1s wrincn by an Arabic>
Jewish mercham Ibrahim lbn J;ikub, He
rells rlli.lt rhc rown was I.m ilt of smne
;md mort:1r. and that it was rhe richest
pl:1cc: in rlu: wholL· t.:oum1·y. T h(' popu-
la tion ;1lrc:1d)' comprised groups of Cer~
m:rn, Jewish and I.m in origin. Ahom
1200, Romanesque Prague had 25· chur-
chc~. m:rny monasteries and :1 st·one
bri\ige. Shortly afterwards the diffci:cnt
seulcmcms on fhe right bank were
gathe red wirh in a cit)' wall., anrl in
1232-34 rife Old Town (Stare Mcsro)
was a legal reality. The Small Town
(M:tl;\ Strana) on the left bank was
fo unded in. 12.57, :ind about 1300 the
settlement: on the HradC.my gor urbnn
rights. A iounh city, rhe New To·wn
(Nove Mesro) was added around the
Old To,yn by Charles 1\I in I 348.
,\!ready in the Middle Ages, thus,. the
spatial srructure of Prague had been
defined . THe city had found its fo rm in
accord:mct wltli rhe nawral situarion.
First of. all ir Consists of three p:·trrs: , he
dense Serrlemem down on t he pl:iin , l'hc
dominant· <:astlc on rhc hill ::1bove, and
rhc river as a sep.u:uing and conn(•cting
elcmtnt berwecn chem. \Xie frnvc seen
that rhis srruccurc is still alive, and ir
becomes inuncdimdy evident when t he
ph1cc is experitncccl from irs centre , ,he
l>ridgt:. During rhe cours,~ of hisror)' chc
basic juxraposirio11 has bec.-n inrerpretcd
and enriched by the buildings of suc-
cessive generations. The venicalism of
the hill has found :111 echo in the steeples
a nd cowers of che town, and rhc
an~1chmcm to the c:trth o( chc latter is
rdlt·crtd in the hoiizonral expanse of rhc
castle. In chis w:-1y Prague has become
::lll integratl'd rornliry-, where the p,1r•
ticular relationship bci:wceu ho rizon·rn(
~md vcrtica ll between ''above·· and
·"below'' SCl'\'CS ~lS' the unifying force.
\X1 hen we w:dk :tround in che Sl'rects o r
along the river, the relationship bl'twccn
town :md c:1srle is experienced iu ever
new v:1rh1rions. During liistory l his
jux.caposition has had its parcicula r
meaning. \X1hereas che. castle in the
Mc.'.d iacval cide.s: rne:rnr protection and
sl'curicy, in Prague it often reprcse.med a
thrc:1t. On the l-lrnclcany lived the
rul<:rs, who, a t sevcn1I crucial occasions .
~poke another language and professed
another faith rhan the majority of c:he
inhabicants. T he Thirry Years war in
fact started in rr:1guc· with a rc\'olt,
when· the infurimcd crowd threw rhc-
lmperial governor~ out of rhe windows
of rhc castle, accord ing m an i-.o1d Czti:h
custo111~1•
Prague's growl'h into an indusui:11
capit al from 1h,.: ninc.·reenrh century o n,
has broughL about some ch:rnges which
weakeu the general urb:rn srructure. T he
clear clclimir;;ition of the O ld :md New
Towns by me{ll\S o( dt)' walls is gone,
alrhough chc sth:c.~r parccrn srill givrs
them a certain sparial identity. T he
ud.mn sprawl :.1row1d rhe old core has
impaired the figltr:11 c harncrcr o( rhe
city. alrhough the gl..•ncrous cxrensioi1 of
Charles IV for centuries allowed Prague
ro grow inside irs Willis. Ccrrnin urban
districrs h~we disappeared, f-irsr of :111 ·rhe
Gheno wh ich w~1s situated in the 11orth-
wester11 p;1rc of die O ld To\~1n. It was
one of th(•- mosr ch,1r:1c.:reristic part.~ of
t he city, buc because of its slum-like
conditions ir was rorn down afrcr 1893,
TCJclay the Small Town and the Hr.1d-
Can)' besr preserve the general structure;
here the h:,birnt is st ill surrnunclcd by
green, such :1s the Pctfin and Letnfl
I35. Modd of Prr1gu1: witJ, main thor()ug/J/orr:.

parks at either end of the cnsrle, .and

even the city•walIs arc in pan st;mding.
The interior mb;in spaces or Pr:igue still
ro a high extent (ollow the patter□ laid
out in the ,'vlicldlc Ages. The old
thoroughfare berween Easr ~tnd \'<lest
serves :ts ,, backbone, connecting th<:
main foci of the Old and th<: Small
Towns. As the \'is~ror w:llks along r1iis.
pmh , rhe history of Pn1gue becomes
~11ive, .ind gn1dually a rich and . coherc111
image of the city is formed in his mind.
Ir starts at the Powder-Tower (1'175'),
which is what remains of rhC old cilv
wall. The tower is richl>• ornate and w:1s
obviousl y intended as something more
than ~, mere "'function·:11" cicy.-gatc.. In~
~i<le th(' gate a well conscr'Vcd srreer, rite
-:clcrmi leads to che Old Town Square
(Starornestske N:uncstf). On the W:I)' it
passes the oldest part of the town, the
Tfu, whtre the merchant.~ throughout
the centuries paid ducy for rheir goods.
The 7')'" is a large couriy:,rd enclosed
by buildings whose Mediaeval cqre is
covered with Renaissance :md Baroque
fa~ades. The Old Town Squ,ire is a
large "ring"', subdivided by the centrnlly
pl;1ced Town Hall and adjacent buil-
dings into :, huger and a sm~tllcr pan. (r
is surrounded by relatively narrow ga-
bled houses, ,md domin:ll'ed b)' the twin
rowers of the Tyn church (1365ff).
from the .Small Square rhe pach con•
tinuc.s. rather ror~uoUSly to the Chade-5
Bridge ( 1357ff). The bridge is a space in
irs own tight~ .h:tving.Gothic mwcrs with
s~ucs :It eit·hec: end and being lined wirh
statues. Its bent movement is due co the
fact rhat iC was p~rrly builr over rhc
foundacions of che old Judirh-bridgc
(1 158-72) whi.ch collapsed in 1342.
Uron entering the Small Town another
SP.l.endid, well-conserved streer, the Mos•
tcck:i leads up ro the Small Town
Square (Maloscr:rnske Naml'stf) which
repeats the ''ring" pattern of the 0 1d
Town Square. Herc, howeve.r, 1he

86
 I J6. Tl11t Pow,Jer•'tower.
IJ7._ Thit Tj•tt <'Omtytmf.
I 38. The Old To,w s~1mmz.

church of St. Nich·o l,,s ll 703-52) with

acljacem .Jesuit college takes · up che
cen~c, whereas the Town Hall is sit\la•
tcd. along th~ easterii side of the squaie.
/\nothcr beautiful, steeply rising street,
ihe Nerudov3 t connects the Small Town
with the 1-lratlcany. Actually rhe Nerud-
Q\'a conti1i-ues cowards rhe we.sr under
,he ca~tle; • ·steep hill however leads up
1() 1he Hra<lC;ut)' Square, which is
situated between the castle proper -and
chc c;1stle town. from here the view of
Prague. is splendid; the hill and the arch
.of 1he. ri,;er embrace the 0 14 To,vn,
which responds with its towers and
steeples. Under rhe castle the Small
Town s1eps rhyrlunically down .t owards
tlfe river with its dense duster of House-;.,
and· garde.ns. Bur_ our walk is not
finished before we cmer the c;.1sde. Here
a cluster of court.yards and lanes _re-
p(ese,1rs a var.iation on the spatial
th.cmcs of the city itself, and in the
centre we .find the splendid inreri(lr
wace of the Cathedral ( 1344(f). _.
Whereas the urban structure-of the bid
Town aod tl1e Small Town follows the
cacl)' ~k<lhH.'val pattern, che New Tpwa
·w.as deliberately planned. As -ic fotms a
wide belt around the eastern side of the
{)Id 1'own, a radi:11 l~y-Qut was n·aiur,al.
R;ulicr t1!:in b,;ing a ,cenr~ali,:.ed scructur.e
in its own right, ir prep~res for ,the
almost circular e1,dosure of the Old
To,V11". The r-::1dia) patter.a is visuali"zcd
by tht<'C large squares which in rhe past
J~rv'ed as )lay markec, horse marker and
cattle market, respectively. The m~ddle
one_, SL Venceslaus' Square (Vaclavske
N:1mfsd) h,1~ the rathcc unusual length.
of 680 mt.., and. functions today as a
kin~ of "nrnin meet" for the whole city.
Up. till ouc time the · New Town rc-
rnain~d quite open and green. Thus the
Old Town always, was the dense core of
the whole cohurQarion.
When the old citv w:ills were corn down
~n the nincrccmf1 ·century,. streets were
139. Old lmt1:i-1r in tlu: O"ulcs stret•I, J 40. "/'he OM '(()11111 bridgt-ti11t•<r.
I 4 1.On lhl'J. CJ1;1rl('$ fJritlg.:.
l42. Tl,.: Afostt·ek;j wltl1 ·s1. Nichol.tu ht tlu: Snwll
1't:mm.

88
 ,•
I
~
11
..
.
r
H J, -St, Nr<holas ;,, 1he Smr1II Tmuu by G.. mu/ K.
I, Dit11t;_~!t1/l(Jfe1.
14.J. 'n wfff;.,u,~• u/St. Nich1Jlat br C.
Di1•11tu,il1p/(r.

91
14$. 11,c Snw/1 l'c>um Squ,m· udtl, St. Nfr:hol11s,

laid out according ro rhe old pattern and

new bridges were built to connect the
main srreers on both sides of the river.
Akhough rhe Charles lliidge is no longe,
alone, it has maintained its foca] im-
portance, and the new bridges are well
integrated in the "organic', path srn1c•
rurc of the cirv.
T he secorid:iry streets o( old Prague
have the character of n:lrrow * twisting
alleys. As such ,hey possess an out•
spoken cominuicy, but many small •
squares Me introduced as subordinate
urb:in foci . In the Old Town it is very
common thar the hou~es tnay be entered
from rwo sides (D11rchhii11ser). h is
therefore possible to walk rhrough ccr-
rnin sections of the cown without using
che s.trCcts. This particular spacial pro-
perty conrributes decisively to the:
"mysterious" quality of Prague. ThC
internal passages ofren lead through
several courtyMds which are mostly
surrounded by char:1cterisdc balconies
(pav/11l). In the past ,hese balconies
were the stage where the colourful
pJ>pular life cook place. Spatially they
serve.cl as :i semi-public cransicion 6C-
tween rhe urban outside ;i~1d l'hc private.
interior of the houses. We understond,
thus, that the feeling typical for Prague,
that one mighr pe,netri1tC ever deep~r
inside is determinel:I by its sp/!cial struc-
ture. In chc Small Town the spaces :ire
somewhat diJfcrcnt. As it was a well ..
ro,do disrricr, tlie houses nre larger and
nlso· -more ·secluded. What: .is. losr in
penetrability, however, i's g,lined in
movement up and dowo. In ·ihe Small
Town many of rhe secondary srreecs
ha.v~ sce·ps, and the broken: surface (elief
creates •an exceptionally- viricd richm:ss
of ,urban spaccst whieh offer ever new
perspectives and birs of panoramic
vie<vs.
The spatial structure .of Prague is ga-
thered and condensed in che interiors of
its main public buildi.ngs. From the

92
 146, St. Nrt.1,o!it, mJ/u. Small "fo1v11, detm'I,

93
147. Th~~ Castle atJd the CJUhedral teen f rom the J 49. lnt~~Or, St. ViJtd Cathedral bJ• Peur Parler.
Pcrtff1t.
148. View from tht• Castle.

Middle Ages on, the local architecture

has had its particular spatial propettics·.
In general we note a strong wish for
inregracion and dynamism . The classical
principle of imLividual, static units,
which arc added togerher, is unl.:nqwn
in Prague. In Sr. V ims the irneg~ation,
horizourallr, and vcrricall>•, is srro1lger
chan in any mha great Gothic! cathe•
drnl , and in 1he Vladislav Hall (B. Ried
1493 -1502) i1 h,1s become impossible w
talk :1bour "baysn; chc sp~,ce is ·:111
indivisible whole which is saturated with
dynamic movement7. The wish for
sp:1tial integration and dynamis·m cul-
min·a ted wilh chC "pulsating'' inceriorS .o f
Christoph ,ind Kilian li;naz Dientzen-
hofcr'. The nave of St. Nicholas in 1hc
Small Tpwn by the former ( 170.1-11)
consists qf a series of imcrpeneuaring
ovals. In che vault however, rhe sparial
definition is dislocated relaril•t' to the
floor. A.s a result a sp:.uial ''syncopation;,
is created, which reprcsent,'i ~ unique
invenrio1.1 in rhe historv of ;lrchiceccure ..
The environmcnr,l riChness of Prague is
intimately rdacccl ro the sparial prop,c r-
rics outlined above. These properries are
nor onl>' distii1guishcd b)' vari~cy, b1;1tt
they also constitute ,in imagcablc whole.
Sumll\ing up we may cake a )ook at the
basic structure of · ch~ four primary
domains. The O ld Town is siruaied 011
the Aa, promontory . C}llbraced 6y the
river, and is -gathered aro1111d the Old
TowJ1 Square. Tht New Town fans 0 111
from the Q ld Town an'd rises slightly. It
is loca1ed between rhe St. Vitus hill in
the north and the Vy~chrad in the
sourh,-and is. given internal scrucrurc by
the three radi•I matkers. Ideally the
New Jiow.n J.s a segm~nr ·of ~ ring, but
rile shape is screrc),~d ro reach the aiorc
distant V y§'chrad. The Small Town i·•
situated um/er the hill, within the-
concave valley, and is gathered along
rhc Mosieckt\-Nerudod path. T he
Hr:1dCany is al,ove the o.thcr domains on

94
JS0. • • Pfans of Prague.
Diaorammattc . h.
l SJ. Strt!?l mt t • Small Torun,

96
1S2. Tli4' Vladislav H"II ;,, th,· Castle b)' &medikt
Ri11d.
1S3. Interior, St. Nidmlas·;,, 1lt.: Small Town by
C. 'dnd JU. Dknt~11hofer.

the convex. hill , and stretches: oul along

a ridge. Whereas the New Town is
subordinate ro the Old Town, and does
not po.sst:ss an indepen~enr focus, the
other rhree d~m~lins are centred on
signific;1nr inner Co'rcs which· hav,c their
sp3rial identity ;tt the same time as they
are identified in the townscape bx
verticaJ "laadmarksu-, A'll rhe domains
ace iiuegratcd by chg Chades Bridge.
The many pr.eposi1ions .ueeded to de-
scribe the spatial structure of Prague
indicatu its richness·. Jn general fr is
lop.ologicnl and therefore docs· not make
one p_arricUl3[ cnVir'Qnmcntal sr,srem
manifest. It 1S opc·n to many inter-
pretations, and <teaizhcs us ~.hat "orient-
ation" does not. only mean in1agcability,
hue -,lsq ''discoveq~" and ''':surprise".
~owing H(ag~e is lil<e' l_istcning ro a
grear work of music: it ·always discloses
new-aspects of itself.
3. Cham~ter
Tne character of Prague cannot be
understood withour taking the natural
environment into consideration. \"v'ith
"natllr:a.1 environment" we do not only
ha_v e in mind the sire of c.he city, but
"Bohemia as :.1 whole. For cenrurics
Bohemia has been the object of an
exceptionally srrong p:ttriotism and love..
Noc onl)' rhe his.todcal drcumsrnnces
have demanded full human identific-
ation, but chc countr)' ~ls sueh has given
the '"Bohemian" ~l pacticular identity. ln
the past l'his identity was nor the
property of a single erhnic group.
During the religious wars Czech and
German seeaking Jleople fought together
on bOth siOes nnd l'hc "nation'' was first
, of ·al.I a qu:ilit~t.ive geographical concepr.
We may very well say that the in-
habitants of Bohemia _loved rhe genius
loci; che co.unct5 W3S theirs because they
1

idenrffiea with its qualities. Their love

h:1s been txpr,cssc,d in literature and
music and not least in bu}lding. Few
J 54. Boh~tmitw la11ds¢ape.
J 55. Popular 8aroqul! l1ous~•s in Tiebon.

other countries have an :,cchitecmre

\vich is- more u.nifie<l and at the same
time more varied . The themL'S are
eminently 'Bohemian, bur the variations
are leg.ion and . g~ve te-srimony lO rhe·
exceptional artistic abilities of the
Bohemian people. Like some other great
cities, such as Rome , Prague has shaped
rhe foreign t1nists who have serried
there. From Peter Parler 10 Chrisroph
o ·ientzcnhofer they all became Bohemian
and adapted their own cultural import
ro the local idiom.
Wh·a r then ace rhe natural phenomena
behind the genius loci? We h;tve already
mentioned the rolling countryside of
Bohemiat and the many .surprises which
bceak rhe general continuity of the land.
Towards rhc_ border these surprises
become dominant; wild rocks, hor
springs, deep valleys and impenetrable
forests bring the or.iginal forces c,>f
nature into presence . The Bohemian
landscape, however,., is not c:haracrerized
by simple imageablc clements, such as
well defined vallcy•,spaccs ,,. dominant
mountains. Rather one rnigln say chm
everything is simulrnneously rhere, ,, fa.ct
which was noticed by Goer.he: '"Beautiful
view o\'er Bohcmi..ln landscapes·, · which
have ,he parcicular character that t hey
nee neither mounrains n0r plains nor
valle)'s, but e~erything at die same
time'"'. Obviousl)' the whole of Bohemia
does nor hm e this ''synthetic" quality•-.It
1

is, however 1 rhe d i~tinctive mark of rhe

more ch:mtcrerisi:ic pares of rhl! co\mcry,
anil therefore becomes a general
':·nohemiant• trait. Such a generalization
is narur:11, ~ccau.sc B9hemia i.s a simple
hydro-geophysical unir.
Jo :Bohemia ~ll the basic nantral elt•
mcnts arc present within a relatively
small and well-defined area. Mounrains,
vegetation ancl wacer ;;tre there, not as
sej);.lt;uc '\ hing~", but rnixed ro form ~t
"romantic" .niicrocos1nos. T he earth in
its · diffc~cnt m·anifc:stations is cxpcr·

98
 I.S6. The Small OM 10w,r S,1mm:.
r57. )-Jcmse ;,, tlu: Small Towrt,
158. PiJluee._ in tlw Old 1'o'um by K .J,
Die11tze.,rl10/l!r.

icilced as l'hc primary re,llity, ~nd asks

man f<1r identification. The lkih~mi.a n
microcosmos• iS centred on Prague: Not
only is Prague situaced in the middle, on
the river Vltava which in P,Opular
imagination is rhe nrnin ideo.tifying
clcme~t of rhe counrry. but it.s Site
comprises aJI the m:1in natural "fotccs',.
iJn Pr•~gue we find the juxrnposi~ion of
an undulating r.h1in•, rocky hills <1nd
water. Thus chc sice bca.uti(ully gttcherS
:ind &presents rhc surrounding · country.
To .e-xperiencc Prague fully, one rhere-
fori: has to know Bohemia: Ir c;rnnor be
und~fStood in ·'isolarion, bur Qnly as i1
uworlcl within :l world''.
T-he➔ s;;ime. holds true for the architecture
o.f Prngue. Although the city was a
meefing-pl;1c<· for a multirUde o( artiSdc
currcnt.s , the basic :1rchi1"cctural rhe,nes
are- incinrnrel>r rehned to rhe vernacular
buildings and senle,ncnt.t <>f Bohe.mia.
T-h~ i.:)'P.CS of. ucban sp;Jces :ire. ~imilar;,
e\1cn1whccc in thl' counrry we find the
same continuous bur varied streets lined
with n:-trrO\". houses, and rhc same
"ring''-~haped nrtadccl squares. As iyp-
ic:,L e·x-amplcs we m;iy mention Ceske-
Bu_tlCjoykc in the sourh, Dom:iZli£e i.11
the west~ Ji~in in l'he north _and LitomyJI
in che c"nsr1(1• The. basic sertlcmenr
panern is evidently the 'Slavic rin.i;-
\1111:t'gc wl'icr~ t.hc ''ring'' m:-ty be r9uod
OJ sq·u~1re. There ;tre l11 fact towns in
Bohcmii.1- which only consist" of· a ,single
row of hou.s ts around the square (Nov~
Mesco nad Mcrujil. In some places · the.
houses are sm;ill and simple, in o_rh:crs
richer, bm the basic tr,pe is rhe same.
Nor.ma.Hy it is .a two-1itOrc}' structure
1.li1h a third Ooor in the sable. Ar.cades
are normal when tl1c hotises- focc the
:sgu-are. This may even be the case ·in
smnll villages wi1h timber hous~s. T h·c'
houses have n VCr:)' particular characrer,
which mainly ~onsiSts- a-n n 1llassive arid
hcn,•r apgc.:_irancC. The ground-floor is.
ser direcdy on che ground,_1hc windows

99
IS?. Nl)md,hmJS" tvilh "pat.Jar' i,i 11,,• OM
Town .
160. 161. The PorthefmktJ by K.I. DiemZAmho/er.

arc low and relati\!ely smaU t and rhe

wall is usually kepr down b)' the optical
weight of large roofs. As a contrast to
these ground .. hugging propenies, richd>·
articulate and ornate gables rise up
towards t he sky. The houses may h:we
Gothic, Renaissance· ~r 801(oquc formst
but t heir basic relationship to earrh and
sky has remained chc same for centuries .
Regional differences exist; in Southern
Bohemia for instance, che mural houses-
are white and the decor:nion richer• but
the basic Uohemian qualities ;ne maln·
rained.
In rhe. architecrure of Prnguc th-e
Bohemian relationship to earrh and sky
reaches a splendid climax. Everywhere
t he o ld urb:m space-,; make the basic
themes dead)' manifesr, and the prcsen•
ce of great architects has made possible
particular interpretations which ma.kc
1
them shine in "'limpid brightness ' . One
of the best examples is <lffered by the.
house Kilian fgna1. Dienr,cnhofor built
for himself ( 1726-28) in the suburb of
Smichov" , today known as the Pm·t•
heimk,,. The rectangular volume: h~,s
rower-like elements ~u the fOur corner~
and a convex ressault in the ccatrc
cowards the · garden. The scheme is
"inte-rn:ttional" and dir~rlr ·derived from
Hildcbrnndt's Upper Belvedere in Vieq-
na, The artitufation , howe\lec, is truly
loca_l. Over the heavy rusticated base-
ment with irs low-set wiodows., the
forms become gradually '' free" towards
the sky. The rnain architrave. is broken
in the centre to giv~ place for a·· pointed
gable, whereas rh.e corner i:owers rise up
through the horizontal members. Small
blind dormers arc added to give em-
phasi~ to the venical movement, and the·
cop, <;Ornice .o f the cowers, is bent
upwards as ·a last expression of its
aspiring force. Ar rhc same time how-
e"er t the towers ,:t re tied to the main
volume by the horizontal lines which
circurnscribc the whole building even at

100
 l62. St. , Nid,o/a.s ;,, lhe Old 'FQtun by K. I.
Oientienl10/t•r.

the bre:1k in the Mansard roof. A rather

violent but subtle interplay of horizon-
t:t1$ :md ver.ric::1ls is d\Us .Creat~d., an
inccrplt}y which rtprcsents a part_icu]arlr
sopliistica_rcd •inu.•rprcrncion of. rhe basic
Rrague theme. Another ch:1racrerisc-ic
wopcrty may also be pointed out. In
generlll rh.e surfoc~ relief of the f:u;Jidc is
slight, :rnd the Aat11ess is accentuated by
the windows whk .h flush with the wall.
"rhe windows thus reflect rhe colours of
thu., surrounding vegcnuion and the •sk,y,
~-•~d give the whole building a Certain
ini)n:ircri'al feeling which conrrascs ·wi.ch
the genera) ,:oluminous ch,1racccr~. ,In
certain poinrs scrong pl.,stic accents are.
~daed· which' gi~e emphasis to the
a,mbi$ul)us mass-surface r.elationship. A
sjmil:rr ambiguity is found cvcr.ywherc in
P.'raguc and creates ~rn urban ch;u•atter
,,;hi~h is ~.imulrnneously sensually _earth-
~oun<l,;,nd "spirirualizcd''. Another main
work by Kilian Ignaz Dienr1,enhofe_r, d\e
St. Nich()las church in rhe Old Town
{J,32-37), gives the same themes- a
",sacred .. ~,ad t-rul r grandiose imcrprc,t-
atibn. Here. !'he towers and the central·
rcss,mll free•, themsel\les con'lplecely but
gradually from a cominuous, horizonrnl
bi1se, an·d rise c6w:irds the sky with
violl'm dynamism . Othc:-r examples
could be added ad i11/i11it11111, and we
may also recall that che main Pr.ague
u..eduia gets its singular impact from t he
siml~f ''integrated dichotomt· berween
ho.,cizonr<II .and vertical '' forces''. T hus
the buildings of Prague gacher aocl
condense che gmul,s loci., and make the
cit)' :1pj)eac ;1s'. ;1 place w hich is saturate.cl
wirh locally woicd meaning.
rrhe hotiscs ·~" iHich m,tke up rhe srreecs
ana squares of Prague v:•ll'Y che basic
themes,. and the urbim spaces appear ·aS•
s,ers of \laiiations, · some of them more
n10d~sr) so~me 'rnorc imagil)acive and
splendid. The grcaresc s,et of v;1riarions
i~ found in che Old Town Square where
arcaded !:able h9uses surroui,d most of

101
t he space. The)' ,uc nor 1ncc hanicallr
lined UP, but constitute a topological
s4cee$sion which l;.ivcs variety and life to
the enclosed space. The houses are quire
nart:O\\( and create a dtirnmic 1novemcnr
full of surp.rises. The variaiions r,each a
dim1lx in the stern T)'n Church, which
prefigures rhc basic articulation of Sr.
N icholas near by. The only old building
which bec:1usc of irs size breaks ,he
continuity of the boundary, is the
Kinsky Pafacc ( l7S5-6.6 ). Again , Kow-
C\ICr, Kilian Ignaz Dicnrlenhofer demon•
scra{cs his arristic ·;1bilicies a nd respecr
fo1· the genius foe;. ii., Instead of cen-
tering the building o n a dominanr gate,
he doubled <he- CQmposirion, and used
two gabled tcss,wl1s co break down t'hc
large volume so as to suit the general
dimcn.s ions and rhythm of the urban
boundary. A similar adaptarion is found·
;i)reacly in rhe Tosc;,na Palace by J. B.
Marhe.y (1689) a nd· the Cbun-Gallas
Palace by Fi~chcr von Erl:ic,h (l 715ff).
\'(le _. ha\1C cliaracteriied Prngl1e as 3
worl9 wht;rc it iS Possible ro pcnc1:rate
ever deeper "'inside''. and, in fact, in the
interiors oE rhc m:,in building$ we
cn<!ounrcr a character which repre.sems a
furrher conclenshtion Of- rhe prOpetties
w hich distinguish the urlSan space :,nd
l'he ciry ~ls a whole. T-his ch,1racrer is
dctt rmincd by a particular acticul~ttion ;
which' basically rom~iinc.-cl the !iamc
through .several .centuril'S. The fifst get -at
manifostation is the presbytery ·of the
Carhednol b)' Percr Parler (J352-85)1J . lu
general the scheme follows die dis-
position of t ht French cathedrals, bu,
~he articuhnio n shows sc\ cral significant
1

inllovario11s. First of all we notice rhat

the :ircade is simplified in such a ,v~1y
that fr appears as :1 conrinuous wall with
cut•out openings. At the same time the
rriforium and rhe clerestory t1tc com-
bined ro form one large glazed surface.
T he interior js covered b\• a ner•vault
which unifies the sp:ict horizonrally and

102
 J.6'.3. $t. Nkhol:,s in tl,;: Old Town, <h'l<1il, 165. Tl,I! Kimky Palace (m tin~ Old 'l'Qw,1 .~qu:mi
16.f. St, Nfc.hol(u ;,, ti,~ Old Totu11, interi()r. b)' K.I. Dfomum110/er rmd A. Lmago.

makes it dissolve verric~1lly. The bori-

-zoma1 inregqtLion is mor~ovcr empha-
sized b)• the introduction 1>f small ,
diag◊nnfl), placed clements in the rri-
forium and clcrescory, which make the
bay.s unire in .a conrinuous undulating
movC,nepL TQc ~pace is ch'afacterizCd
by il ~rrong contrnst becwcen rhe
'"m11ssh•c" arc;;1de and rite de,-marerial-
izcd upper wall an,d vault, and in
gc,nt'r:al py an expressive interplay of
horizbnral and Vc·r.tica1 1'fortcst1• We see
thys how • generalli• valid building-
type hai been modified ro suit the
gqnius /od.
ifhe same basic traits find a still more
orif;ina·( ,tnd mamrc intet'pret.acion in
the Vl?dislav Hall in the l-lrnclcany by
Benedikt R1ed ( 1493-1502)". I-Jere the
interior: consisl's of !111. integrated se.ries
of b;,ldachins which .ar1, closed iiff
l.1tcrally by mass.ivc walls. Tw.o systems
ate thus combined: the earth-bound
"box" made up by the walls, and the
c.le•m;,rerializ,cd "heaven1yn nct•vault
whicll'S£CmSt'o hewer ovef rhe sp,,ce.
The ,heme of 1he Vladislay l-l:111 reap-
pear.s in the most signific.1nc Baroque..
buildings of l'r:,guc. The ':syn·c opated"
spac~· of St. Nicholas in the Small
TOwn is, sct•inro•work by 1Jle;ms of an
integrated icries of baldachins, and the
s>1m.e solucion is used in the church of
tl,e 6fe\m9v jl,lonastcry by Christoph
E>icnr,cnhofcr .( 1709- 15)'"· In the latter
building ·cun•ed arches span diagonally
a.cross rh.e space from wall.-pillar.s
( wr11111lpfej li:r) which ,re set against che
neutral surface of the massi\le oucei'
w~II. ·T he basic ,properties of th~ Vfa-
dislav H:cll and the churches of Chris-
toph Die.utzenhofcr an: rhus rh e
s:tmt.:, and thG incemion is obviouSly tC)
rhakC J.\ particular rdarionship be~veen
car1h"'and sky manifesc. The exterior of
Brcmov is alsQ ·• typical specimen of
Pr;jgpe_ arch~reCrur(;; a l'oni~ Order cises
.over· a continuqu~ base t and a r,ow Qf

103
166. 'fl,.: H;'tvnov clmrcl, by C. Dlentuulwfi~r.

dormers and bulging i;ablcs create :l

serrare silhouc:crc.
The imemions of Chrisroph Dientzen-
hofcr found their continu:nion in rhe
works of his $,On , Kjlian 1gn.az, whom~\)'
be considered the Prague architect P.,nr
·excellcnce'r.. His mosr characteristic
church in Prague is Sr. John on the
Rock (J 730-39). In no other building is
itl- rhe plascic d)•namism aud <lrarmuic
~ quality so dear to Bohemia cxpn:s~cd
with more abiliry. The church's position
on a ruck accentu~lt<:s the effect, ~1nd ,he
srnir--case in front L'nhanccs the vertical
movement o f the.' fo<;acle. T he plan may
be clescl'ibed .ts a "reduced mulrilateral
sysrcm of baldachins", On the longi-
wdin:'11 axis: of the ccnrrnl octagon
wi1h imernally convex sides, crnnsvcrsc
ovals are added, creating ·a "pulsating•'
Spati~I orga-n ism which is ·eoclosed with~
in the kind of continuous, neutral w:i11s
we have encountered in the Vladisl:w
Hall and Bfevnov. In Sr. John, howe.rcr1
the plastic form of the exterior cor-
responds to the interior organization.
The ourc.r walls :1rc ·•wrapptd'' around
dle baldachins. and make che, interior
present in rhe· urban envirolimeilr. At
the same L·imc l'he walls seem to give in
to the pressure of external "forces''.
Om.side and inside thus intcr;1d dy-
namic:1lly, ;md rhe church becorne.'i ~
true gathering focys. The interplay of
horizonta l and vertical 1novements · is
also expressed with unique .convictjon.
0 .ur d iscussion of the character of the
:uchicecmre· 9f i>r~1gue h.is implied rh:,,r
the scyle$ of the v;uious epochs were
transformed to fit the ._!!tmiu s loc:i. The
logical .structure <>f Nigh Gothic ar-
chitecnrrc was changed hy Pere.r Parler
co express the local horizonral-verrical
dichoromy. Ln ~t. V itus we cannot :my
more distinguish the different shafts
which 11carry 1' arches and vaults, .and in
the Old Town bridge-tower by 1he s:une
Parler {after 1375) the Gothic elcme111s

104
 16·7, TlJr'. Bh·1mu1, d mrcl,, mtt:rfor.

105
168, St. John 0,1 rhi! Rod by K. I. Dit•uu.:11/mfc.r. 169. St. Jolm 011 tbt! l<Qck, folerior,
I 70. The Cu:,,,;,, PolrJcr. by F. Cml(lf,
I 71. 'I'hc. '81ilvr..J1~r(.

h;ive be'come " "decor;ition" :,pplic<l to a

massive volurnc 17 • The no n-structural
interpretation of Gothic forms culmina-
~ed wirh the Vladishw H:1U ~ wher.e the
o riginallr. strucrur;1l ribs h:ive becorn~ :,
dynamic orna1J1C.:nt which cannot poss-
ibly be subdivided logic"lly into parl<'s
,md n-wm/Jra1il . In Bohemia , thus, Gothic~
de•m:nerialization is nor undersrooci :as A
"spiritual system,· which conquers ~1utl
substitutes the bodil)' subst~mcl' , but as
an ecsrmic liberacio n from chc earrh.
"Ecstacy" in face means "our of place".
During che Rc,iaiss,:rnce :ind B:ir9que ,~e,
encouriter analog.~us intentions. The
classk:il Orders are there, but they arc
used in a new ,vay :,tnd are partly
rr;,nSformed. A ccrrnin anri-classic;1l :1t-
1iiude is already evident in the Bcll'cdcrc-
gardcn,palace, which was scarted by
ltalian architects in pure Renaissance
fonns ( 15.34), Later a swelling concave-
convex roo( wi1s .added ( 1'563) which
cransrorms the building inro " plastic
volume which is simult:m eoush' earth_•
bound and aspiring. Another c1\aracre1·-
isric transform;uion of Renaissance
forms is found in chc Cz,erniu Palace by
Francesco Cararti (1668(f), where Pal-
ladio has become Bohemian! In ,he
buildings of chc Dienr,enhorers the
classic:,I Orders al,so play a primary·
rolc 1 but not as chac:_acccdzing l'lcmems
which give rhe single work an_individual
p.resence; rarller they serve co v~slmlize
the· tlyi1amic ver,rical forc~s which sa-
.turate the builaings, Similarly chc ho-
rizontal members are bent, brokCn or
interrupced t(> express the basic di-
chot,omy whicfi t:ons~irures che essence
of che Bohen1i:rn character, And the
single motifs of claSSical architecture,
such as br~1ckccs. pediments and key
st'on~s, lose rhcir S)'scemacic meaning
and become plllsric ~1ccencs which make
t he cominui1.y of t he spatial boundary
srill more evident. Thus cl;1ssiq1l ar-
chitecture is .absorbed by a more :mdenr

106
 world of forces, a mys1ical world \Vhich
scitcs us with irresisciblc power.
4. Genius Loci
Our ~rnalysis of the spati.tl structure ;.utd
character of Prague. has uncovered lht
basic m~m ifosr:nions of a very strong
geuius loci. \'Vhich ltll":tnings docs chi~
'"spirir" g;uhcr? \¥/c have already de-
scribed rhe nmural i.forces" which con-
stitute its local basis, and unders ramf
how Prague firsr of all is the true and
meaningful focus of a dclimitL·d and
characteristic region. Its "'mysrerf ' is
nothing ~,nificfal buc :1 reflecrion of a
given natural environment. Th(;.' ''cx-
s tacic"' incerpret·:uion of this environ•
menr, however, also n:Occts the hisrory
of I he country. ln Bohemi:t ir has ;1l ways
been necessary to fight for an existential
foo thold, and t he roots had to be very
deep to withstand the ,1licn forces which
O\•er and over ,1gain thre,uened the local
form of. life. Deep roots mean intense
identification, ,md under the particuhtr
Bohemian circumsrnncc·s this a lso im-
plied a n inte nsely felt relationship to the
foreign import. T he religious conflicts
which after the burning of Jan Hus
( 1369-H 15 ), for over t,vo hundred
years determined .the politica l and cul-
rnral life of Europe, had their centre of
gr~wity in Bohemia. and in ouc -o wn
time Czcchoslo,•akia has again been a
pre}' o f various for.c es.
In addition to its local qualities, the
genius loci of Bohemia also reflects
many ''influcncc-s". The Slavic back-
ground o f the C2.ech people is clearly
evidenr 1 nnd forms of eas tern origin are
often encountered; we may menrion in
particular the small onion•sh::tpcd domes
on rowers ,111d steeples, as wen as a love
for silhouttes which remind o f Russian
churches ·a nd monas teries. Still stronger
is the German inAuencc. buc rhe int-
poned themes, such as the Hallen/drche
and die Wla11dpfeilerkirche, became
t horoughly rrnnsformcd when chey were
ph1nced in the Bohemian soil. The
Bohemian Rcnaiss:1ncc and Baroque arc
unthinkable without Italian import; in
particular does the local Baroque re-
present the most fertile development of
the ideas of Borromini and Guarini 19 •
E\'cn French currents reached Bohemia ,
both through Ausrrht and directly from
the French architect Jean-Baptiste Ma-
chey who worked in Prague for over
1wemy years. In all these c:,ses, how-
c\•er, th(• foreign import w;.ts trans-
formed by the genius k,c.i. As a result a
very comprehensive synthesis was form-
ed_, where fragments o( v~trious deri-
\'ation appc;1r as ''memories" which inter-
mingle like Jessc:rnc in ~1 truly cos mo-
poliran 111os::1ic.
In general the Bohemian synthesis was
felt ,is :1 dichotomy between body and
spirit. One has talked about the· mo-
therly warm and simultaneously ecstatic
character of Bohemian religiosicy 2n, bur
warmth and ecst,isy do not always work
together. In the Ita lian cinquecenlo, the
relacionship berwcen bod}' and spiric
w:,s felt as a problemaric split, which in
t he work of Michcl:ingelo w.1s expressed
as a fondamcntal human probh:m. A
soluLion was offered by _Baroque art,
where ecsrntic p:-1rdcip.1rio11 b1·o ugh1 a-
bom a sense o f meaning a nd s:ccurit)' ,
Also in Bohemia the B:troque o ffered a
solution to the local siniation , ~md we
und·c mand why the Baroque became the
Bohemian art par excelle,rce. But par-
ticipa cion is open to various interpreta-
tions. In the work of tHe Dientzenhofors
it was a means of redcmi,tion; their
baldachin-structures tiring heaven close
ac the same time as chc earth is-
approached with confidence and love.
The latter aspect is concretized by the ~
simultaneously open aacl substantial
walls which arc wrapped around the.
baldachins. Another architect of the
eighteenth century however, Johann
Santin Aichcll~ gave Uohemian :uchiccc•
rure ;l cliffc rem interprct.: nion. In his
works heaven remains distant a nd in-
accessible, at the same time ,1s the space
is enclosed by walls of a "cold" :1n'd
somewhat frightening ch,iracter. His
particular use of ,1bstrnct "Gothic"
forms moreover deprives the buildings
of <tn)' anthropomorphou~ warmrh. ln-
scead of the ;lS$Uf;Htce of rhe Dient-
zenhofers we experience ,, tl'~lgic world
where human imprisonment seems an
eternal con<lirion. T he work of Santin
Aichd is nor an isolated pheL10mcnon;
in the writ ings o( K~1fka :, simil:u
interprernrion re;1ppears with intense
:1cm:tlity , and in Bohemi.m art in gener-
al up m present day Czech surrea lism,
the ''tragicn view is alw~tys rhere :1s :l
meaningful undercurrenr12•
Regardless o( interpretation, however,
Bohcmi:m arc hitecture h,1s consen•ed its
particula r idenciry, and Prague ics role as
cite place where the character is con-
densed and explained. Out in the coun-
try we <.' ncountcr the Bohemian themes
in somewhat crude form; exception.-tll)'
heavy and massive houses and castles,
slender steeples c rowned by onion-sha-
ped domes, a picturesque and varied use
of colour. In Prague this denicms ?re
gathered and unified; what is ·primaril)'
loc.11 becomes univers.11, .1nd wh;tt is
foreign is adapted co the p lace. But
gathering also means feed-back , ic
means ch:n the '"explanationn given ar
the centre nidiates baci< so that the
provinces may gain a full understunding
of their role within 1he tot:1lity. Hardly
any city has e,•cr fulfilled this role more
.c onvincingl}' than l'raga capul reg11i.
The strucrnre of the genius loci of
Prngue is a lso confirmed by the fact that
the Cit)' has conscr\'cd so well its idenciry
throughout che course of his tory. The
ba sic sparial structure was s uggested by
the namrnl p lace and fixed from the
ver)' beginning. The successive rulers of
108
 l 7Z. T/,e, Loreto Stmctmuy by C. aud IU.
Dfo11tu-11hojt!r.
173. The Rajhmd elmrd, i,, ,\for111,"1 by J. Sa111i,,
Aichd,
174. The Tlmrr•Holumstt•;,, l'"lac1r, l,y ), S:mti11
,\ichd. detail tvitl1 sc,,fpwrt! by M. Bnm,,.

Pf.ague have nor aucmptcd the intro•

tluction of any abstract or foreign
scheme, bul' adapted their contributions
to what-was. there before. T he Baroque,
for insrnncc, did nor change the urban
structure, bur g;tve emphasis to the old
foci by means of new buildings such as
the rwo St. Nicholas churches by the
Dicnrw,hofcrs. Ir funhermqre gave the
old ho uses □cw fapdes without chang-
ing the cnvironmcnt;1) character. A
similar conscrv;uion of the gm,ius loci is
also found in orher Czechoslovak cities,
s·uch as TdC, where lv1ediacv~1I > Renais-
sance, and Baroque houses line up ,1lo1~g
the grnndiosc market as members of one
large family. The fascinalion of Prague
rn :1 high exrcnt depends on its ex•
trao.rdinary continuitr; it is as if a
powcrfull ,viii has demanded the cooper-
:1tion of ever new generations to create a
unique work o( urban an.
Today Prague is differe111 :ind still the
same. The cosmopolitan community is
gone and rhe colourful popular life of
the p<1sr has disappeared. The economic
structure has also undergone profound
changes, and the old city of merchants
has had ro (ICComodate. new functions
and instirudons. Bur the place is still
rher.e with its urban spaces and its
character, beautifully restored with its
Late Baroque polychromy, allowing for
an ·orienration and idenrific~uion which
goes beyond the security o r threat
offered b)' the immedi:ue economic o r
po.litical S}'Stem. From the new rcsidcn~
tial neighbor hoods people go to old
Prague to get a confirmation of their
identity. Without the old centre, Prague
would roday be sterile and the in-
habitants would be reduced to alienared
ghosts. After the old Ghetto had been
rorn down around 1900, Kafka said:
"They arc ,still alive in us, the dark
corners, the mysterious alleys, blin•d
windows, dirty courtyards, noisy taverns
and secretive inns. We walk about the

109
 I 75. Pragu.: ,1rt ,umvt·tw . Ho11.se /ruu, 1906 jn tlu
Prm's Strt•t•t.
176. Pr.igue in 1he evt·11i1tg.

bro;id srreers of the new town ~ bur our

seeps and looks arc uncerc.1in , \Y./c
tremble inwardly as we used to du in
tht old miserable l:tncs. Our hc:trts
know norhing yet of ,my clearance. The
unsanirary old ghetto is much more real
ro us th..1n our new, hygienic sur-
roundings. \Xie walk about ,1s in :1
dream, and nre ourselves only " ghost of
p.esr rimes"!J.

k. ..
~ ,_· S, 1
....
.
-:,
i
~-
~ -,:;_ ~~

,c;;::: "(

11()
 J 77. View of T,ai ishmd and KJmrtoum f rom
V 011ul11rma.fJ.
KHARTOUM 178, The -rl,rt:c ·roun,s. Diqgramma1ic phm.
I i9. The U'hi1<• Nile.

1. /mage
T11ose who v1s1t Khartoum arc im-
m.cdiatdy struck by a strong q11a/ity of
/1/ace. T b.e horizontal expanse of the
barren deserr coumry, rhe slow move-
ment of the grear life-givini; Nile, the
immense sky and the burning sun,
combine to create .i singularly powerful
environment.
Many r.laces along the N ile obvicJusly
have similar properties, bur .:n Khar-
toum the situati.o n is particul:1r: here
the r,yo Niles meet, rhe majestic whirt
river from the Sourh ~rnd rhe swifter ·
blue curre nt from the East.
\Y/,e feel that we arc no longer just
somewhere in rhc longitudinal oasis
creat.ed by che N ile, bur a r n "cross-
road". a mecting-phl·cc which invites
men to come togcthc.r and dwell. And
the bustling, colourful life of the city
confirms oi1r sponrnneous interpreultio n
0£,the natural sirn;uion .
The quality of Khartoum as a pl:icc is
not only determined by geography and
landscape. Although rhe city do~s nor
possess a ny her itai;e of .gre:u :irchitcc-
tural monument'..,;, the. urban cn\'iron-
mem has structure as well as distinct
ch:1rncter. First of :-111 the visitor spon•
t·~1neously pcrceiv.c s the three seulcmems
which make up Khartoum, as d ifferen t
bur imcrrclacecl places. In focr Khartoum
is genernlly known ;;ts chc "Three
Towns,·. The.wide regular Sl"reers of the
colonial city whic h were planned by lord
Kitdicner afte r the British conquest in
J 898, form a me.;mingfol counterpoint
to the labyrinthine world of Ar;ibic
0mdurman which was the c~\piral of
Sudan dµring the Mahdisr regime
( I 885-,98). Khartoum Nonh , finally,
combines bodt charac.-cr.s; ~rncl rebces
them to the \VOrld of a present-day
indusrri:il towri. As a fourth, profoundly
.signific;mt clement we find rhe 1:tndscapc
and vern;1cufor scrrlcmem of Tuci ishrnd,
which gives rhe visiror a sense of

11'3
 I 80. Old h ()U$¢$ i,1 O mt11mm11,.
181. rl1t: $ttk in KharUJ1m1 .
I81. 1'/u· lmilding of a mud luu~sc rvi11n't1 1/,,·
perimeter w.JIJ.

dcmcntar)' rootedness. This seulcmenr

• is the oldest i.n th<: conurbmion <.fating
from rhc J 560'ics. lk·ing sit uarcd where
the two Niles 111eec, Tuti forms rhe r!!al
core or " hearr'' o( Khartoum. T his core,
however, is not a mo1lumC'nt:1I tu·b~n
ccnrre, bur :1 manifcsfarion of a simple,
:-trchc::cypal l'el;,lrionship between man
.i nd n,nurc, which, as one gers ro know
rhc pbcc bcttl'r , bl'comes dcer>ly
rue:mingful .
Our experience of Khartoum is :1lso
det<·rmined bv ics vast dimensio ns. T he
-
... -
...
---~
' :'
.· .
,,,.'!·!,~":-~-.-it
Niles ~,re vef~· wide, and as rhe duc.--c
towns arc sOmcwhat withdrawn from
chcir bicm ks, a uni fic.-d ,,i.sual im~1gc
becomes impossible. T he different dis·
tricts wirhin the conu rbation :ue rlllls
L·xpcricncc<l as being diMmtt from each
m her. Kh.lftoum , in fact, is not a Cit)·
r - ,vhcrc you c:rn rnkc :1 walk ro get
acquainted \Vith the ph1cet \"le may s:-t)'
that its scnlc is in tune wirh the
surrounding count r)' a nd cv,·11 with its
position on the African continent. And
still Kh;u·roum possesses rh:tt inrimacy
which is ~l distinctive propetry of ~my
true place. The streets o( colonial
Kh:-lrtQum a re ;1ccomp,micd b)' arc:,uks
anti trees which give us spat ial foochold,
the narrow lanes . ,md courty;lrds of
Omdurman arc t ruC Hinterior worl<ls'',
:tnd in both rowus the suk , or markc.•t. is
a focus foJ' social life where 1he in-
dividual m;ty e:-.pel'iencc participarion
~md belonging. Herc we touch upon the
cssenc~ of Khartoum's quality of. place:
the combin~1tion pf grand 1:xrernal rcb-
tions :tnd true inrcrioriry.
Tht external rclmions of Kl,arroum
however, a rc not the usual networks of
r.oads and rnilways. Noc a single? road
conneccs {he merropolis with rhe l'est of
the world! To :,rrivc in Khanoum one
has to d ri ve through the surrounding
dc,serr. In t he desert no dircctlon is, of
primary importance a nd ,-1 feeling of
gencrnl openness results. This physical

114
 isril:uioi1 i1nplk·s thilt che figur~tl ch~rac:
rcr of the place is emph,1sized: Kh:1r-
iou111 thus possesses the ancient quality
of :ippe:uing as :1 11figurc•· on .1 con-
tinuous n~mtral b:1ckgr.ound, which here
is uniform :md wirhqut prominent topo-
grnphical features. Everywhere the
,desert is present; not only at the
R«iphcry of tl,e habitat it cmcrs ber-
wten th'C houst·s, but also ;u rhe very
cemrcs o( the rhn:c towns ,vc lrnvc I he
sand of the desert under our feet, ,111d
C\'t:r,ywhcrc we feel i,s infi-n itt t.'Xp.:mse.
Evcil in the wooded arc,1s close m rhc
r:iver, such as the attfacrive Sunr Forest
between Khartoum proper ·and the right
bank of rhe White Nile, the trees grow
as "individuals'' on rt continuous surface
of sand , During the ffcquenr sand
st6rms d1e dc.~crr becomes a rhrC·ntcning
existe nt ial foct.
T.he-~only element which is sccong ~n-
ough ro oppose the desert .is the Nile.
l}ut the rivtr dots nor bring any ilram~t
Into the ·_genes:ll calm 6{ the riatural
cnvironmcnr. Neither. it creates any
·endosed valley space within t he fl.u,
c~rc1,1dcd land'. T he simple unity of
narnral Sp.ice is emphasized by tJ:,c
immt~nsc, cloudless sk)'. and the intense
-sunlight which penetrates everywhere
:md mak,ts .any distinction between
nM,r,.'al ''cxttriors" ,ind "imeriors': mean-
ingless. lr i~ :1 kind o( pililtss worid,
which ;,(though ir. .offers man lifct leaves
it tQ him ~,lone to create a .space where
he can dwdl and del'elop the ,•:,lues of
community and priv:,cy.
In ·spice of their d_ivCrsity the T hree
Towns have one basic fact in common :
they :illow for dwelling in a ,iescrr
Ct)untry. Primarily rhis is schievc(I by
ei1Glosi11'g " " area by means of a fence or
a w:111. Tt':tditionally, the w:,lls were
m(lde of mud Ur sun~dricd brick, a
tt.-chniquc which is -;StiU comm.only us~d~
anq which gives l:ugc p,1rts o( 1hc Th,·cc.
Towns a uniform charac,ef. The houses

11 5

:ore :olso built of mud ,rnd brick, ,rnd
d1cir tot:11ly closed, prismatic shape
represents a cle~u response ro che chal-
lenge of ,he desert. Whereas the desert is
whac man has to escape from, and
accordingly was related by the ancient
Egyptians ro Dc;,rh, the house is a
protected world where Life may blos-
som. It is nor surprising, hence, that the
transition between these two re.a lms
becomes an imporrnnr, ..architcccural''
problem. In Khanoum , the emr;mce is
something more than a passage from the
public to t.he private domain. On the
richel)' decorared gares rhe colours of
rhe inrerior ;1ppear, to tell ;1bout ,,
friendlier world cremcd by man, where
the frc.sh character of white, light green
and blue substitmes chc burning yellow
and brown of the exterior world. The
settlement p;ntern which better answers
the challenge o f the desert , is the dense
labyrimh , and all the old villages found
w i1hin t he Khartoum conurbation as
well :i.s the town of Omdur.n1:1n, belong
t0 rhis archetype. Colonial Kha rtoum
however possesses a di[fcrc nt u rban
structure. And still it does nor feel
fo,·eign ro the p lace.
We shall return co this problem later. So
far we only w;mt to polrit out that the
Three Towns plus the villages represent
d i fferem interpretations of the ~ame
geuiu.s loci.
2. Sr,nce
An area of vasr extension gn1Virnrcs on
Kh;"roum. \X1 hcre;1s Ellropean ccilrres aS
a rule a re relnred w d efined regions of a
limited size, Khartoum is "surrounded»
b)1 '"infinite' expanses of sc~uccly po-
pubted dcserr and savannah. T he only
prominent structural e)emenr is the Nile,
which for thousands of kilomerres cues
rhrough the co untry from , he south to
l'he north. J-h1d it not been for the river,
the entire area would have appeared
quite inarticulate ns a geogr;1phical en~
184. Difl,;r:mmu,tic m ap of tht• Nllt•s.
1S5. '/'he! w.u~rshi:ds of Afric·a.
li;6. The Joe,,/ '>et1limu111 paui:ru betw~t•Jt d.-.~a1
mu/ fo11gi1mli11al ousis.
I 87, Tl,c· d(•st•rr tH Khartuimt ,
tity. The Nile v;1lley proper, however,
which determines the charncter of
Egypt, only starts further north . At
Khartoum rhe land is fhn, and is <>pen
to the surrounding regions, t'ather then
possessing the absolute self-sufficienc)' of
the Egyptia n Nile valley, or ,he for-
bidding indeterminateness of the Sudd
sw•Hnps forrher to rhe somh . This open
land lacks .-1ny t rue "mktosu·ucmre" .
Onlv a few shallow wadis break ,he
morioronous e xtension of che ground.
Natural pbces are rherefore rare, Ile-
cause of the conf1ucncc of the rwo Niles,
however, the expanse of t ht'. d cs1trt is
divided im.o three dom;1ins~ mnong
which El (::etira (i.e. "the peninsuht''} =-
between the cwo rivers is pa1.·ticul;1rly
dist inct.
The meering of geographical regions is
:fccomp;_mied by corresponding climatic,
ethnic and cultural relationships. Al'
Kha rtoum the rainless desert of North
Africa approaches t he humid belt which
crosses the cominenr m both .'iidcs of rhc
Equator. Accor.ding1y, veget;uion scMrs
to 111.1kt itself foh., at the s;11nc time :,s
rhe desert remains a fundamental en-
vironmem;:11 force. The great Arnbic-
lshunic dcseri c ulture is rhercfore rhc
primary existential foct. In the Sudan
however, t he pu re and abstr,1ct ab-
solucism of Islam meets the 111~1gic world
of Afric~- proJ>Cr. Khal'(oum is rhus :n
the centre· .of several ''wo rlds": the
"'eternal" order of the Nile vallC)' to the
North, the world of black Africa m the
South, the infinite desert to the \X1esc,
·and d1e h.1rsh iriou.nrains of Eri<.>pia
further :iway to rhe Eas,. A m;tp of the
wmersheds of Afric<t moreover shows
Sudan as an ' 1intcrior space· of singular
import,l.ncc, as rhc other African rcgiOns-
are ·rebued to a coast. The si111a1io11 of
Khanoum rhus o ffers m:-1n excellent
1)0.ssibilides of o tientation: hcte he is not
just somewhere in ,\fric;1, but in o ne 9f
the places from which geography may
116
 ... -
•
,.

•
.. •
••
•

......
- -
-•
·-- ---
;;
,..__
~

-----
. - -.
..--....- ..
..
. .. . . .....
. ..
..
.. ,
 be understood as a mcaningful system of
sp,ufal rd:1tionships.
How then docs rhe silt! S.lrisfv this
spaci:11 role? Evidently rhe opcm:ss·of the
lalldscapc is fovourablc, ,rs it docS not
put all)' narrow limits w t he place, at
the same time ,,s the: confluence of rhc
Niles fulfills rhe basic need for p lacl·-
ddiuiriou. The d i\1 ision of the z.onc in
three domains has alrcacl)' been IJ'1en-
t ioncd :1s ;1 m:1i11 srructural fc:m.rc. The
''longimdi.nal oasis.. along rh,·. rivers ,
finally, makes the pl;icc particularly
suited for sc:ttkmcnt. The natural land-
scape thcrdorc has a sp:ui:11 srrucmre
which g:uhcrs and expresses the geo-
gra1>hjc;1I relationships. It would be
tempting to mcmion T utt island in rhis
connection, :1s ir is locared ;u rhe \'Cry
cemre of rhe site. Being an islimd,
however , T uti docs not pt)ssi.:ss those
external relations which form an im-
porrnnt part of chc mc.aning of chc-
Khartoum connrbadon as a capit:11
cenrre. Therefore ir has been left in its
origi1l(ll state as :, liniited, ft:nile world
within rhe "v.lsr unknown" of chc desert.
Rmhl!r t han being the re~1l focus, T ul'i
illusrr:ues l'he o rigin;.~! serrl~menr pattern
of the· region. Here we may still
experience that ' 1li\1ing cell'' which forms
the basis for dwelling in the desert.
llecause Turi is left 0111 of ,he develop-
1nent'of chc capital as an urb:ln •·pm1·se" ,
the confluence P.Oint of the rwo Niles,
ivloqrcn , ns:sumes: rhc role of a main
foe;1I poinc.
The original s:errlemenr parrern found at
Turi, is :,t._o preserved in some vill:;1ges
within the arc:1 o( the co1iurbarion. H
we take " look m t he o ld agricultural
senlcmcnts which arc rod,1y incorpor;1•
ted in the urban rexrure of rhe Three
Towns (H:1lfoya, Abu Said , Hamad.
Khogali etc. ), we find t"har t"hey arc nor
located on the river, but beltveen the
river oasis and the dc.s crt. They :\l'C
witlH.irawn from rhc Nile, :md arc chus
vcr>' different from European rivt:r set-
tlements. lhsicallr they arc daser/. vil-
l:1gc:-.s, and the desert is cxpcrlenccd ;ts
omniprescnr. The pr:1c1ical re;,sons ob-
viously arc w preserve agricultural bncl
as to get away from areas of seasonal
inund:ttion. Uur rhe locarion of the
villages :1lso cxpl'esses the nccessit)' of
li\'ing with rll(.· dcsc:rt, rather th,m
beha,·ing as if it were not the.r e.
T he Three Towns prl·scn·c rhis archc-
t'yp;1I p:irtcrn. Evi:n in Coloni:11 Kh;H•·
wum we rind th:1r thl· urban stn:t·ts arc
separated from the Nik br " continuous
gn.·i.:n belt, and in all three towns the
urban centres lrnvc hardly ;my contact.
\Vi rh che river. In gencrnl we may
conclude that the b:1s:ic settlement pat·
tern o( Khartoum is meaningful, and
expresses a deep "understanding" of the
naru rnl siruation. The life-giving role of
the Nile onl)' becomes manifost if its
banks arc left as continuous green belts,
.incl the great exiscenti:11 fact of the
desen ought ro be fclr everywhere
within the habirar.
This docs not mean, howcvt·r, rhat the
settlements should spread our. A desert
village or rown ought co be de11se; rh:n
is, it should be something we en/er, a
pince we arc wilhiu, to find a foothold
in the:: infinite expanse of the sur-
rounding coumry . Bue ir would be
wrong to imerpret this density ns a
cluster of highrisc buildings.
The tn;lin e:<istcntial dimension of the
dese!I is the horizantal, and ,he Arabs
in fact have always preferred low,
horizontally extended buildings (except
in mountainous countiies s'udt as Yemen
or Marocco).
The only vertical clement is the slender
needle of the Minaret. which reminds
man rhat he .does not only (jve on ear·tt;
but also under the sky . The old villages
:-1s well as che cow11 of Omdurnl an
illusl'rate this principle of ''dense hori-
z.ontality ...
Colonial Khartoum a lso shows :1 co•
here11(! horizonrnl dcvclopmcm, and al-
though its geomctrical plan was im·
porred, t he town in gcncrnl demon-
strates :1 satisfactory understanding of
,he site. The embankment along the
lllue N ile, where North ,md South mee,,
is thus cre:Jtcd as :, continuous green
belt, bur rather than being a piece or
nature, it is interpreted as a "'balcony''
from which the role of Khan(mm as a
centre may be experienced. The in-
corporation of the cardinal points in the
p lan mon·over expresses the geographic.
situation outlined above,
The rhree domains formed by the
confluence of the Niles arc symbolized
by rhe Three Towns, and ,he three•
polar structure of the conurbarion rhus
represents a furthe r concre,iz:trion of the
geographic situation. Ntorco\'Cr their
spatial patterns arc:: in accordance with
rhc different role of the domains widiin
the wrnlity . This · focr is proved by rhc
:lltemarion be1wc.en Kh:1rtoum and Om-
dur1nan as ,he capiwl of Sudan. Where-
;,s: Omdurman is the ·•spc:uhead,. of an
Arnbic hinterland. Kh:,1rroum assumes a
more cosmopoli1;rn function. Today the
Three Towns are linked <O form a
''ring-structure', which well expresses
the new hiscorical siruation.
Two b:1sic rypes of urban structure arc
found in the T hree Towns: che laby-
rinthine wol'ld of the des:err scrtlcmcnt,
and a geometrical paner1i of "l)aroque•·
derivation which symbolizes a gc::neral
idcologic;il system . Of these , the laby-
rinrhinl' pattern represents rhc origirml ,
ver11acul;1r st)lmion. In foe,, it' is es-
pecially dense at Tuti, where rhe island
site adds a p:trricular '"imimacy'' to the
general inceriorit)' of the labyrinth. The
lanes at Tmi arc very narrow, and
conti1,uously changing their direction.
Variations in width . and breaks in the
space-defining w~llls do away w ith the
rests of simple, Euclidean o rder. As a
\18
188. rl1.:•8lr1r NU,:,,, Kh. m ow11 witli fo,1gi1mtim1/
°'!Sis.,
189. R ,·t,wdt•d /Jori:1)111:1I l,ou$t'$ ,,1 tbc /Jl'rip.1,e,ry
of Kt,a,tvum.

119
 result, the feeling of ele111ent:U)1 toge-
therness is very strong. In Khog~tli the
openne.ss of the desert is m9rc fclr; the
cluster srrerchcs our and the suec1s
widen sornewhar, The same is rhe case
in old Omdurm:111 (such "s the Abu
Rouf and lleit El Mal districts), where a
certain change in scale is also apparent,
indicating rhe hiscoricall)' more imporr-
am role of the town. But the basic
intcriority of the ·:\rnbic sctdcmtnl is
still preserved. The labyrinthine parts of
(he Three Towns were genernted by :i
gradu:11 clustering o( units, leaving the
streets as s:ccom.h't-ry "intervals", This
approach t() urban udesign" is still used
in rhe squauer serdemcncs along ,he
periphery, which thus repeat the con-
stituent principle of Arabic towns. The
, spaces formed in this way have an
eminentl)' human qualiry, changi1lg
shape and size according to the needs.
Only in the new city-extensions nonh of
Omdurman :md south of Khartoum,
carried out after the second world war
according to a master-plan by Doxi:1dis,
,•, , !!i,; l ., • the street is fakcn as chc point of
. ' tl. '' dcparrure, whereby rhc urban spaces
lose their traditional quality.
:_f·-) ' l~~.' \ \ . In Colonial Khartoum the circul:,rion
infrastructure is the pri·mary fact, but in
-.2:\ contrast co the undc.r crmined grid of
.rt.J. .
., •, "·,· 1,. -
Doxiadis, if forms a sophisricarcd sym-
bolic pattern which rakes general :1s well
as 10<.·aJ factors into consideration. It is
"! • '
~t f ,I \ probably true that Kitchcni:r used the'
' ,. •
"Union Jack'' as his model when he
planned the orthogonal and diagonal
streets of Kh:1rtoum. But the pattern
fortunately has a meaning which goes
beyond rhis "imperialistic" comenr. As :,
"cosmic'' symbol it also represents rhe
general natural order of the cardinal
points. Throughout · history the onho•
gonal axes were used ro expre.sl> any
;tbsolure S)'Ste.m_, .ofte1, in combin3tion
wirh a pronounced centre. In this sense
rhey we,·c also employed in the early

120
 191. U,b.w s1111ctt11t' (l\l11Jg:1li}. 192, T'1e IOmg,,li (/istrict of N()rth Klumowu.
I 9.1. S.1wm,tf' ;;>,!lt/.,m,·nt,
194. Street / r<)m the Dox imlis ,·.v:tensicm.

121
 19$. Old mafl of K.l,aruJ1m1 am/ Omdumum
sl,Q,ui,ig Kl,ariwmt bc/oll Jhit tlcstructi<m.

lsl,miic capirnl of 11.ighdad. In .Europc':rn

Baroque archicecmre diagonal :txes were
KHARTUM ANci OMDURMAN introduc.cd to express the i.opcnne.,;.-s" or
chc system. No wonder, hence, th~n rh~
same p,mcrn was adoptctl for rhc
•. colonial capital of Khanoum. In ·ad•
dition to these general properties, Kicct,.
ener's solution shows some particuJar •
craics which ought to receive due :ir-
tention. I( we rnkc a look at the rowa
plan, we notice an imerescing doub1ing
•
• ... "'o"' o::
.. 0 0 -
oo~o, of the main North-South axis. 1',1r:1llel'
sf O • • o ro El Qasr. Avenue (formerly VictQria

'
O 0 l40 0 O
:: o o o '! o o o o • #; •~• l
Avenue) which runs between ·the:: \Var
• 0 :)llo,• •
0
I o.. o o o
II C O o • of" Mcmori,11 (Railw:oy Srntion, Faculty of
0 o o : : ♦ o • d\• "..,

i-::~··
o•~t:: •
~-.. •°'.. O 0♦. 0
•
;1. .... •
~
I•• I O
0
O
o
Medicine) and the Palace, we rhus find
,morhcr equally important srn:et, El
Khalifa-EI Cami Avenue, which has the
great Mosque ;tt its ce.nrre. This sncct
0 .....
0
.,...,
~
.......
•
di\fides the m;\in square in cwo equal
..
'°:· • • halves, ;mcl i$ moreover symmetric,,11)'
r.elared ro the pattern of diagon:11streets.
... The plan from 1904 proves that this
state of affairs is _the original one. Thus'
"• it is El Khalifa-EI Gami /\venue and nor
El Qasr. which geometrically forms ~he
main axis of the urban networK, and it
• . is the Mosque which is (ound ar che_
very centre of the syscem. Its •qi/J/~-
orientatlon :u. 45° to the main axes
moreover makes it parallel co. the dia•
(i;J gonals of che "Union Jatk''. The dire·c•
...... <ions of the plan ace thu_s j11s1 as lslaniic
as rhey .ire BritannicL G1i this pattern,
·····,..... •ULJl::.ct..B the wide, dominant -El Qasr Avenue and
the Pa:lace ~re !iup~rim•p osed a.s ,a
) "forelgh", ~lbeir cemrally located , cguo•
:,
--~···,,.. tcrpoinr. Cerrninly trn ime"re.sting and
meaningful urban structure.
The .streets and squares of Colonial
l:l Khartoum form a continuous, difffr-
eocfaied public <lomain. We have al•
r.eadY, mentioned the primary func,tion of
some of -the avenues, and should ;1dd
that the ma•in east•w~st street, El Ga.m--
huriy• Avenue (formerly Sirdar Al•cn~c)
$erves as die ccmi:c's commcrcia,I SP.inc.
Between the green belt along the -Nile

122
 r?'6, l:.urd·KitdJt.'11,:r'i, fdrm / or Khartottm.
197, Tiu Cti~t M01it/Ut' of Khartoum.
19$. Colaiii·1l Klmrto:1111, IZ.I Kl,tJiifi,. f./ Gnmi
At'•'t1UC,

123 .
19.9. Comer kiu$k.
200. R,!sidetttial 5ln:ct in Onulrmn:m.

mld t he built· cown a1H)thcr mal1, ax-is,

El Gamia Avenue , is running ,.-.,st-west.
As it gives access ro pri11cipa\ public
buildings such as churchc-s, mini.s tcries
and University \formerly Gordon Col-
lege) which are located within the green
belt itself, it h,1d from the beginning n
tcprescnrnrive: function. lnrerpohm::d Der..
ween the rn;•1in urb:Hl corridors, we find
a secondary network of service .;tllC-)'-S.
The system is surpisingly modern , ,utd
corresponds tO ,he movemenr struccurc
advocated in recent tntffic-ln-cown
planning theory. In ,his system . the
sqmues do not serve as teal ..goals''. ·but
rache( as nodal points. The system
therefore never comes to an)' conclusion,
bur rcmnins "open ...., and w.1s in faC.t
cxtCnded ;u1d modified scvcrnl cimc.s!,
\Xlithin rhc public network of Colonial
Kharmum. private Sllaccs are ''filled in"
with a cerrnin degree of freedom .. The
typical dwelling unit is a suburb,m vill,1
of European deriv~1tion_, which is ad-
apted co local condit ions by the intro·
duction of perimeter w:11ls and garden
pottico<:s. Continuous pofti<:ocS also
accompany the commercial streets, dis-
tinguishing t hem spatially from che
streets of chc residencial zOnes which are
usually defined .by closed walls or
garden fences. Oftci1 the c·o mers of the
blocks Me cmphasizca functionally a nd
sparially •by arcaaes kiosks, a morif
which is· evidently taken over from "
loca.1 rradilion; such ki9sks are even
found a r T uti island.
In the vern_a cular pa us of the con-
urharion we encounter a more genuine
type of privare space. Here rhe _e nclo;cd
area i~ rhC basic uni~, ~tnd th~ perimeter
walJ ,,;id\ an ornace gate is frnd it ionally
buik ·before rl\e dwelling irself. Wirhin
che enclosed area rhef'c are usualh1
several oue~nfo.m houses, free-standing
or anachcd. t·o the pcrl1nerer. Th.e houses
divide the area into o ne p,ur f~>r men ,
which is located immediately behind the

124
 zm. CuurlYf,rd ;,, Omdurmm, lt(ms1;.
202. lmu:r (1vQ,t1e11S) corm;,, Omdttmrau house.

gaccway and ha-s a certain reprcscntmivc

function, and another, more withdrawn.,
for women, children :rnd domestic furfo:..
ti(ms in general. The rooms- are treated
.ts enclosed secondary spaces wirhin the
main space; the windows ;ue small and
t_hcir wooden shuners rare.ly open. Sitt•
ipg furninirc (chairs, sofas) is disposed
al.ong rhc perimeter, ci-eating thus :1
cent'raliz('(I order. L:,rge niches or
c61umnt d porr'icoes llKl )' form ti tr;\nsirion
bcni.,1ccn rite. ..:ourtvards and the: rooms.
In general th~ Kh;1rtoum house reflec.ts
rhe craditionaJ interit>riry and subdivi-
sion 0£ the Arabic dwelling, but the
aispo.s(tion is less fo,·rn:il (urban) than in
the typical Norrh-Afrit:m dar, where the
courtyard tends to be a regular square
ccnu ed on a fountain .
9 ur discussion of rhc settlement pattern
and urban scructure. has sh'own drnr che
Khacroum c.onurbation ha~ a im;1ge,1ble
and meaningful spatial organization.
The very sim1>le spatial elements offered
h)' n:.m1re, are rnken as the poinr of
dep,,rrure for ;1 man-made environment,
wtiich facilitates orientation and in:mge--
making. As a t()talit)' rhe confluence of
rhe Niles and the T hree Towns form a
very "strong" Ge-stair,. and the differen~
urb:.tn ·strucuuc::s of Omdurman and
Coloni:,I Kh:irroum creme a meaningful
complexity within the totaliiy. The
image of Omdurman may be described
4
as.- a ' cextural <lomain'' or duster t
ccnrred 011 a double node formed by rh.e
lvlahdi Square and the s11k. Khartoum is
'i geometrica l network, within. whic.h
landmarks :ind nodes arc distfibmed
accordii1g co cheir fu nctional and sy1Tl-
bolic· role. Khartoum Nortli is less
disrincc, but possesses ,rn impressive
landmark in rhe Khog:ili mosque and
tomb. T he· Three Towns are united by
the blue-green belt of the Nile, which
:ippc,1rs as a natural figure on a desert
ground.

125
3, Cl1t1rncrer
T he n:ttu rnl charnctcr of Kh:utoum is
dercfmincd by rhe con,rere :1ppear;1ncC
of rhe site. Undoubrcdl)' chc mosr
prominent clcrncnt is the sr,ml of rhc
desert. T he inhabiranrs of rhe Three
Towns arc so to speak born from sand;
rhcy have sand under rhCir feet rhe
who1c life, aud :,re buried in sand when
t hC)' dil'. An<I sand is omnipresent, not
o nly as ;1 material. but as colour and
cexture. hs fin·e ·gn1in ~ccms ro express
rhe effect or the buring SlHt on the more
solid materials which nrnke up ou.r.
earth, and make us again r<'mcmbcr the
:indent Egypri:tns w ho builr artificial
mo.unrnins, pyr;,mids, ro wirhst;tncl the
desrructive for~es of the desert. Sa11d is
dms rhe unifying ground of this world,
and its golden -brown-grey colour rdatcs
rite s:m1e world to mareri:lls as diffe.renr
as pr,cciou:;: gold and dircy mud. In rhc
shon rai ny season, in foct, 1hc ground is
trnnsfonm:d into ,, continuous mire,
whcre:.s chc setting sun m:1kcs t he s:11ne
surface" become a golden field. The
f>rcdominance of sand gi1•es the land-
scape :.\ barren character. But it is nor
the barrenness of rocky and moun:
cain9us regions where che varied wpog~
raph)' still gi\;e.,; nc>llrishmcnr ro man·s
Imagination. A flat· surface of sm1d__,
instead, do<:s: nor offer man)' possibilitic.s
of identification , it is indceci somerhing
ma11 de.sen~. \X'hen chis is pr:iccically OQ.l
posfible., man has to (\dcl ~01i1erhing
himself, which allows for identification
with a wider rang(•· of existential mean~
ings.
Jn _ Klfanoum, howe'\'cr_, nmure i'tscl(
of(ers somerJ,iog more. The rcli:iblc Nik
makes il poss.i6lc, to endure the descrc,
and the oasis along its b~mks gives .a
promisr: o f life . .An Q~tsis, however, is
n.oc somerliing • ◄llicn to the desert.
Rather che oasis g,·ows 0111 o/ the desert;
it "dwells'' in the de.Sert. T he palm rrec
expresses rhis rclatio1iship particul.1rly

1.26
2(H. 'rhe •,l;,•sor.
10S. rli.; Nif.: :,t Conkm "s T ri/1,

127
 well, appe:tring suddenly out of the
sandy ground whkh is left as such, and
rising high before it unfolds. in :l crown
of large leaves. The palm tree therefore
dot-s not create any microsrrucrure, it
does not define spaces within space., but
only represents -an invirnrion for settling.
It offe~ man frtendship rather than a
house. llut the mil, slender trunks
inrroduce :1 rh ythm in the monotonous
expanse of the desert. Obviously the
trees arc nor growing nr equal intc.:rvals,
bur their simple fo rm and r~larively
unifom size create :m impression ·o(
spatial regul,trity. The palm grove is
probably one of the archetypal images
which have determined the lay-our of
the eady Um.Jyyad mosques, with their
"forest"' of columns. If this is true_, it
impFes that the palm grove was under-
.stood -as a s.icred pl.ice where rhe
life-giving forces become manifes.t wi1hin
the ''dead" desert.
Wmer is not enough to p~oducc a
n)anifcsradon of life. The life-giving
fo rce />ar exc~llcnce is light. Here in the
middle of Africa, .t he intensity qf 1he sun
,is· still $ttoni;er- than even in Ei:)'pt. In
face it becoincs a rhrear to lifc3 • Nian
cannot live without rhe ~un, but here he
also has t ~ a,sk for P.tOtcqion against its
terrible· radi:11ion nod he~<. The lii;h1 i~
without nu3nces; with full intensity it
fills space under a ~lou.dless sky. No
subtle rransi1iops le.id from light to
shadow. Ei1her you dos~ the ~un QUI, or
you are exposed to its full impact. The
light of Khartoum therefore ~as "
placc:.consuming radier than :1 place•
creating function, ;111d completes that
narund world which w<.~ have alread)~
char.acrerized as "pitiless". Here dwelling
becomes a problem which asks for
elementary and srrong interventions, and
archirecmre is ureduced'' to true cs•
semi.tis.
~or wonder, hence, that the architec•
furc of Kharu;mm has a distiricr and

128
106. Palm ln'tl ,;, front of Klmrtom,i Pafocc, 209. Oft/ mml an:hitec;ture.
"107, Old Omd11mum. 2 IO, Old hopse fo Omd1m11att, amrt,)-au/.
208. Ver,iact,lor (m:hitt:clurcJ at it$ b~st.

uniform charac-t~r. Ext,erimem~ a~d p,er~

sonal idio•syncracies are meaningless in
tHis world; if you do not obey to the
1
' laws'' of the nacural envirQnm.e nt, life

tieeo1t1es impossible. The dependence of

man µpon nature is first of all -expressed
through the use of local materi'11s and
coloucs. The vernacular houses of th<><
T-Hree Towns are made of mud or
sun-dried brick, and also the burnt brick
traditionally employed in more import-
an~ public structures, adapt the buil-
dings 19 the character of the given
cn.vironmenc. The pet'imerer wall which
1s the primary clement o[ the dwelling,
appears as a continuous, enclosing sur-
face. \Vfodows arc few ,md small, and
i,t older houses 1hey ·ha,•e a round form
which characterize them '15 .holes in :1
closea wall .' Corners and cornices a.re
-also round, and thereby emphasize -the
m~lssivc chacaccer.. Ar the same time the.
wall gets a band-made, huma,iized ap-
pearance .. The only clement which
breaks rhe somewll,u· monotonous cour-
se -of the residential lanes and srreeis,
~re the beforememioned gateways,
which signal the private world bebtqcl
rhe walls. {A richcly ornate gateway is
also a sra111s symbol). The pronounced
enclosure of che private domain is in
accordance with the social str'ucture of
the .'Arabs, which, on the other liancl,
also developed rhrough an interaction
between man and a parcicular natural
cnv.iro.nmcnt4 •
'l'(arure, dwelling and s9cial Sttucrure ·are
hence interdependent aspects: of one
organic totality. The plastic modelling
and "s6fi:' derails, hovitevec, are Afrkan
rather tlian Arabic. The Arabic ar-
chitecture of North Africa in foct gives
more ·emphasii co reb'lllarity and gco-
metrization5. The vernacular ar:chitec-
ture of Khartoum thus represencs, ~n
interesting synthesis of Arabic :\uo Af.
rican characters.
When we enter c"he interior of the

129
 dwelling! that is t the private domain
proper, we encounter a new environ-
menral character.
Herc the descrr is no longer the domin-
ant force; the wall has.dosed it out, ,llld
the green of vegetation nnd blue of
water subsriruce the sun and sanG
colours of extcdor space,
Traditionally plants "nd water ought 10
be present> and in addition pani'tions
and ocher architectural clcmcms a.re
painted in rhe same refreshing colours.
The glazed tiles used in Arabic countries
arc however lacking; the archit<.·cture· of
Kharcoum is less sophisticated. But the
basic character is rhc same; a characcer
which stems from the need co crc:ue :m
'' inside" where life is protccrcd phys-
ically and. psychologically against the
pitiless world oucsidc. hi :-1 cleserc coun-
try ir is- necessarily imagined (IS an
isolated, artificial garden, · where• those
mcaniJ!gs which cannot . prospec pucsidc
are concreti1.ed. This '"inside" may be
likened 10 a living cell. As such it cannot
·grow ;\nd conquer the hostile, environ-
ment, but more cells may be :id.ded until
,. a true organism_rt.'Sults. \V/_c unclcrstand t
thus, char the characceristic rypc o(
rt{: ~ ~;~ additive setrlemem pattern described
,•• ~ r..L-
i~ "fr!/_ above, seems from the concretization of
a particular environm<fntal character.
r~ ~;:
~ J ' '

Even in the simplest Islamic dwelling

this is the . c:tse. such :ts th~ Bedouin
•' J rem, where .l'he brighr colours of the
blankets and tl,e centralized disposition
of the. beds and the hearth make a
simi_lar intCrio.rit}' manifost. ·
\Vhcn~ seve~al priva(e compounds are
added up, " public domain •is created.
li"his domain consists of several com-
po_nents: the. Semi-pdvatc ··access street,
the public corridor srreet,. and the
eminently public suk, where che profane
functions of social life are focused. Jn
Omdurman aiid the. vernacular · village-~
of rhc conurbation, the charncteristic
Islamic blind alky is relatively rare, but

130
 2 '2. €dl,J11i.•1l.lrouse ht Klmrtm,m with lvr1ic:
cohmt}1s:
l lJ. ;r!J( K.b:.rrromn suk wit!, arcath1s.
l H. Amu/es Jl1 Colonit1/.Kharto11111.

the residential streets anvhow have chc

private and somewhat forbidding cha..
meter Rnown from other lsl.unic cpwn.s_.
The private character is ·obviously deter-
mined by the densely spaced, closed
perimeter walls of the dwellings. Jn
Colonia1 Khartoum, insrcad t rhe hot1ses
:uc open to the cnvironmem: colltinuous
portitocs run along chcir fronts, .mtd die
enclosing wall is ofrcn substituted by a
transparem fence. A Nordic wish for
~'conwcc with nntun~'' is .echoed by rhese
forms. The very substance of the bull-
dings is also ohang~d: instead of
amorphous, ..ropologic.al'· waUS w~ find
columns, ;trClics and i1rchitrnves; .char is,
rhe :inrhropomorp:hous elements of
classical Eu°ro12ean architocturc. T he
columns arc rhroughour Ionic, prcf~l-
brkarcd -of concrete! The .classical mem-
bers ns well ~s the. _open porticoes.., give
rhe coloilfol houses a· semi-public ap-
pearance, a_. char;1cre1· which was not
quJce ~ut of pince, considering th.:tr the)'
we,re built for the pc9ple who ruled rhe
country. Even. today the houses arc
inh.abircd by government ·o fficials and
-- --- - - -- - - diploma,s!
Similar ponicoes were used ro char.1crcr-
i1.~ rhe public buildings of Colonial
Kh,mou111; ill smaller buildings prefa-
bricated Ionic cohimos were also cm-
ployc::d, whetCitS rhc main structures
shµw specially cl~signcd, mqnumental
versions of the pottiCo rheri1c. . In tiJe
commercial streets an() marker iu:eas the
porticoes join ro rorm continuous ~,.-
c.ades. As :,1 result,· urban space Jmer:1cts
with rhe volume of the buiJdi'ng, <•x-
pressing- its public Character•. ?'n urbtiti
"inside·' is thus <areated.., which is en•
hanced by the inrroduction of trees.
Kitchener-, in 'fa't r, had 7,000 rrees
phintep in Colo1iial Khartoum. Along
the Blue Nile embankm.enr they create a
kind of ··,rnmra] p.o(ticot' which forms' a
beautiful tcansiti9n berwccn the built
town aqO rhe river landscape~ The

13'1
132
 21S. The Kbtlrtoum l!m /,attkmem s;renfrom 'l'uti.
216. Tl,e Kl1,1rt()r1m (8(11.: NUe.) emba11kme-111.
217. 1'1,,., Kbarum,~1 l!mba,ikme111,
2 J s. ·rhe o,,,d,ummt suk• .typfca/ dllf!.y.
219. T/u:..Oi1rdum111,,-suE , mtiin street.

urban spacts ol Colonial KhartQ1iri1

therefore de, nor follow the Islamic
principles of cicy building. In the Islamic
city porticoes nre usu:,lly employed
around enclosed courtyards; togecher
wirh rrees and warcr th.er b~long to thar-
intei"ior world described abO\lc~. In ac-·
cordantc with :1 European concept of
the citv, Kitchener turned chese enclosed
"'oases'' inside out• rrnnsforining thus (he
whole urban milieu into ~t human
.:,lternative to rhe desen. The solution
may seem foreign co the place, and the
wide streets of Khartoum m<1y indeed
Jose rheir spmia,J meaning under the
imp<1cr of the burning sun . They are
saved, however, by rhe arcade~ and the
trees, and rims cxj_,ress ;1 new possible
way of dwelli'ng in.. a desert ,c ouotry7 •
Similar ~rcades have also been i.ati:O·
ciuc~d i_n th_~ main ·sueer of 0mdur·m·a n ,
which leads up ro the sttk area. In rhe
suk itself w,e expcr.ienc~, instead, the
Arabic rype of public milieu. Being the
largcs1; m;ti'ker .o'n the African continf!nt 1
it consists of a large number of densely
gr:ouped one-story Shop compounds,
separared by narrow lanes. The interior
furniJh ing of the shops follow the
U-partern already encounrered in the
Arabic dwelling. Such units add up 10
form rows which open on the. lanes.
The}' are nor, however, joined ro·gether
br common nrcad~s. Racher che.y main•
rain a ctrt,lin independence and flexi-
bility, which is expressed by varhuiqns
in emrance verandas and r.o of over-
hangs. Wood, mecal ancl conc(ete
predomin.ue here, not mud and brick as-
ill t he re.sidential-aceas.
The arcaded po_rticocs which arc a
'characteristic feature of t~e public ar-
chirecrure o ~ ·Khartoum, are distinguish-
ed by a ~ather- unusual articulation .
·Rather than consisting of ·a regular
sutct-Ssion of similar intervals, they
create a mo.re coml')Jex- rhythm where
wide ancl narrow intervals alternate. In

-; -
22(). Kiosk witl, rl,ytl,mia,lly dis.posed op~•11in~s.
22 1. Mommwnt,·1/ co/'111131ard:itectun:.
121. Lord Kiu/J,:ner·s Ptilau.

rhe corner kiosks this trc:wmcnl' becomes

a basic morif: .-. wide arched opening, is
flanked by m1e narrow slot on c:u;h side.
T he shop-from proper (mosrly of wood)
is usually placed :1 couple of meires
behind rhc ourer wall. In the con1111crcial
areas se1•et:1I such facades may be linked
together , forming a more o r less con·
rinuo us series of arcades, where rhe
alternation o f w ide ~uul n:.rrow openiugs
gives rhc urban space a livelr but
ordered rhyrhnl.
In most of the public buildings designed
fo r Lord Kitchener, this facade ar-
cicuhnion is adopred and varied in a
foscin;uing way. lcs recurrence.· in al-
most all buildings of imporr,rnce pro,·cs
rhar it ha,s been dcliber~ucl)' i111cnded_,
and it is moreover varied with much
undersr;indi11g for che building task in
question.
Jn some snrnller structu res, the typic:ll
Ionic columns ,,re simply placed :1t
rhyrhnfrc:1I inrcrvals. In a la rger building
such as the Gnt!ld Hocel, the rhcmc is
used to form a transition be1ween chc
wings and chc main ccntr :1) rtt$Sm,lt, In
rhe ministerie.s and the.· University,
r hythmically placed columns ar<.' en·
gaged with piers co obtain a "mon•
umenrnl" character. (The University
mol'eover has pointed :1rchcs_. probably
co recall rhe Gochie.colleges in England).
In the Palace, finally, rhe widrh of the
a rches becomes •.-t flexible 1neans ro
define rhc prim.1ry and second:\I'>' axes
o( rhc grandiose layout. As historical
research is lacking, it is not possible ro
furnish :1 sccurc- imerprcr:uion of the
interesting motif. lt is certainly not
European 'i mport, and neither it can be
reJ:-ued ro rhe regular rcp{!tirion of
intervals which d isringuishes Islamic
archit'ccl'ure. ·re is tempting ro under-
,st:1nd the solntion as ;111 Africm, (Egyp-
tian?) rraic, which Succeeds in giving the
impor:ted forms a local srnmp.
Buildings h:wing a sacn:d chnr;,ctcr ~tre

134
 223. ·rbe P11laa tVitb r/Jy1hmi, u/ly 1li$ /ll)$1"(/
d /U.Wittg;t .
224, 1\fou1111: mul toml1 in Klw;:'1fi, North
Kh11ruumt.

refati\!cly rare in chc Three Towns. The.y

are mainly of two type.s: squa re hall
mosques flanked by skndcr minarets,
and domed tombs. The m.:ain mosques
of Colonial Khartoum and Omdurman
t'.(rc. based in dw simple grid pattern
which distinguishes the sacred spaces of
classical Islam . The articulation of the
exteriors therefore docs noc show rhe
rhythmical rrearment· discussed ;1bovc.
The Mahdi ,omb in Omdurman and t he
Khogali tomb in Khartoum Norrh lrnvc
srec1>, pointed domes which may reflect
the in0ucncc of rhc circu lar hu,s of the
region.
Our d iscussion of t he architectural
forms and articulation has shown rh.u
the Three Towns possess a meaningful
universe of chnr;lcters. The natural
environment is simple and st rong, a nd
dcLermine-S the general ch;uacrcr of che
milieu. This does nor me;rn , however,
tlrnr it s:Hi).fies man's need for ick·nri-
fic1tion . .-lhhough he has to be a
friend of the desert m dwell here, he
ulso has to add an artificial world of his
own. That is. he ha.s to wirhdrnw inro a
j,~)'chologicaliy and socially meaningful
''imerior'\ from which ht may return to
the desert :1s a ~•conqueror" eirher
through the loc'11 adding up of such
interiors (dwellings), or through the
prop~gacion o f their cultural message.
The Khartoum conurbation is ro a high
cxccm determined by such "messages''
from ,he omside: Islamic, European or
African, but ,hey have been adapted to
die p:l.rticular local conditions, co allow
for ;, human idemificarion which is not
merely culmral bur directly related to
rhe place.

4, Genius Loci
The landscape of . Khartoum has a
pronounced ''cosmic" qu:lli[y. The in-
finitely estended, roadless desert, the
easr-wcst trajectory ·o f the sun, and the
south-north axis of the Nile create ..1
. . -.. -- r .-
135
singularly powerful 11:uurnl order. Mere
rhc c,1rdinal points :ire nor only infcrn:cl,
bur dircccl)' "'visible'\ an<l hl11na11 ex-
istence becomes pan of ~1 comprehensi\•e
and stcmingly ;1bsolmc srsrem. T rans-
irions :md nu,mces ar<: ~tlso lacking;
everything h:1s its precise 1ne:\11ing. The
cvlours which in ,he Nordic world are
prt:gnalll "'irh pocrical possibilities, are
hen· reduced tO :, few basic functions:
white is sunlight, ycllow•brown-grcy the
s,md of the desert. blue the river, :md
gree11 vegcrarion. T hese colours }1re
:1p1>licd to ch;uacccrizc things ;rnd
pl:lces. such :ls the "a nificial oasis'' of
rhe inrrovcrt dwelling. The mosr ftm-
d:HnCut;-\I pl:icc srructu.rc of Khartoum in
fact consists in rhe dialcctic:,I r<·lal'ion-
ship between imroverr dwelling ;md
infinirc but absolute environment.
Bm Kharroum is more. \V./e have also
emph:,si1.e<l its l'Olc as a mccting-pl~rcc.
In a mceting-pl:,cc v.u·ious spaces and
char;JCrcrs arc gat'hcred to serve a
complex form of life. Her<: ,he con-
Auence of rhe Niles makes such :,
coming togerher narural. The quality of
meeting-pince is therefore not :, his-
toric:11 product, bur part of che basic
place srrucrurc. tkcausc of it's pm-enrial
signi(ic~,nce as a ccntr(', one wo~1ld
perhaps expect rhac che site ha<l been
chosen for a c:,pirnl from earl),· times.
Nlosc old centres, however, have develo-
ped as rhe focu.s of one particular
civilization. Khartoum~ instc:,d, is loca•
i-cd betweeu the hisforical regions, in a
kind of ' 00 man's lancf''. In chis respect
4
its loc;nion rcscmblt.-s th~H o( Rome. at
the time of its found,nion . \X1hcrcas che
peoples which met in Rome: lived dose
together within the s;1mc region, l'hc
confluence of rhc two Niles was for
away from the particular foci of thL'
surrounding civil iz:uions. l<h:u·coum
therefore ha<l to \,·ait for the g,·car
intcrn;n ional movements of Islam and
Europ('an colonialism to assume irs foe.al
role. The T hree Towns make che focal
role m~nifcst, and their different cha-
racter gives tesrimony to the ..:ultul'~ll
plurnlism of presem•d:1y Sud:111. At
Khartoum , Arnbic, African and Euro-
pean ••forccsn arc gathered. a foa
which is directl)r expressed by the
colourful public lire of rhe city. White,
bro\vn -and bl.tck pcopl<: in Europc:m i
,;\r;lbic :ind African dothes ininglc 1 and
the l:1ngu:1gcs sp<>ken arc legion . Al•
though Khartoum is difll!rent. the visi-
cor docs not feel a srr;u1ger.
\¥./hcre,.ts ropvlogical 0111<lu1·11Mn rcprc:-
scms rhe ;uchctypal settlement· in :l
desert world, the geomecrical phln of
Colonial Khartoum .srerns from a sym-
bolization of the "cosmic" order de-
scribed above. T he 1>hu,. l'hus, com-
prises rhe coordinares of the compass
::,s well as the directions of the Niles.
MorcovGr it cont:tins di(tgonals which
cor,·e~pond m the qibla. The artificial
grid-iron hence becomes deeply 111e;1n-
ingful in Kh:utoum,, ~md we may sus-
pecr that it w;1S chosen for chis reason,
r~cher ,han for its resembl:lncc to the
Union J:ick. llur .1lthough the use of an
abstract symbolic form may help man
co find a footho ld within :1 comprchl'n-
Sive tornliry. ic docs 001 offer ;m )'
guarnnree for s..1risfoctor)' dweJling in
l'he evcryd;l)' sc1~se of chc word. To
solve this problem, ponicoes were in-
troduced whkh do not onlv offer
climatic control . but also ;l cOncrcriz-
arion qf the potentia l o pcnnc.ss of t he
grid. The porticoes arc thus accom-
p,mied by rhyrhmic arcades of· iadcter-
minate exte·nsion. \'v'hereas the trnai-
rio na l IQcal house is introvc'r t, d,c
colonial houses are exrroverc, and ex-
press a different rel:1tionship between
m:m and n.arure. lnsceacJ of retreat, we
may talk aboul "conquest". In a desert
world such tt conquest r(.'m,tins an
illusion, but the excroverr buildings
anyhow make :, cont'inuous public
milieu possible, whkh a llows for
modern forms of human interaction.
In general the qu:11ir)' of place ex•
pcl'ienccd in Khartoum stems from the
meaningful imcr~1ction of 1,:1mrnl and
culmral "forces... The different culcurnl
rraditions ~1re ada1,cecl co the loc:11
siruacion and get roots , whik· the n:t-
tur:11 $ire becomes pan of a more
~omprehensivc cont('Xt, In 1his way
Kharroum is :1 rnu: plac.c; loc~l :lnd
univcrs:11 at the same fimc. In cxisrerui:tl
cenns we might s;ly chat d1l' deser~
represems :1 cballtmgt: to m;u1, with
ck ,)th .\S an ever prest.·nt possibilicy. The.
river, howeve,·, introduces .1 promise,
which chrough the :lppear;mce of vq;t.'.l-
ation becomes a r,~al bope. This hope is
concrerir.ed in human dwellings, chat is,
in t he interior oases of t he house o( the
Arabic-n:rnacuh\r secrlemcnts and dtc
~1rc:1ded and tree-lined scrce1s of thC::
color1i:tl rown. Finally, these solmions co
the problem of dwdling are creared
within the gencr~1I "cosmic'' framework
of the natur:11 situacion. Thus duf
"vocarion" of Khartoum ;ls :t ph1ee is
fulfilled, a fulfillment which is carried
through down co the meaningful derails
of ;irchitcctural ~u•ficuhuion.
The historical '"self-re:1li1.;uion .. of Khar-
w um staned with the senlemenr :u Turi
island . Being surrounded by \\farer, Turi
docs not ask man for :my further
rerre;n~ but :1llows him co dwell within
its "interior'' space. Before any ;1rcificial
oasis was crcacccl i T ut'i was chere,
offering a fund,m,cnrnl lesson in rhc :lrt
of dwelling. The next step in the
development followed when the village,
·of Omdumian, Khartoum nnd Khogali
(Norl'h Kharcoum) were founded ac the
end of- che sevenrecnth century. Not only
do they represenr a propagmion of the
concept of dwelling ''discovered'~ :n
Turi , but they "lso define ch:u three•
polar strucrurc which coucrctiics rhe
g~neral structure of the site. \'v'hen
136
12.S. 1'/11• Whit,• Nif,• at ,,'1mi1'f.
~Z6, Afo•,•ing•/il.•itt:: /;l.icl.:. im m(gT(mls ,•,, foilat:1,
Kltm11>:m1 Smith.

Khartoum became 1hc capirnl o( Turco-

Egyptian Sudan in 182.3, its natural role
as a cc ncrc w~1s recognized. O n gco-
graphic;1) gl'ounds Khartoum proper w:-,s
chosen as rhe prim;-trt elemcm within
the conurbation. It is in fact situated
bcrwecn the- N iles on the narurnl north•
south a xis. Judging from ~he old pie-
= ;._, rur.cs in the J/lus11111e,I Lomlou Nervs,
the <levclupmem of Khartoum h:ippcned
- . witho ut disturbing the gt~ncrnl character
-~ -: of rhe ha bifa r as a horizont:illv extended
=~ - .-. cluster of imroverr compou1-ids. \X1hen
rhe Mahdi moved rhe capir:tl ro Om-
durm,rn in 1885, the ro le of the place as
a .spearhead of Arabic desert civilization
was stressed~ whereas LQrd Kitc hener's
reb(1ild i1ig of Kh;uroum represenrs a
return ro rhe "cosrnopolirnnt-• intCrpret-
arion of the site. T he last fundame nrnl
step in the definition of chc p1"ce
structure wa~ raken with chc ring of
bridges w hich joins l he Thl'ee T owns
wgct'her to form an inrcrncting, albeit
differentiated totality (J 909, 1929,
1963).
Our brief ren•i;.trks show how the geuius
foci of the K harcoum conurbat'ion was
understood and respected in t he past. In
spite of t he dra matic history of the
place, it.s suucrure survived ;rnd was
dcliberarcly used and developed by rhe
successive rulers. Tod;w ,his structure is
fairly we ll preser ved, but the impact o f
the forces of .. modern Hfe" srnrcs co
make irsclf felt. The need for "planned
developmemu thus induced the govern-
ment· of the Sudan to commission a
~ master plan for the Three T owns from
the Greek archirccc Dox,iadis ( 1959).
Without demonstraring rhe slightest
undcrsranding of the genius loci., Dox-
iadis placed an orthogonal grid over rhe
whole conurbation , forcing the na rurill
Gestalc as well as the various senlc:ment
structures into che same hbstrac t
suaighr-j:1cket.
Fortunately the plan h as been recenrly

137-

abandoned, a11d :t phrn more appro-
pri:nc ro the place is now being carried
out11 • a plan which is: b:1sed on ;rn
understanding of the geogr,,phical situ-
arion, the regional settlement pattern,
the urban structure, and the local
building typology :ind morphologr; in
shnrc. on ;t respect for thegeniu:; {od.
VI
ROME
.I • .lmoge
Rome is generally known as the ''Eternal
City". Obviously chis name indicates
something rnore than a very long his-
tory . To be "eternal" implies rhat the
city has always conscn'<:<1 its ideutUy.
Rome, in fact, cannot be: undcrst◊od as:
a mere colleccion of relics from d ifferenr
periods. No explanation is needed 10
become, :,w~lre of the "eternal" character
of Roman :irchitc..--cture·; it is immcdimdy
evident , whether wt srnnd in front of n
building from classical Anriquiry or a
B~roque structure. lllC "e1crn~,I" qualit)'
of Rome rherefore resides in a very
Strong, perhaps unique. capacity for
self.renewal. \'v'har, rhen , is rhis "se)f''?
\X1 har is rhe ld,!,1 rommw in :u:chi•
cectural terms?
The common i111;1gc of Rome is that of
the great capital city, the coµul mw1</i
of Anriquity and the cenrre of the
Uni\'ers..il Rom,m C:uhoHc Church . In
concrete terms rhis im:,g.c implies monu•
mcnt,1Jity ~\ncl grrmdelz,1. t\nd Rome is
gr:rndiose indeed , :1lbeir nor in the: wny
we might frnvc expected if we come
from one of rhe many dries founded by
the Rom:lns in rhe v;il'ious p;,rcs of rhe
Empire. All l'hesc cities have the same
lay-our, and we may rcc:1II the basic
scheme: a pair of axes) chc cartlo :tnd
the d,!cw11am,s, cross each ocher orrho-
gonal\y within " reguJ:1r quadrangle.
The Roman city, thus, was distinguishc-d
by an absrrnct, "absolute'' order, and
b~c:-m~e of this quality it served as a
model for many capitals of later epochs,
Bur Rome itself docs no, obey tQ any
comprehensive gcometdcal S)'Stcrn; from
Antiqui1y on it .1lways appeared as a
l:uge "dusr.c r" of spaces and buildings of
v:.lrio\ls size and shape. In Rome tfi:e
absolute S)'Stem of l'he crossing axes is
con(ined lO single elem.e ms, such ~,s the
/om and che thenru1e. J\ more com-
prehensive axis url)is may be found after
a closer scrutiny', but it does nor
138
dcrcnninl· the immediate appearance of
the dry . le is therefore evident that the
genius loci of Rome docs nm first of all
reside in :-tbsrrnn order.
Perhaps it is l';irhcr dcicrmincd b)' :m
exccnsh·c use of ch1ssical forms? As the
c~ipiHtl of Amiquil'y, Rome ought to
possess 1hc harmonious ct.iuilibrium of
dassical ~ttchirccrurc :md i(S :uuhropo-
morphous presence. Bue Ro1ne is quire
different from a Greek dry. T he hmer
w;ts disringuish1..~<l by buildings which
appcMed as arricul,uc bodies composed
of 1'individual" members. The Rom~m
building 1 on 1he conrrnry, w:., s concci\led
,1·s :ta imcgratcd whole. ~1s an enclosed
space rnthcr rh:m ;\ body. Morco\fCr it
was to ;:i h igh c.-xtent assimil,uccl by a
superior urb,m rm,1liry. The dasSical
OtderS- arc rhere 1 bur they do not h~we :l
constimem funct'ion . Evidenrlv Roine
c:mnot wichour rescrvmions bd char.ac-
tcrizt~d us ;\ "ch1ssical" city. For- :t long
rill'1c, in fact~ Rorn;rn :1rch irc..:rnre was
c~1n~idcrcd a degeneration or Greek
archiccccurc.
So for our question abom the Roman
genius lod remains un~mswered. \V/e fed
its strong and ''ercrnal" presence, bur
how should ic be explained? Most
v,-lluablc contributior1s ro its understand-
ing have been gi\·Cn b)' Kaschnitz von
\'vcinbcrg aad · l:Gihler, bur their in-
vestigations- c.:cnrrcd on grnsping the
varieties of d:1s.sical -..1rchiccctute, 1·acher
th"n the drnrncccr of Rome. as a place2•
Among t he works of H. J>. L'Ornngc,
however, wt find :t profound and
poetical description of Rome ln pheno·
mcnological terms·\ l.:Or:rngc docs
nor rake rhe single buildini; us his point
of departure , bur wan rs ro understand
the urban c1wironmcm as a whole. Thus
he characccrizcs the Rorn:-tn street \vith
rhese words: '' .. . the sclf-sa,isfied, en•
closed world of rho srreer is the charac•
1eristic <1ualiry of old Rome: a comP.lete
world , a small universe, an Eden from

140
141
2JO. Tl, ,• Rum,1,r c.,,mp.Jg,111 .u lbf! b.•;.:i,mint of 132. Tiu i\lb:.w hillsf rtlm 1J,1~.ulr 11Jith tasr, tli
1h1.• Sac.-.:, ,·,,/1,•y. Ntmi :m(t M u ntf' {:.iwt.> i11 1l11• bt1d.tgrmm1I,
1.1 J. l~orre a, lt,rrlNmum. lJJ , r ,1ft•Mri1m.

which Nordic """' is expelled; rhc idyl

of tht.· strcCL, I sho\dd s:tr"•1 • And he
goes on describing thl' conrrctc proper•
rie~ of rhe Roman sneer, its enclosure
and cominuiry which :u e derermincd by
the lack of sidewa1ks ;11)<l srnirs in from
of rhc cncranccs. its colours ;md smells,
:Htd irs puls:ning. nmlt iforious l.ifc. The
Roman scrcc1 docs not separate the
housesJ it· unifies chem, :rnd gives you a
fcding of being inside when you arc
out. The Street is an "urb:tn intc rior'1
where life rakes plate, in the £ull sense
9f the word. In the J1ia zw this char~\Ctcr
is emphasized; rhc houses surround the
space, ~md the centre is usually marked
by a fo umain. 11T he pi:1zz~, may be
planned or bt.· :1 rtsult of historical
g rowth; always it crysrallizcs as :m
enclosed figure. ,iiways ii is idyllicall)'
rounded"' .
To use the world '"idvl" to char;.lClCl'i7.c
rhe Roman genius loci ma)' at first secn1
sur1>rising. How e;m the capirnl of rhe
world be "idyllic"? Obviously \\'C do
noc have a kind of srn:d l•sc,,le imimacy
in mind, such ;1s we find in rhc villages
and towns of Denmark. Rome is mo-
numenral and grandiose, but m the same
time its S(>aces h,we an ;'intcrioriri'
which give us ,1 srrong sens<.•. of pro·
reccion and belonging. First of all,
however. Rom('. ha~ cOnscrved a certain
'"rustic simplicity" which brings na.ture
close. Ha rdly any o,hcr grear European
city expresses t he s:1me closeness to
nacure, ,u,d hardl}' ,my ocher place h::ts
in the s;m1c W;ly humanized nantre. This
might be , he essence of the Roman
genius loci: the feeling of rootedness in a
''known" namral environment. To
u ndcrsc:md Rome~ we therefore have to
leave rhe dry and experience the sur-
rounding 1:mdscape, rhe Roman c,,,,,.
/)(lg11a. The char:1ctcr of the campagna
does not consist in '\•io lcnt contrasts
between forms ) in a powerful jux:•
rapositio n o f mass a nd space, mounrain

142
 ::ind v~1llcy I but r;tth('r in ;l certain
majl'Stic trnd conrrollcd d1yd11n in the
articulation of d1c m,,sscs 1 in :.1 sub-
ordination of the single figures t() slowly
rising Or" falling mcwcmems"'-. \X' ithin
rhe gre,1t unifying movemems o f the
Roman la ndscape we may, howcn·r,
discc:rn several r)'PCS which ha\'t rhdr
distinct :u1d profoundly meaningful
ch;.1rnccc r. These lanclstapc:s :are "ga-
rhcred" b y Rom('. ; yes, it is rhe very
c:-.:isrence o( Rome which 111:~kcs l.arium
become ,1 unified whole.
T hrough ,111 :rn'11ysis o( the landscapes
o( La rium we mav t hreforc a rrive at rhc
ne~ded e xpl.a natia'n of rhc genius loci o(
Rome, of its various components and
l'hcir interaction. First of all we have io
travel to the srnrnge, "sunkcn~1 v,1llcys of
Etruria, where "idyllic~· spaces arc closed
in b.y continuous walJs of·golden-brown
cufo. Originally the sire of Rome· had
this c ha racter; t he famous seven hills
were not rcallv hills I.Hit c rests between a
scric.s of blind valleys along the Tiber.
The. Errusc:rns used ch·c sides of such
valleys for tombs and cellars, :111d built
their villagc-s o n rhc crests . Tbis: was
:ilso the pattern of ancie nt Romi:, and it
coustitutcd the rruly local component of
its genius. Thur hs imporrancc was
recognized, is proved by d1e foci' that
the altar <lcdic.a.rcd ro 1he genius loci wa.s
loc:ucd immedi:uely under the steep mfo
rock of t he Palatine hill'. Secondly we
have co visit the Alban hills on the other
sirle o( Rome, where we fi11d a basic.ally
different landscape. Herc rhe gods of
:\miquiry arc <lt home, Jupiter I Jurio i nd
Diana, and t he narurnl formS arc ·in focr
discinguished by "Grecku clafiry and
presence. Finally ,ye should go ·co
Palestrina, wht.·re rhc C(lrdO-decummms
scheme for the first rime was realized on
u monumental scale. At· Palestrina .1
ucbsmic'' •order seems present in t he
l.:111·d~c;1pc itself, and it is nor surprising
that the place was dcdicaced to the nilt

143
2J.J. l..,u -;:i1J , di.'tgr.mmullit m :l p .
235. Fum· 111 C/Ji:,.

of Fortuna , rhar is, fore. After these

excursions we nHl)' return co Rome w it h
:1 basis for undersr:mding irs genius loci,
and for cxplnining t he me~rning of t he
cit)' as caput mwuli.

2 . Space
The Roman region is of volcanic origin.
To rhe west and cm bot h sides of the
Tiber, the land is covered by :, thick
cruse of old hwa and ash which is
known as tu/a. During the millennia
wmer courses h,wc dug d eer> valleys and
r,wines in the volcani"c cruse" in lrnlian
called forrtf. T he forrc appear as sur-
prising interruptions of t he flnt or
rolling campagna, a nd as the)' are
ramified a11d imerconnccred,. chcy con-
stitucc a kind of "urb;Hl" nerwoork of
paths, a kind of "un<lyrworld'' pro-
foundly diffcrcnr fro m t he c,•cryd:iy
surface above. T he camp;igna hardly
offo,s other mnural places; during the
centuries the area around Rome had in
.fact an almost desert-like appc,1rance.
The forrc rhcrdore had a prim:iry
place-creating function , nnd innumerable
villages have rnken advanrnge of rl,e
pro tected and identified si«s formed b)'
t he ramifications of the forre. (Surri ,
Ncpi~ Civita Castcllan,l·, B:ubarnno,
Viw1·c hi:1110, e1c. ecc. ). ln t he fo rrc o ne.
has the feeling of being "inside", a
q u,ility whic h is more ofren experie nceQ
in environments wirh a var.icd micro•
srrucrurc, than in the grand and per-
spicuo us bndscapc.s of the classical
South . The forre have been extensively
used during the course of history. In
certain pl:1ces (No,·c h ia , Barbnr:111ot C a -
stel d 'A~so) thL· Etruscans trunsfon ned
the nnrul':ll rocks into continuous rows
of Mchitecmral foc;adcs, cr,·m ing thus
vericablc cities for the dead . le is
important to point our rhac rhc cx-
cavarion of cufo rocks is an ~u c hccypaJ
way of " building'' in large ~larts of rhc
Roma11 region . Today it is still a
1.J6, v;u,rdu:11:0.
:?JJ. ti.twu nu tomb it! Vl'w. cxt'av:Jtt'd itJ th,•
1tifi,.
23$; f tJrr<' (I/ N,m:hi,, wil li etrusc,m rock -hewn
facad,-r;.

145
23?, Tiu: Alb,m /,ills :vltl1 Mont,• C;u.vJ In th,· 2-f J, 'flu: umplc offort"'l(I tit p.,,/(~1,rm,.
f ougrow u/ twd I..JgQ d i N,:mi 11ml l.a,mvfo i,r 1J,,'. Z•tl . Vlt!w / r() m the te,,1pl11 c;/ Fort,m/1,
l1t1ckgrt·111ml.
2-10, Mmmt Sor.,ct.-.

well•known p rofession to be a grot•

ft1iolo . rha r is 1 ;m cxcav,nor o f artificial
caves. In general the fo rrc bring us close
t Q t ht.: ancient forces of rhe ea rth; t hey
bring us ''inside.. ;rndgivc us root:s.
Whereas rhc bndscapc of rhc forrc, is
under the ·:neurrnl1 surface of the
1

can,pagn,i, the Alban hills rise up to

form an impressive ;111.d well delimited
mass over th'<.~ever>1day ,vol'ld1 . Being an
old volcano , the /\)ban hills have •
simple shape, anJ their clear tOPO·
graphical fc,irures :ire emphasized by the
prcscn~e of rwo :,lmt>st circular lakes in
the deep craters. The hills chus possess
the basic property of the cl;issical land-
scape: ;1 disrincc and c.::1sily i111:1i;eable
cclarionship berwce"n masses :1ncl spates.
Ntf wondel', hence. char the nlilin
sanctuaries of Larium were located here.
On the top of Monte Cavo (A /ba,111s
M ons) Jupiter Latiaris presiclt <l ov<:r the
, ,1 hole region. In rhe woods o n t he slope

of rhc. mounrai11s 1 Dian:t reigned , mir-

roring herself in the calm and deep L11go
di Nemi. and on the other side of the
lake_, in l.anuvio (Lamwirrm}. where:: th(:
sloPc is cultiv~ued ,.1nd lcs·s · srecp, Juno
had her temple. It is hnrdly accidental
rhac rhe sanccuarics :tre lined up on a
nonh-sourh axis. Eveq1 spring rhc 47
members of· rhe Larin conJcderarioa
cclcbr:ncd l'he h :riae /..atiuae on dw top
of Monte. Cavo_, confirrnin~ thus rhe
importance of lhe Alb.an hills as d,c
c,m lJ'C. of rhc . n;1tural rc:;glon of Larium.
T he hills in fact formed the nodal point
for a S)'Stem of sanctu:uies . If we
continue· the ..sacred ax•is'; to rhe south,
,,~~ reach Anzio (r\11tium } where there
,v,~s a cc~mplc dedicated to Fortuna.
Towards rhe north the s~1me axis brings
us ro Tusculum where Castor and
Pollux were :u home 1 and w Tivoli
(Tilmr) wh.e re He rcules reigned over ~
wilder kind of environment. T he main
sancrnac.ies of Latium thus formed· .1
n~rural ct1rclo with Jupircr at rhc cemre.

146
On the other si9c .of R9 me rhe situ.-H ion
wa~s different; a nticnr Etruria, Was con-
quered by the Romans relatively lace,
and the wood-clad Monte € imino for a
long timt· rcm~li..ntd ;,in unsurmounrnble.
c,bsrnclt. Toward~ lhc north, however,
where t he . Tiller 1•(1llcy reaches the
Rom:•\O c~1np~gn:t, w e, find an isobted
and very ch;1r:_ictcristic natural pbce, the
mo~mtairt c;,f Soracte, wher~ the.. temple
of the o ld sun-god Sor:111us wa~ located,
lacer m be idcnrificd with Apollo.
We undcrsrnod ,that "Rome ,iS situated
berween r,w o ,different worlds: to rhe
wesr the chr~onic world of the ·forre,
ancl co the <',isr che dassica) landsc:tp.e. of
the gods . Around Rome, keeping both
world~ ac :1 cerrai'n dist:mcc, we find the
c:lmp,_agnn prppcr" which cre.1~cs a kind
of paus~ before o ne ~eaches .the· m~n-
,made synthesis of t he ciry. ,
But ~liis in not :<II. The third basic
comp0nenr 9( t'he Roman geu.ius foci,
rhe etitdO-'</eamnmms scheme , i's also
P{CStnt ill the naturnl surr<)ui1dings. In
Palestrina a large sanctuary cle4icarecl to
Formna was built about 80 B.C. 1" . Two
old sacred pla~es in the steep hills.idc
were rnke11 as t he poim of deparmre for
the new by-out: a circular telllple of
For.tuna P rimigcnia from the third cen-
tury B.C. > and a srnrne of Fortuna with
Jupiter and June) in her lap. The.Se nvo
elements were incorporlued in :1 grand
scheme of axially disposed terraces. The
:1xis functions as ,i cm'<lo which le;1ds
the eye between the Alb;in hills and the
Lepine moul1tains t0\\'i.1rds the diSrnnr
se:1. Below ihe sanctuary rhe wide and
fertile Sacco valley, which connects the
.Roman regiQn wid1 Ca11.11~m1ia fe/ix,
nms ·rowar~$" the easr, crossin'g the
nonh,- sourh cartlo like a decnm,mus.
Jts direction is repeated in the terraces:
of rhc s~nctuary, which thereby :1ppears
;~S a grandiose concrCtiz.atlon pf che
11
cosmic0 order which embraces· rh'e
whole' landscape, W hen a ·Roman place
 _· -1,. ..•..:~: ~_: \ ' . ,:- ,. ·« ' ~

;: •:..
~ /4"-1' ...··~. .
.-~~ ~-,,;·- ..
'
··•.
.---..
... .•• ,-
,
'!

,. . .
..
.. ...--.. .., - .-..,. I/
' \. I•, • • ... ,,/'
_...-- . . '., :--··.. .,..,; !... -,· .;,,,··
.- • .,r
-i--, ' ~• ""'
-. ·,' ·,,.• :• ,,t~:r, . •,...\._
~
was consecrated,_ the: aug1tr seated hiin• '\I ·.1 - ..ac. 'v' . , ..-i, •..,_ ~ •
self ~ir rile centre, and with his stick Ji: -r' , .• -I. ,;, . ):
(/itut($) he definecf the two main ;txcs; i ' I - -:'"~' • , :• , ,~.~.. -1 -g,1i:l~ ,e, ••'• I ••~•

dividing space into foul' do1n:'lins. This

division rtprc.·sentc-d the cacdinal poincs,
► • ~ - - ~ ~-
~-;~..,.
and the space which w:1s thus ar-
ticularecl within chc boundary Q( the
horizo11 w:lS c;1lled the tem/J/um. T he
_" '
' •~t-·,).
·: ',.,
. ..
sanctuary of Palc.stri11:.1 illusrmres· rhis 1
procedure, :md because of the cor-
,
~~
;. •·' :.~
...71.
respondence .bcrwccn 11cosmic" scheme . 1"'
and 11:1turnl sire ic ''proves"' the \'alidity
of the scheme. i~ ·~·
The seven hills of Rome do nor suggest ~i ~
any ~osmic o rder•1• R:tther irregularly
five of them ·protrude from the cmn-
pagna rowards the Tiber, nc,u. the island w..•
\\fliich made the pass~1gc of rhc river I ~ ' -
easy. Betwcc□ these hills and rhe Tiber r~ I ". ~~ .....
' ..;::t.. . . _
two other tufo rocks rise more freely
fro·m the plai n along the river, l'hc
,!.; .."'
't ) -- ..
... ,,!.,\._
t'- ,.
C::;\pitolinc and 1hc Pal:uinc hills. Uc.·- I , ,,

. ". - ......--".~
tween !'I ll 1hc hills a kind of b:,sin is CJ' "'
formed, " hich is t'lu.· natural centre of
1

the wholt cQnfiguration. Further to rhe

.t~· .

wesr a l:irgcr plain , rhc Campo M.tndo,

is embr:1ced bY' che river-. Being exposed
and swam py, ir remained outside rhe
urb~n :1rca ulllil the tec611d cc,in,,,y B.C.
On rh~ other side of the Ti6cr the
topographici.11 condirions are simpler; ·a
rufa ridge running nor.th-so,u th, chc
Janiculmn~ defines <1 ~maJler p:lain which
in due time shquld become the ~uburb
of Trnstcvch;. The site of Rome, elms,
belongs co tht: charaGteristic world of
the forl'e. Hur it is not justl one among
many possible s ices . Nowhere else al0n·g
the Tiber an equrilJ), "st rrint' con•
figurnrion is found, :tnd in the wh.olc of
Errm·ia there harclly cxi:;ts .; 1 .similar
cluster of hills, which is so well pr('dis-
pose<l fo r a "conurb;nion". (n ea rly
rimes RQmc in fact consisted of several
scnlemems, whi.c h, like the villag·es of
prese11t day E.rruri;1, were locat'ed aloog
the crests of the hills. Among these
settlements, however ~ o ne had :1 p:lr-
 NJ_ ·11,e sen:;., hills of Rimw. 2·'5, Thl• Via Sarra with tlu! 1Hlm11 l,i/1$ u/ tin•
l•M, ....\~1t :11l11J, .dtmm~ .
146. Tl,,· "Centro Mommuwtal.._" r>f A,ui,111it)'•
.Hori,•/ m rhe M1ut!o d,dhi CirJilui Rommra.

ti.cular p6Sitio.n and role: Ronw Qua-

clmta on ,he l'ahuine hill. Acco·rc[ing to
k,gend rhis scu'icrncm was founded by
Romulus and Remus in 753 H.C. , ,rnd
the- n~mc indica'rcs char ir rnight h,we
pQ~l'"SS~-d a Cardo ,1nd :, t!ecummm..s.
lhe axis url,is o( the ·c:onurbarion,
however, was the Via Sacrh leading
:1long the common Porum in the basin
(icrween ,he hills 12 , h is hardly a
t:oinddcnce that· rhis :~xis connects the
Jupircr temple on the Cap:itol with the
disrnnt Alban hills! The '"xis . 11rbis
represents the first attcmpr ro 111:1.ke
Rome somrthing more rhan :l cluster of
vernac.:uhrr scrrlemenl·s. The fact ·that the
~,xis symbolic~lly extends towards rhc
018 cenrr:e of Larium •.shows· rhar the city
wanred m assume the ri>lc of a true
,urban plac.c which "gathers" the• sur-
roundings .
..From c;1rly times, thus, Rome possessed
:t ''dpublc'' spatial structure: rhe ver-
n~t'1.1lar du$rer of. serr1Crm:ms with roots
in the c:mh to which ir belongs, and t~·e,
..:1bscnicc axis which made the city
·b_ccome the foc~s or a mores; com-
prehcn~ivc totality. T~c main p(jlpCrcy
·of the first componcnr is rhc "idyllic"
enclosure of the urb:rn sprfccs. the
s,econd, instead, :1ims at axial s.ymmcrr:y.
\Xfl,cn these.~ two c:ompq_ncncs are com-
bine~ , :1 particu1'ic kind ,of mchirecrural
unif comes int'<) being: an ~txil,llly 9rde•
red enclosure. which m:w1 be co,isidered
the b.asic element of R om;1.n ;.1rch'itec-
m,c. Aucienr Rome litcr:ill y consisted of
such units Serving various fun'ction.S:
fom, thermae, $,rnmu,-uies 1 palaces,
a.u:ium housc.s; :,ll of , hem nre axially
ordered enclosures. h 1s inipqn~u11 lO
1tt>le that the un its constrvc .1..ccrt:1in
lndcpcndcnfo within the urban rotality.
'fhc)' arc oot assimilurcd by ,my superior
geomcrrical system, but arc "added''
~ogether lik~ cho incLivillual buil_dini;s of
the das$ical G(eel< ~en lctflcnr. 1"hu~ we
:,r:rivc ar l'he third fundamental property

149
247, Tl11r pl.dn v/ Pop1!.S1'xms \~. F,,•sco ,111111! 249, ZSO. The c;,,,Jn'tnlin't:. SJJll11ri;. by
V,uiq w. Midu:latt}!do.
248. Thi· trid,•m of l'fo:,::11 ,1.-1 1•opolo.

of Roma11 space: thr classical image of

an environment consisting or discincr,
individual p1accs. There is, however_,
o ne imponJnr difference: whei:tas the
Greeks added up plastjc "bod.ics'', the
Romans used sp11ces ns units.
During t he course of hi.story the spatial
structure of Rome was Stl'enghtencd. :md
enriched. The '' idyllic'' enclosure was
given c ve1· new interpretations, bur its
hasic importancl.' was never cloubred. A
truly domina nt syscem of streets ,xas
therefore impossible in Ro me. The llxis
url,is of Antiquity was emph<JsizecJ
chrougli rhe addi1ion of new buildings;
bur ir ~1lwa)'S rcm::iincd implicir rather
than cxplicic. Firsc of all it gor ;1 ccnrr~
whl.'n • the Colosseum w;1s bui1t in the
s;1crccl v;,ller between the hills (A. D.
7$-80). T he Colosseum ccrrninly h:ls a
meanin~ which goes bc)•Oncl it's: prt1ctic:1I
p4rposc:. J t,'i central lo.c ;nion oil rhc axis
and its ova l form suggest that it was
imcnclcd as il "world theatre" where :111
the peoples umlcc the ·ru le of Rome
could coml~ together ar che very centre
of rhc Emp.irelJ . The' 11xis urbi.s was
moreover extended to the other side of
·the. T iber bv the conSL'ruction of n
circus, where· is the V,uiC-an t()day (4Q
i\.D.). Finally we may me11rio11 rhc
temple of Vcnus ,md Rome ( 120
A.D.c.t which also sr:mds o n the· axis.
Having r.wo cell,,,, b;1ck to back, it
visualizes rli'c doub.lc e~ccnsion o.f the:
axis whieH srmbolizcd chc role of Rome
as C4/Jul 1iumdi. T he cvem· of Ch-
risti:miry clid not, cl\~nge the urb;rn
structure. As lrns been cOnvincingly
poinred o ur by G uidoni. Consrnnrinc
c'hm$formecl Rome symbolically into a
C hristian city by. locating chc 1wo main
churches o-n the dxis urbis: the church of
the Saviour · (tqday Sr. John in yie
l..me ran) to the south tlfld St. Pererr$ ~(l
the no rth 1-1 . Later a symbolic "decu~
manus·· was :1ddCd betw een the churches
Qf St. l'aul and St." Mnrr (S. M:iria

150
 Maggiore), whereby the sign o f the cwss
was put over the whole city. T he· ~enrrc
of t his cro ss was sci II che CQlosseum ,
which w.a s evitlem!y a~ce.P,ted by t),e
Christians as a cosmic symbol, a symbo l
whose fall would mean "the end of the.
world";
During the Renaissanse and the Bjiroquc
se,1cral atrernpts we·re m:.tde t6 give
Rome an integrated gl:omctrkal struc-
ture. T he most ..radicar and comprchen•
._siv~ Ch,tnges were p"Jannecl by Po·pe
Sixtus V ( 158·5-9P) 15• His principal aim
w~is ,to connocr the main religious foci of
the cit)' by means uf \yide, Straight
srrt!ers. Sixrus V imcgrnred in His so•
lutig,i• fr:1g1nen1.:t of resular Rcn:1issancc
p lanning ~arried OuJ by his prc:-~cccsSors,
in particular the trident ,,fPiazza dcl
.Popolo, ,Vhcrc three sncecs branch out
-co connect tl)C main ci.t).. gart! with
<lifferenr urban· districts. In general t he
1>hm of Sixtus V sh o uld make t he
individual sacred place btcomt pnrt of a
_co mprehensive r.e ligious System, Ir is
highly significanr-, ho~vevcr, thar the
pl.rn renl8ined ;, fragmenr. An abstract,
. superior -S)'St'em of the kind did not suit
the 1~:om·~rn geuius lod, and during the
-8ar0quc epoch, attention was again
switched over ro rhe crearion of separ~~te
u rban . foci. The enclosed impe rial forn
of Amiquiqr \VCJ'C l';,tken as {I model, and
;t scricS of trul>• Rom;m spac.c.s came into
being. ·
T he first, and urb;rnisrically most sig-
nificant urban interior was cre:ned ril-
rcady in rhe sixteenth cenrucy. The
Capitoline S<ju:Jre by Michelangelo
( 1539 · ff.) w;1\ inrcnikd as a ne,V"
manifcsrntion of Rome as capw ,mmd;,
that. is. as ~ central place whkh syin-
b.o lized rhe role of Rome fo t he wor.ld'" ·
Bm Michela n~elo di.d not give t h~
square an open, radiating lar.~our :.is was
nornml :-u rhc time. Instead he m,1de an
cn'closcd space delimited by converging.
fac;a~cs. A longimclin::il :-txis \vas ho w-

151
eyer incroduced, which deprives th('
p lace of ,ml' self-sufficiency. Th.e syn·
cheSis of enclosure ~rnd dirccu:d mm•e-
mcnt is concretized by the oval which is
inscribed between the buildings. The
sr;ir-slrnped floor pattern of the ov:\I
cremes ,1 strong centrifugal movement
which contrasts with the converging
fa~adt.s. _Because of the simulrnneous
sparial r;xpansion rind conrr;1crio11 there-
by ·obrai11ed , lhe Capitoline Square be-
comes one of the gr,·a.rcst inrcrprcrati<:m.s
of t he concept of p lace ever conceived
l1y man. Ir. brings us l'<'> the centre, not
o nly of the world, but psychol<igically
,11s0 of l'hosc departures and returns
which constitute, our individual exisrcn -
ce.
The greatest of :,II BaruquL" squ:m:.-s,
Piazza San Pietro by llcrnin'i ( I 658-77),
simpl)' tonsists c,f ;1 monume1k1l colon-
nade .w hich delimits ,m ov:•11 sp:lcc'-.
Tn.e main :lXCS or this oval :1re ckarl r
defined an.a the ccmre is marked bv an
obeli~k. Again ~ thus, we cncountei t he
double rheme of enclosure 'and direction ,
which has here been reduced to itS very
cssepth~ls. The t:Q1onnad.<: tmclos.es. $pace
in the simplest and mbsr cmphalic
m:.1nncr, :md at the Same time lers rhe
11
.. imcrior communicate wich the sur-
rounding world. The basic spatial scruc-
rurc of Piazza San Pietro is, srrildngly
similar to that of rhe Colosseum, and
,v.e ma}' i n t his. connecrion recall char
Constantine subsrirured the Roman
l>uf1ding with a round for.um cnclos<:<l
l>y colonnades when he planned Con•
SNrntinople; a foru m which had :1 npdal
function :m:llogo us ro rhm of the "Col-
osseum. Piazza San Pierro h:,s indeed
become 1·he uCw mcetin1,; place of :tll
mankind . as was intcm.k·d by Bernini·.
a11d ic fulfills this funcrion wichom
.giving up its Roman inrerioricy.
It hns been s:.1id that Rome is ::1 citv
wht~c one- feels "insidc1-f w hile bcin~
oucsicle. T he imcriors o f the main
 2-:5 I. 251: f'f:i:.w &m Nt•tro by Bmlim. l .53. The ,·,mlu of Const,mti,,c$ Bt1silico.
2S•I. lulem,r of 1/ie Pm11lu.•011.

buildings mak<.! us l'xpcricncc this intcr-

ioricy in condensed form. The most
imROrt:mr conrribmion of the ancient
RomtHlS l'O the hiSl'OI')' or :trchfrtcw re
was in focr the crearion of gr;rnd interior
spllcd; :md groups of such. In Greek
archlle(.1ure sp;1«.:e is ZI mere "in-be.-
1wc.•l'n~·. secondary ro t'he surrounding
buildings. In Rom(•. i11src:1d, it became
the primnry concern of architecture, and
was treated :,s a "substance·, to be
shapea and arriculatecl. T hus the spaces
show a, grc:1r v;.1riety of forms, ;rnd ~1rc
oovered bv v:iuJcs and domes which so
(ar had o;,ly played :1 secondary rok in
architC9'ure. To make chis possib le:, the
Ronrnn~ developed :1 11ew building
technique,, .- kind of concrete which
was cast. to Jorm cominuous walls and
toverings (opus. caemcuticium). Tlic Ro-
roan cQnceprion qf interior space found
i,s grandest m:m~fostation i.n rhe Pan-
theon (A.O. 120), where :i circular
room is enclosed by a continuous,
m~ssi\fc-w;-lll. The elldqsure, howe,;~r.., is
inrcq>enetrared by a loni;irudinal axis,
nnil thus the building yisualizes the b;isic
spatial properties of the Roman genius
loci, fn th'e Pantheon .man's existence on
cartl, is imerprernted •~ ''idyllic" sojc,urn
and dynamic conquest, and both inter•
prerncionS" ate made manifest· under ;111
''ercrn:11'', hca,vcn ly dome. (n the Pan-
tl:ieon, thus, e:~rth and heaven are
uniccd, and the Roman "idyl'' is under-
srood as the rcOection of a general
cosmic... hannon~,. During rhe hjsrory o(
Roril~\tl ~~rchitccmre rhe sa'm c cheme.s
h:l'vc been subj·c ct w ever nc\w vriri;tr-
i6ns. Let 1is, only mtmion l'h l· enclosed
w,)rld of the Roman />nlaz.:o, .the dia-
lccqc. r:ehtrionsMp becwcch cndosur~ .and
axis in Miche_la,1selo's Sr. l'ercr, and. the
High Baroque intcrprernrion of the same
chcines in Borromini's Si'imlvo.

3. Clmractar
Wc.;h~ve alrea(ly pointed <mt thar Rome

153
 255. ..R<Jma,,·· lm,dswp,• (ft Cfl,ir:, Cn'1dlm1:1.
2S6, Etru$l."(W m ( k-/J,: wn j flc,1d,•s al S..m Ciulitmu,
Viterbo.

is loc:ued between two different

''worlds..: The chthonic world of ErrUria
and the dassic,l woilcl of tho Alban
hills, and we h:wc implied that the
urb~n environml'nt reflects bmh or
them . \Xie have, however, also maln•
rnincd that t'he narnr:,I site of the city
rarher belongs to the duhonic domain.,
and suggested rh:,t the streer:; and p;aue
of Rome have tht: for re of Euuria as
their concrete model. In Vergil's .Aeneid
we find ~,n illumihming dcscripriOn of-
the site: ,;Nt-xt Ev:.nder showed t\Cneas
:i hirge grove which bold Romulus ,~as
later lo make his sanctuary, .~tnd, under
a dank crag, the Lupercal, the Wolfs
C:1Ve, whiCh is muned in rhc. Arcadian
foshion afwr the Wolf-god , Lycat,111
Pnn. He showed him also 1hc sacred
gu>vc of the Argilcrnm , and explained
how on this spor Argos met his demh,
:lld1Qugh a gul'.S\'. From rherc he con-
ducted him m the Tarpei"n Rock and
the Capirol1 which is now a.II gold , but
which was once wild and converc<l wi1h
undergrowth. Even i1, tho·sC days thtit
spot held a sinister awe of irs owrl,
which inspired fe.1r ,md dread in ,he
country folk, who rrcmblcd ac. the• tr'ee~
and rhc ·rocks. Evander ..:ontinu~d: i.This
hill wid, its WQOdcd cr.C$r iS 1hc abodl' .o f
some god, bur · it is nor known which
god he is. The Arcadi:rns believe they
have seen Jupiter here, shaking the dark
aegis in hi.s right h:111cl m g,1th~r the
do,uds i>f stOrm""·· And, indeed, Jupiter
got his temple on the Capiroline hill,
Ecom where he tamed tht.· oG:culc. forces
of rocks :n,d wood·s . T he p:iss:igc from·
Vergil is. highly significam •s ir makes·
rhe original ge11ius /o6i" become alive.
Today' the rocks """ hills of Rome have
lost mosr of th1:fr presence, as the
ground h~ts risen J 0·20 metres dur..ing
rhc: course.,of hisrory, :111d we have to go
to Errurin. to rediscover,, the bndsc,1pe
}' '-, ,, wl~ich ucdu1.:.;m.~d the eyes·' of che ancient
;,.,.;.....-..~ .~-·".. . :, Romans. In rhp forrc of Etruria we meet
 257. Ho1,us m Vitt.m.:l,i;mo.

what P:iolo Po.rroghesi appriipri.a tdy h.as

called ;"Ro me before Romc·~ 1,. Here we
find 1he golden-brown colour of Piazza
~:wona ·and the .Rom:rn srrcets, nnd we
find ,fie ~ofr, malleable tufa which has
<lcrtrmined rhc Roman sens(• of form.
Although the landscape of rlre forre h:,s
some pr.opertic.s in common wil'h t he
rC)nmncic l:mdscapcs of the Nordic coun-
tries, ic .is basic.ally differcm. T he forrc
do not cc;mstitutC any infinire, my-
sterious- world such ·as 1·he Nordic fores t.
but consist of dclimiled im:1gc;1blc
, p,,ccs. And rheir relationship tu the sky
i:,,.ilso differc,11. T he wall$ of rhc forre
do nor cn<l in a scrrnre silhouue, but are
suddenly Cu t off by , he n,H camragna.
11hus rhey end like ,1 row of buildings
nowned b\' a l'Ornicc. T he Et ruscans i1l
facr rra)1$fonned the wall:<i inro se1ni•
, l.issical fo~,1tlcs (Norchia ). Rather than
bdn~ a· toma nric world in the Nqrdic
sen~, rhe. forrc thcrdorc- fc:p.rcscnr a
'tprc•d:1ssic;1)" world, a world which still
w(lits for being humanized. .
lfhl' vernacular archirccrurc of the Ro-
hlan region is closely ccl:uc::d to its
n:nurr1I charnctc1·. T he ho uses usu.-illy-
h:,ve. :t s.implc prismatic .sh;.~ pc with a
sloping roof which hardly projects
~cJ•ond the wall. Mostly rhey arc joined
rnge~her in such a way, however,, tha.t it
i~ 1101 easy to distinguish die single
units. TI,c general c-h~1rncter is· rna~sjve
and enclosed; the wi1\dows ace snu-tll
and are cm inro the w~-t11s like ho les:.
1°hc t)l()St common building mmcri.al is
tufo blocks_, whose colour may var,y
from ,d~1rk brown t0 yellow 1 grey ;-tnd
black. The softness of the maicrial and
the rarher irrcguhir joining of the blocks
make the buildings sc~m "model led"·
rather th~n "built\ an imprc-ssi()n which
is .stressed by the c<>ntinuou$ bur ir-
regular rows, of fot~10es.,. Rising ui, fr.om
rocks of rufo, 1he house$_ nppear ~,s ~-
more prtcise \1ersion of➔ rl;.e natu(al
lorins, and usually che \1illagcs :tr(.·

155
2.i9. Old stm!.I in tlht GIJiiuo•
.?60. \ "I.a Bilwatlca, forum u/ Tny',1f1•
.?6 I. Vi:J ,Id Cv11, r,u, V,rcahio.
0
162, /'i1/{n'<.O ddla Crmcellafo.
161. f',1/,1:,w Mm simt) It)' Pc·m::.:i.
26-t. P,·1/:1:w •Fin,1t·s;,_• liy A. ,Ji, Sm:Jft1llo ,nuJ
Mlclu•/r,,,gt•lo,
26S. Pal:t~Q d i ['mfJagmula Fii/1• .lry 8(>rrQmhti.

located i,, sue}; way th.at they define

:1.
and emphasize imponanr
srrucn~ntl
features in the landSC{lpc, such aS' crests,
isoh1rcd plateaus, and ''pr.omontories".
\'Vhcn architecture: is used to clarify ~nd
visua1iz<.' a landscape which con•SiSts of
imagcable forms :111d sp.-.ces, ir is ap-
propriate ro t:1lk about a "pre-classical''
chMactcr, ;. quality which is emphasized
by the clcmenrnry shape of the houses
themselves. The vernacular archi,ecrnre
of rhe Roman region thus combines
closeness to the c-arth with a wish for
imagcablc order.
The urban architecrure of R.ome to a
high exrem cons,er\l.eS l'his ,,er.nacular
c~:iracter. On the Campo Marzio and
CS(?CCially IU Trasttvc:rc the ,streets often
look like hollowed-011~ sp3ces in tuf:i
rocks rather r-h.-,n "builr'' environments;
~rn impression which is srrengthcn<:tJ by
the heavy and rusticated grdund~floors .
'Tihc arched opeuiugs qf the ta/,.,rnae
remi nd us qf rhC grottoe·s· ·excavared in
rhc "'alls of rhc /<>rr~. The arches
themselves rnrcl)1 have a tC<.:l'Onic :,p-
pe:i(ance; usually they ronn an imcgral
pat,l o( :a continuous, ' 1moclclled'1 frame
around the Opening. The building ma-
terials, , 1ery thin bricks and plaster•
emphasize che general conrinu:ity of the
spacc-clefining boundaries. In rhe sim•
pier hcm~es ;trticulati<;>n is sc:uce. Mosd),
it onl}' consists in ~1 subdivision of the
fac;:ide b)' means o( string-courses. In
more ariiculare buildings, cite floors may
be· differentiated among rhcmselves; for
instance 9Y making dlem gradual)y.
"lighter" over 3 rusricared base.• \Y/c may
in rhis conte:<t recall Scrlio's characcer-
iZ:)tiou of the rusrfoarcd. wall ;.1 s ope.ra di
11at.url1, a cq.nc,cpr wfiich proves rhar the
architecture of~ the~ cinqtleceuto still
r<.,"<.:ognizcd its• vernacular roc)ts·, The
differenriarion of the storeys, however,
never becqmes a vertical ','11ddirion,· of
inclCJ?Cndcnt uaits . The classic;il Otdcrs
arc usually absent front Roman .secular
fa~ades, but classical derail appears as
pedilne,us, <:cirniccs etc. The rr~ditional
Roman house is chercforc a unified ,md
enclosed ·building, characrCrtz~d by
plasticily and hc.;winc-ss. The archircc-
tutal derail is applied to a massive core,
rather th:m being parr of -an acticl1l:11·c
&ody. T he type has conscn•cd its idcnci•
ty throughout the course or hist or)'. We
find it in the immlm! of :u,ciem Rome. as
is cle:1rly evident in the hener preseivei:I
sections of Ostia and in che "'Vi:1
Bibcr:lrica'' in Rome. It rem:1ined alive
during rhc Middle i\ge~-i<•, and reap•
pe_ared with full force in rhc palaces of
the Renaissance and che Baroqu~.
The classical superimposition of Orders
introduced by Alberti in Palazzo Rucel-
Jai, Florence~ about 1450,· ne\•er became
a success in Rome. After the use of
fac;,~dc·-=pilasters in the ,..Cancdleria
(1 489ff. ) RoQ1an architecrurc remrncd
co ,he massive opera di uawra, an
approach which fmind irs 1)1pical mani-
festation in Pala1.zo F~rnc-sc by .1.\ntonio
da Sang;1llo (l5 L7ff.), T hus rhe R'onrnn
cnviconment conserved its doseness co
namre. Even during rhe llaroqu~ period
the palace .did nor d 1ange irs b,1sic
propcrrics_. A buililing si1l:h •! B'or·
romini'$ Palazzo tli Propaganda Fide
(1647ff.) appears as a ·la,ge, enclosed
mass. T he wunded q,rncrs cmph~size
its pJasric character, :ind rhe s_rri,,g-
courscs between the sroreys tie die
volume together r.achcr than subdivide
it. 'fh~ enrranc;e fac;~de shows a convex-
concave movelticm wJ\iCh makes the
cQnrinuity i>f the Roinan wall evidpm.
The row ·of giant plasters which flank
the fn~in gate; do nor. belong to anr.
skeletal structure, but, together wirh the
el,1Jjorare windows 011 the :main Aoor.
visualizes the "archaic" plasric force df
the building. Eviclcmly, 1nus, the clas•
sical members have a particul.1r function
in Ro1llan arc.hitecn1re.
In Greek afchitCqurc chC classical mem-

158
 267. Stf!J<'rm[posili11n i11 the co1tt1;·11rd of l'alt1:.:.v
F,,m~sr.

1S9
 268. The g,,Jt1::.;o (lt:i Cwl.f(•n1,1tori I))'
1\fk hdtw,g,·lv.
269: S"nta c..··ust:m::.,. murfor.

bers are coastirncm e lc1'ncmrs in rhe full

.~ense of the word. The buildings arc
m ade· o f colu mns, cnrabl::icure and p-c•
dimcms. They arc "rrnbcatcd strm.::•
t4rc.s ", wher<.' each meniber embodies
rhc ~h:irnctcr o f the whole. In Roman
architecture, instead, the cl:1ssical
Orders are ,ipplied ro o r ··libcrare'·
thcms:eh•es from a mass which is "given'"
a priori. The Orders therrfore h;.1ve a
purely ch.ir:-1crcrizing fonccion_, ~md arc
used to "hunwnizc" rhc g iven O/Jt!ra di
natu.ra. This is alreadv evidenr in the
Colosseum , where the superimposed
Orders trnnsform t he primary mass into
a sys/1.'m of chara crers . Bc.·ing :1 main
public building, ,.1 "cenrrc" where the
scr.u cturc of existence bccom.e s m:mifcst,
die Colos~cum <::<puses rhe O rders <>ltl•
side, and rhereb)• it fulfills its focal role
in the u rb:tn em1ironinent. In rhe Jtonmn
pal:~ce, in.stead, the supcrimp.osrtion of
Otders is confined to t he coriile. T he
nnciC:11.r forces o f narure dominilre the
exterior, and we hav~ to ·go inside to
find the human world of the classical
charnctcn;; la chc courtyard man has
freed himself from the domiMrion of rhc
genius Joci..1 and may live with t hose
forms which symbolize his genernl
understanding of t;bc world. The clas•
sical atulic()/11 which is ust.>d to mark th_e
en rra nce to the paln.c.e , irnnou1)CC$, the
c haraccer o( this interior domain.
In certain casesi however, the Orders
are ;t,lso used cO: ch::m-lCttrize. a (?.ubliG~
LJrban {ipace. As exrunples: we ma.y ~gain
q uote the Capi toline Square and Piazza
San Pieu o . Being main urban foci, these
.squ~ues rep.r esent ;J sym:hesis of nmure
and c ulture. T hey "gather" t he melll1ings
o( d1l" particu lar natura l l"1wironment ns
well .is ma11 's gcnernl knowled ge, and
thereby make a t0rnl form o( lifo visible.
In borh c:ises this problem is solved in "
truJy Roman way. The. squares a re nor
o nly 1~urban interiors", bur their boun•
dark.,; h;1ve the plastic quality and

160
t 17Q. Stmt'Amlr~.,, cfolla Va/It•. cxurior wit l, f d t.{l(/1!
,md ,lom,1.
1 71. S;,, Carlo .,llt' QuMtro Fommm, fo1edi,1r.

i'grandczz.a" Q( d1c typical Roman wal1.

A. giant order is used (pilasrers :\r the
Campidoglio and colu,_nns :ic St. Peter's.)
\Vhich carries a very he~wy,• cotabh1turc
c rowned by -~J balustrade aad a row of
sra_n~Cs. The powerful inccrac(i()r, Of
vertical ,md horizonntl memberS is Ro-
rila_n ral'hcr t'ha1i Greek, and whCn we
walk inside the colonnade of Piazza San
Pierro, lfo rwcc.n the immense, swelling
Tuscan shafts, we fee) an echo of the
ancieur worla of thliJorre aod rem·ember
Vci:gil's words- about the "sinister aw'e"
o(. the Roman e1rnironment. Here chis
aws does not anni:iunce rhe presence of
.luJiiter, . but grepares fot entering- the
church ,)( St,, Peter's, perhaps rhe great•
es~ manifestation o f Rom.an '"'inceriodtf~
a.fre.r the Panr_heon.
Since lhc firsr chucchcs were ·built under
Constantine, Roman sacred a rchitecture
has conserved irs cy,pical properties. The
b::isic chemes of ellclosure and axia1ity
,v~re f.com. tHI: ycry bl'glnning con-
cretized in· centralized and longicudin;:11
strucmres1 which were used as bap-
tistry /comb and congrci;,u-ional basilica
respectively, a profoundly meaningful
distinct io n which interprets life as a
" pa rh'1 between birch and dc.1rhi1. In
both cases rhe e3rlv church was dis-
tinguished by a Sl'rorig •1intcrioriry 1'. The
exterior was hardly given •a ny archicec-
rural attentiqn,, e xcept for ,1 cerrnin
emphasis on rhe main· fo.;adc; ir was
conceived as a neutral shell around a
richly articulate interior. fn general chis
theme is take.n over from .A ntiquity, bur
the Christian inrerpmacion is d[ffcrcnt,
The interior of the Pantheon is cvidcnrly
a represent4tion of tile cosmos. ~he
space js dividc<l in. three supcriniposcd
ioncs; Qle firs~ having a plastic chiirac-
ter, the second ·•l simpler and more
regular arciculation, whereas the geome-
cric~I do.m e, makes crcmal harmony
nranifesr. In the. Early Chrisri;in church
we 6nd an echo of this differentiation;
272. Pi. ,.~:;{I Nm:111111.
2i ~. r►;a;:;;::1 N:·11101111 with fo imlmu l,y Ht:rnl,1i.

162
27.), Pl~,~~a S:m l!itit,:u, rnlomu1d,• liy Hcr~mn,
276. Tl,,:_ Trmri /t.1111mrtr1,

bur rhe pr_ecise :n,thropoinorphous

ch,uaCrer of the lower z.one is subdued,
while the 4ppcr parr of the space is.
transformed into a de.matcr.i:ilizecl
hc:wcnl )' domain which spreads our as
concinuous surfaces of shimmering.
mosaic.
T h(.• church(.•s of rhc Renaissance :tnd rhe
ltuoquc offer new intcrpl.'et:uions. of the
same themes. Again we- find t~at the
excCrior is of secondary imporran·ce,
except for an incrc.1sing emphasis on che
main f:ii;adc, ,which in the Baroque
churches indical'c-s a return ro the more.
:lcl'ive ccbitionship bctw(·c:n the exterior
~rnd inn:rior world of ancienr Roman
architecture. Only d}e domes which r.is~
over rhe roo(s o( l'he surrounding
houses., are fully articul:ue bodily forms
which si1:,'l1alizc the 1~rban presence of
the vall!L-. symbolized· br the church.
These domes are ,11s0 eminently Roman
in their harmonious cqu.ilibrium of
horiZo,oM.I :md vertical 11movemenrs"'; so
basically diffet~nr from the ·'aspiring"
s ilhouerte.s Qf llyzanrine and Eastern
churches-. In the imeriors -of the Roman
Baro~quc the: :antropomorphous members
of cl,assic-..11 architecture ;,ue again used.
with full a.ssur:mce. Even .-he~Liny sp:1cc
of S. C,irlino l>y Borromini {1639ff. ) is
surrounded by a "colonnacle.u of plasrlc
shaft~, :md in SL Joh□ in rhe Lateran
the s:11nc:.- architect used :t rhyrhmic;l-1
.succession of gi:mt pilasters . "!J1 general ,
however. 1·he Baroque churches conserve
che primeval cayc-likc c-haraccer of Ro-
man .space, an.cl shun ·th~'Gorhk insP.ired
dc:-mate!riali:,;arion of .Cent.ml Eurqp.c.-an
buildini,su . .
The RolJlans did to space what the
Greeks did ro plastic foan. Applying the
dassi<tal o~tlcrs . to the bou ntlaries of
in rCrior$ and urban s,paccs, rhcy -trans:-
formea che amorphous enclosure iilto a
sfrucrured whole where che properties- of
the boundaries clcccrmine rhe. character
of the space. Although it · is hardly
poisible to give ,h e bo undary of a space parr Of a comprehensive c ultural tot:1l- gods a re brought down from tli.e hills t!)
rhe s;ime presence as a bodily form , it}1, N.o wonder char it has hccoml' the be housed in urban. temples. Fro m LhcsC
walls ma)' be transformed inco a pbsric popul.ir p l:,ce of Rome f>m• excdle11ce. temples thC)' extend their influence to
skeleton ► as was done b)' Bernini in rhe T he synt bcsis or
llal'll re :rnd culcurc is rhc whole en\litonmcnr: classic~1l for.ms
colonnade of St. Pere r's Square, T he condensed and visualized in Bernini's appea r on the far;a(Jcs :tnd lo ihe
'\lOrm:-ll'' Rom,tn soluc ion , however, great founwin, where n,nural d CITlents ~<1urryards 0£ the houses and palaces,
w,is. to ttpply the classical members ro a such as wi\ter and rocks a re combined .a nd "hu rn:rni1.e'' rhcir "natural" Strut -
continuous, struc tural wnll. This is l'hc with human figures ,and religious sym- turc. This synthesis of chc chthonic a nd
met hod used in rhe Pantheo n , the great bols; as well as the ll:Xis m rmdi of the the classical consrimres the essence Of
tli<!rmac, che Basilica of Maxcnrius as obelisk. In from of the c hurch of S. the Roman ''id )·I" . In the G reek rowns
well as cl,e B;iroque churches. What is· Agnese, finally., wr find ;rnother charnc• instead, t he chtho•nic fo rces were van-
"givcnt' in Roman ,trchirecturc is there- rcrisdc Roman elcmcrn: a Uroad flight q uished by rhe "new'' gods, and the
fore mass and space as primc\•al tota l- of stai rs : Jn Rrnne, srnirs arc nor used to environment' became folly classical.
ities . ..The man who excavate.s a space create a dist(lncc betwceen diffcn:nt \Xl lrnt was thc rCb)' g:tined in human
in the soft rock , does oor consrrucr an ex.i stemia l realms; nnher rhey represent content, was lose as a scparntion fronl
"oP.positc., which , Ukc the Greek temple, an articulation of the grouna itself. The t he gi\'en n,uural reality.
faces him ... . · He rather penetrates into g reat Ro ma,n stairs bring us close to· the The Ro1m10 symhcsis: :tlso comprisc:"!i tfo:
:unorpbous m:1rrcr ~· ;.rnd llis creative eacth :md incre~tsc- our sense of be- cosmic d.ill'1cnsion ,vhit:h from immc•
:tcfivity consists in making. for himself longing to the place. mo ri:tl time:S ha~ bcl'l°a :1s~v..:i:uc..·d wr1h 1hc:
an c-xiSumtial sgacc."!3. T hese words of course o f die sun. Straighr north 61
Kaschnir,. von Weinberg well define the 4. Genius Loci Rome, Soractc rises u1> ro rece·h•e its
clifferem approaches of rhe G reeks and Our analysis of chc sp:uial structure and rays: "Look how ,he snow lies deeply on
rhe Romans. We onl)' have to acid thitt char:acter of the Roman region has glitrefing Soractc .. : , say~ Horacc1", .and
the Romans tOok over the classica.l shown that Rome forms the centre of a srill rodav rhe mounrnin excfrisd irs-
orders ro "humanize" their cxisteiltiaJ Jandscape whi<;h contains "everything11 • spell 011 ·,he visiror of rhe campagna.
space. In Latium the old chchonic forces arc T he qu:,lity <>f t he lighr is certainly one
To conclude we might visit Piazz;i p rcscnt 1 as well ~,s the a nthropomor• of the great environmental factors which
Na_v (ma, wcr.e \\'.C encounter the t.X- phous ch:uacters of the dasska1 gods, :,1lCI have determined rhe Ro ma n glmi~1s loci.
iscemial space of the .Romans in its1 t he abstr;,c.:r, cosmic o rder 6f thl' sky . J n Rome ir has neirhef rbe. rhing..
archeryp.al form. Piazi.a Navona ,i s n9t a· These meanings bec(>mc manifest as an consuming force o( the d~serc sun , nor
monuinema.1 square; lwi:e we -rnthcr exceptionally varied and rich environ- rhc shimmering ,umosphcric quality en-
rctµcn to the origi1fs, and rediscover· the ment . In Etruria we encounter the countered in che North. T he Rpman
" idyllic" world of the forrc and th e 11undtrworld" of the forrc, in the Alban light is strc,ln{; a,,d ,-eliable, i, brings out
vcrn:-tcul:u senlemems. I~ general pr6- bills- we rise· up ro meet rhe ••new" gods 1 rhc plastic quality of thini;.<, and when it
p crtks concrelize t he local landscape 1 and between these two rerilms t he meets the golden-brown · tufa, t he en-
:ind its continuo us orange-bco~vn walls campagna forms mt everyday level vironment gets a wacm a nd assuring
nrnke us. remember the tufo of Etruria. wheye th~ daily life of mun rakes p lacb. c harac,er, -Sul rhe cosmic dinlension is
The articu lation ._o f chc bo undaries how- The role of R ome as ct1µ,uf n11111di is !iome'thing more than 'light. Firsr of a ll ir
ever. also comprises t he :mrropomor- una oubtcdly detc,mincd llr this natural implies a system o( directions wliich
phous Classical cluu·;lcrers, wit'h rhe dome sinrnrion . In Rome al) the basic care- forms a frame of reference for all
of S. Agnese ;is " primary, bodily gor'ie,s of existenti.11 meanings are ga- aPRe.<tc~-mces. The cardinal poinrs give
manifestation. Non e of the two com- thered, like in n6 orl\er P.lace. T hi:,, ""'" a gc11e~~I foothold in a murai)le
ponent.,; domin,ite~ a n ideal equi librium g~1rh criag docs no.t simpl)' consist in che world. The)' arc not tied ro any pare
between nature and culture: has been central locatio n of the cit}' , but in an ricular pbice, but h:tvc a universal
achieved .. At Piaz.za N avona we are acrivc S)•mbo1ization of the various validity which made the cardo-de,;11-
reall}' uinsidc", d ose to t he earth , close meanings. T he world of the fo rre is thus mmuis sch~me the n~ttura l symbol of t he
,o the palpable things of cver)'aa y reproduaed in chc;: Streets· a ncl piazze. of Roman Empire'-'. Ir would be nc;ir-
cxist~nce, ar the same time as we feel Rome's e,•eryda y · environment, ,md t he sigh rcd to interpret the scheme as a mere

164
 2 77. Rum/!Jmm Ci:witolo Ill !ht• t•,,,min~ sim
wlr/1 the Atl>t111 l,i/f:..
178. 'fl,c 11/ISt' of St. f'i te.r's l>,v Mid1,·langdo.

e.\'.pres~jon of pbwCr; ir nu her f On-

cre1izcs the bdicf in :l general cosmic
harmony b.e hind . all phenomena. With
th<: incoipor,atiOn of th<.! var9inal poim·~
in all 1he main bu.ilcling rypes, the
Roman sy.nthcsis became complete.
In P:ilestrina rhis synthesis gol its con-
lt[cte confirmation. Herc mwm: itself
reVe~ls ics hidcltn order, and qnlv asks
man to make it more clearly m~tnife~t
through building. In the Colosseum a nd
the Panrheon the S)'llthesis becomes
symbolically P.rcscnt in the urb.an 1111111-
mhde erwi.ronmcnr. The Colosseum thus
unifies primeval m;,ncer, nnrhropo-
morphic Orders· ,rnd cosmic axes- in t hc
simplest possible way. lleing rhe urb,m
focus of Rome, it reveals chis svnthc.sis
o~nly "in public''. The Pantheon in-
·sccad, makes l'he s:.u nc me:tnings 111.tn•
ifost as an "interior" wor.ld, expressing
,r.t:rcby rhat the Roman .sr.nchcsis is not
something- man has sup·~rimposcd on the
world . It is inher.enr in t he world, and if
we pcnecr.ue ipro things, -we •shall
disc9ver rrurh. Both bui1dings- make us
re1itcmbtr .Heideggcr~s words that ''to be
O,n et1nh means· to l5c unclcr the $k);",
The Colosseum is o pen in the \ •crtical
dirccrion and is, coycrcd by che sky
itself. Whca yo u are in~lde., rhc irregular
1
-!profai-~e•t hori1.on of rhc f it)' is left
behind; n perfect, utidisturDcd contour
forms the basis for rhc nacural dome
riBm1e. Never lrns nrn.n made chc sky,
pr:~scnt in ~i. more convincing w:1y'i n. In
the- Pantheon the worlcl is gatl1crcd
under a built, symbolic dome : It is
important 10 nore 1hat the coffers of rhe
dome ar~ not related ro i-h,e ce11rre of lhc
sph<Yre whifh could be in.scribed wlthiil
1he space. The dome is rcl:itcd ro the
.cenrre o( the floor , that is , m cl1c cenrrc
of the ~uth, and t he verrical ax.i s which
rises up from chis cenrre.•· through ·t:h'e
large opcni1~g ii1 zellit, 1hcre f9 r~ u_1!ifi_cs
earrh :Jnd lreaven (:,)so a~ hght) 111 a
meaningful rornlity.

165
 VII
PLACE

The ,.1rchiccctutc of Rome g;uhcrs and and when he defines the body :t's rhc 1. Mea11i11g
-visualizes a "complc,c" environment. ''prison of the soul'', he interprets the To arrive at .;rn m1dersrnding of ~lie
This gathering obvio1isl)' comprises in- local spirit relative. to his own situarion. genius loci, we have introduced the,
Oucnccs from other cultures. Thus Coe .. M ichclangclots art rhus remains within concepts of "meaning" and ''struccure".
tht· said ch:u Rome 4~gavc ·a dwelling ro the Roman limits: it never becomes The .. meani11g'' of any ·o bject consists. in
;lll gods~·. These innucnces, however, unsu bstantially abstract like Nordic irs rdarionships. to other objects, that is,
<lid not 1·em:1in :1 111l.'r(• foreign impon; lvlanncrism . During the Baroque period ic consists in what the object ..gathers''.
rhanks w 1hc multiforlous st·ru<.:rurc· of the gttnius loci ancl the spirit of the time A l'hing is a thing by virtue of irs
Latium, almost everything found a loci1I fitted perfectly cogerhcr . .Both w;rnted ~, gathering. "Structure'\ instead, denotes
reffrcnce. ff the Alban hills had no1 comprehensive, tl'iumpham synthesis, the formal propertics Of a system of
bt:cn rherc, the classical gods would not and the. result w;1s t he exuberant works relat ionships. Structure ad meaning- :tl e
have been rc:1lly at home in Rome, nnd of Bernini and the intei;r:ttcd and d)'- hence aspects of the same tot:tlir.y1._llo1h
if , he c,11np~1gna had nor posse$sed jts namic sp:lces of Borromini. Tile com• are abstractions from the flux of phe-
grand and solemn structure, l'hc im,1ge plex pcr~o;qnaliry of the laner ccnainl}~ nomcna; nor in the sense of scientific
of _a g~neral cosmic o rder mighl o nly reflects il mulrirudc of uinfluenccs~·' and :l classific:uion, but as a direct recognitiOn
h.ave seemed a far-fetched product of rhe certain "rom:in.tic" approach to architec- of ..constancic-st', that is, stable rcla•
human imagiuacion . This gcnernl reccp- tun:, bur hJs concepcion of sp;ice as an r:ionships which srnnd out from the more
rivit)' is chc real meaning r,f, the saying enclosed., indi\•isible uni, . remains cs· transitory happenings. The child's "con-
1hnt "all ro.ids lead 10 Rome". We might sentially Rom.1n. Rather than bcin·g stru~riOn of re:,lit)'" implies t hat it has
ad'd 1ha1 they also le.id from Rome. · anragonisrs, Bernini and Borromini lcarm ro perceive changing phen·o mcm1
The power a nd versatility of the Roman t h.ercfore .offered d ifferent interprera- ·as ,·eprcscnring t he same rhing', ni1d
glmiu$ loci hols throllghout history givc'n tions of tht same local characrer. coinprisi·s the basic concepr-s of ''objec( 1
the :uchicecturc of the cicy a unique Rome has conserved irs idcnrity down. tO ' 4SP,;itial fieldn a nd "temporal fielc('t11
sdf-a.ssurancc and grmuleua. Even che our time. During the Fascist period a which correspond to our c;at¢gories
pure and clcganr qua/:trqcent.o got a new serious anack.. on rhe " idyllie~coh~rence hrh ing'". "order', and "ti.me·~. This means
subst'antialicy under rhc influence· of of the city was carried our, but it w:1s thi;tt C\'Cry child so ro spc:ik repeats the
Roman Amiquity. A great unified ;,, .. sropped in rime. Unfor~unately actual process of undersrnndiag which is -re.-
terior such as, Albeni's Sanr·1'\ndrea in construction docs nor show much unde1·• flcctl.'d in the a ncient cosmologies: h
Mam:u;1 is. w1thin~able witliout Rome, ~tancling fo1· the genius. loc:i either. goes wi(hout saying ch:11 d~e c hild also
a nd ,rs fo9adc ·reproduce., the Roman Only in 1he Sporrs Palaces by Nervi develops an undesrnuding of rite c,-
rriumph:11 :1rch. The crisis of the d uq,re- do we still feel rhc Roman sense of pr.:es.sion or ch;;1racrcr.: of the objects
c:unto did nor r.cducc. Roman acchirccrure space tmd plastic presence.!". !vlore perceived , in rehuion to irs- own psychic
m an ,1rbitr:1ry play :with fo rms 1 ,1s it did dangerous than the ntw buildiu_gs, howa st:rucmre. In fact) children,. lil<c 1'primi-
in orher p l:iccs. Jn Rome it ratlier brought eve,, is the grndual destruction of rhe 1ive" people, do n01 <iistinguish l'he
about i1 resurrection of d1e chchqnic l~nqscape of La1ium. In rhc ·P'1St a psychic from the physital and cx-
forces. This is particularly evident in the dcsrroyed Rom~ meant a recurn to pcnen.c e things as ''anlmates:i:l_ In gcner•
villas of Bagnaia , .13on1arzo and Tivoli, nature; for ccmuries the ruins of ,pa.st a'I';"tffca'iitfig'7s~ i. p_sychic. fo.nction. rr
where m~tn really returns- to n~rnre. It is civilizations were rhe disrinc_rive mark o.f depends 911 1denllfic.atiou, and implies ,t
ir1 tllis connec1:ion inrrrcsring tO note rhe Roman Jands~ape. From t his narure sense of " belonging''. Ir rhtrefore con•
chat rhe c.inquectmto prefcrr!,:d rh~ wild" Rome. was always idlom ;is Rome, bur
0

;;ritures. 1he b:isis of dwelling. \Y/e ought

n:nure of Etruria ,.mcl Tivoli ro rhc tod:ty the soil which gave 1•hc place il'S . co repeat thnt man\..lllQ:,.t,.h.,.l)aarncntal
classical environ ment of Fr:1scati, ,,;hich idcnriry is becoming a mere memory.
instead bccmne the foshionablc place of T he Colosseum is still standing, but
X.:-nlfa_ i?, f.'._o _¢xpericncc his· ; xistencc as
n~eanmgfiil.
the: seic:cuto. Still moie imporl'ant is che mao obviously does nOr any more \VliencfiSCussing the narun:11 :tnd nrnn-
focL th:,r ,·vcn ..he rr:lgk arr of Michel• respcct the mtJnui'ugs ir cmbodie~. Per- made pl,1ce, we gave a general survey of
angdo respects rhc Ro,n;rn ge11i11$ haps the foll of Colos~eum was meant in rhcir basic ITil' aningS :md structural
loci. T he srrong plasticity and immense this mecaphocical sense! properties. The namral meanings were
hca \'iness of his bodies ;is rr~rl)' R omanJ grouped in five c-m·cgories 1 whi~h sum
2,7 9_ Pl.:tt~; ~1u/(1Sm 1• :imJ g;1tlll•rln~.
A~o,it1•rb:;:1Qui, To~wn,,. ·

167
 up man's undersrnnding of n:uurc, £vi~ :\rno}d T oynhcc intc.:rprtt(:d t he. rt - AJienation is in our op.inion rifst' of ~II
dcntly rnan interacts with these mc;rn• bcionship hcrwccn man and his en~
14
due co ma 's I ss o( identification with
ings. He is :t "thing" among things'': he vironmenr as a "challcngL· and res- the natural and m,u1-ma ,.__ ttl'i~gs wh1'1:ti"
liv·es among mounrians :tnd roc~sl rivers ppnse"'s. To a high exrem Toynbee constitute his Cll\'l(Onmcnr. T1US~10Ss
and trees; he ••uses" then and has to un4crstands "environment" as physiCal afso ~in~crs the process of g-;uhering,
know. them. He nlso lives with rhe nature. All these great historians rhus and is therefore at the root of our :1ctual
''cosmic order": with the course of the recognized rhe importance of the nanmtl :'loss of phicc". Things htlVC become
sun ;1nd the cardinal poims. The dircc.- en\•ironment, but simultaneously they mere objecrs o( consumption which are
_tjons of the compass arc not mere} snessed m:m\ ability to '•respond" and rhrown .,w:1y after u:sc, and namre in
geometry, bur qualirntive realities .which ~ ro .sh,1pc his ~vo~lcl:. Man d~ n~ ~ener~,1 is tr~•~tcd a~ a :•r~~~:mrce•~u': Onlv
follow man everywhere. _In part1cul;ir, ~f°bv,ously ,ml}'. build nature, our also ,f man reg:uns lus :ibdny of ,iiejiu;
man is· related to rhc "chara~rer" of .}..bui)dS hi;f'f, socictu nd culrurc1 and ffi:auon and g:1thcring. we mav S.tO(l
things. From ~he initial :tilimistic swg~ ~ i!l, this process he( ma)~ inrerpret ~, given this desrrucuvc dcvelof,mcnt. f h~ "t
h£._graduall - develops :i consciQus_or environm'e.nt in ain ere1)~ . Sl'ep to take rs fo ar~l\le at _j!__ _fulJ
unconscious un erstanding. thm tbei:e The rclationshi'p6'erween man and na- tmderstafiaiil~ of- rhe 'W!f!L.~4~-
exists an UbereinstimmullJ.:__:.,._cor.r.e- tuf(: also forms a point of departure for uficauon "and .. s:arheriiig,thUr is. 2!!-
spondcnc:e, between his own ~ c Jv1arx . Ir is a b_asic tcne{ of Marxism undersranaini:Qft nc'conccpt of ,thilig.
·sr-Jtcr.fifcl'"lne'ulorces'· of narurc. Qu!Y that n1an as a biological being is part of Thereby we. sliaU also be abJe ro•define
tfiU$ Ile rnay' o6rdin a personal ' l'f'riend- nature, :md that narnrc is an "objecti ve the nature of man-made me;rnings and_
~ ~ i t h thmgs>, JlJJ9 r£XP-~ ence tfit"" reality", which is given independently of their relation rO namral meanings. Again
,environment a~ meaning.f.!!J .. He cannot man's consciousness. Man faces this we have 1·9 ask Heidegger for help. Jn
bCfficnds with scientific "data", bm reality in his work, and chus realizes his his essay The ~fhing, he use.s a jug as
Uni)' with qualiti~ . .Man also li\•c,s with purposes ''in nature.... This implies rhar example, and ,1sks for rhe 1'jugness"'' of
"light'' and js l'uncd b)~ light. Person:,1 he may ••master'' nature, without ho\v- the jug. "The jug's jug~charaCl'er consists
and collective atticudes ("mentalities") ever isolating himself from ic. Rather he in the poured gift of the pouring out...
~1.rC in fact influenced by the environ- ouglit to arrive ar an ever deeper The giving of the Outpouring can De a
mental "climare''5 • Finally man lives in undcstanding 9f ics ''laws". ~1an's con- drink. The spring stays on in the water
iS_"time'\ which nfeans that he lives. with sciousncss is: ~oth, in its ~onrenr .~rnd o( th.e gift. In the spring fhe roe~•d,-.,ells,
~ ,;rhe changes of the other four d,mcn- form a "renect,on' of narure, although and m the rock dwe.lls the dark slumbers
"-, sions. He lives with the rhythms of .2:1¥ it possesses a certain independence and of the eanh, which receives the rain and
•• ~ nd ~ night, wtt~ ,.W$. ~ an3 ii.! power of feedback. To understand the dew o'f the sky. ln the water of rhe
History,. 1v1arxism, however• it is essential ro add sprillg dwells rhe marriage of sky and
Ian's dependence on natuce has long tnat it defines nature as matter. "Mat- eanh ... In the gift of waiec, in the gift
been recognized. Hegel starts his "!?hi- rer" is used as a si,mulr:rneousl)' very of wine, sk)' and earth .dwell. Bur the
Josophy of Hist~ry" wich ;\ chapter on w:i4e . and concccre concept ("matter -as gift of the outpouring is wbar makes the
rhc "Geographic Basis of World 1-lis- such does, not exist, only its concrete jug a jug. In the jugne,;s of the- jug, sk)'
rory'\ and wttnts to define the "'"natural manif~t3tions")., ~but it does nor cover ancl ea·rth dwell..." "171ie jug's essential
rype of the locality, which is closely our e::oncepcs of "meaning" and "char- ilaturc, it.s presencing... is what W.f! call
related to rhe type an\! character of the actcr". A:lthouglJ strucrurall.y sound, as a thint;"". Heid.egger takes rhc function
people which is born from this S<>il. regards tlie relationship between ma~ 0£ the · jug, the pouring, as his. point of
This ch~lr.tcter is the way peoples appear and his ~nvirom,!~nt, ~ar-xism therefore dep,arture. He acfines th~ pouring as a
and find their place in world history"6 • remains incomplere. The psycholpgiail gift aa·d asks what is here "given";
J-lecdcr introduced che concept "climate" aspect is Jefr out, t'h:.tt is, the functions \V3tcr and wine are· given, and wiJh
to cover che endre narural and man- of oricmadon and i<lcn[ificarion. Be.- them earth and sl..-y. The jug is-' underw
made environment, and chara~terizcd cause of this omission, Marx,srn does stood as an artifact which serves a
man's life as uclimatic'•. He a_dded, nor arrive ~u a fuU understanding of purpose. hs function. however, forms
however, that climate does not "force" "qwelling", and fails in its ;'lttCmpt to pan of. a life which rakes pl.l~e' bet•\v.eeil
man; rather it "tends" and ...disposes"' . win human alienation'.. earth .and sky. Th·e jug: parricipares in

168
 ZSO. "J:11~ am/ f rntt- l>y Pat1/ Cc~::m,m1(Oslo.
Na 1irir1al <;allt!ry).
281, Ot·pnrtrm: ,md rdtm,, Ji11gram.

thiS'i raking ph1ce; }~es, ;,- is part of tbe composition may also comprise clcmencs '
place in which life is concretized. The which arc iuve,ued bv man. \V/e h:we
function p( real things~ e rcforc ,o already mentioned how man makes ,1
fi 1
concretiz/ .or reveal" life in its various land-mark or ,1 houSl·, whit:h 11 1u,s~
ttj pL-s:tS. l ' a t ing aoes nor do thar, ,tis teriori •mt used IO "understand" his
'";c, flOt a citing bur a mere commodity. \Ve cnvironmc-111 . To bl· m(•anin~ful. how-
/ dwell poetically when we are ab]e to ever, the invemions of man must have
r .;ieaiP'..tlie rc~•eahil"gOf tlicfh1!,l_gs wliicll formal properties which arc structurnl1)1
,x_ mtlkc. .!!.P,...ou~ cnv1r2!!..1'!1..£!1,b.. tfilng~ are similar co other aspeccs of reality~ and
macff' with tlie J).)lrpose o( revealing; ulrimatdy to namrnl srrucmrcs. If this is
d\,.~:r..... garh._er _wo.dd,__~nd m,1 rhen1.!£!_~ nor rhc.- case, they would isohue them-
b~gJ thered 1·0 form .1 ,migocos[!!OS. sch•es within ;t purely artificial world ,
What, men, does this tell us about the :111d lose contact with reality. The basic '
n~_turc of man·madc things? Are chey kinds of scructurnl similarity Qughc ro be
Only rcflcccions of namral meanings, or described in terms or our c~negories
does man create . meanings of his own? ·•sp:,ce'' and ;.character". Natural ·,1nd
H:we we not .t1rcadv shown that the m:m-made space a rc strucmrally simil,1r
mc~aningS of man-m~1dc place arc deter- as regards .direcrions and bound:irics. fn
mined by economic, social , political, both , the distinccion ber\veen up and
and other culmral phenomena? Heideg- down is valid , as well as the concepts. of
ger's ex:unple, however> implies that extension and enclosure. The bound;.lries
man cannot create meanings thac · arc of both kinds of space arc morc<•>V<ff to
entiJely his own. J::1an iS pan of a be defined in terms of "f1ooc'', "'wall",
"living world, ai,d c!o<;§...Jll)t conce,v~ and "ceiling". Nam·ral and man-m:ide (>
me~u~~s in a v~•cuum . Meanings 11CCC$.- ~pace may chus ri!/}1'eSelll e..ich other
s".!fu.'..J.o rm pat;!.. of a totality, w.!:ii"-'1 reciprocalli·. The same holds rruc for
c_oJJIRris.e:Lo.a.n.u:aJ...,..9.m,!RO~JJ,emS. ,J ;_y_g~y- natural an<l human character,s , as was
th'!]!; created by man_ is..i1une..,w orJd,.j1 undcmooa by ch'e .Gceeks. The man-
it .becween e!irilTfld fskY..,,....m1d.Jias ....ra_ mad,e forms which concretize char,,ccers
make this state o af alts....manifos.t ~ IQ_ obviously do nor imilllte the analogous
dbmg this, rile created thing_;,gg~LJ..Q.,<_llL n,uural forms, but we h:.t:i.'C again to ask
in a localicy or at ~ n nature in for common·structural properties.
gc"ncrnl. Our categories ''romantic ~,rchi- ~'~ thcri.ng,, means that t1•iings ar~
rccruce •, ~•cosmic arch irccrurl•:· :and brOughr rogetheri that is_tl~Jll~r~~
''classical architect11re" denore different tn0\1ecl from one ph1cc to imotllcr,. This
m.ode~~ofbeing rooted in nature. transpos1t1on 1s m general done by
But ihe function of mai,-made things means,.of symbolizatio n , but it may also
(p.Jaces) goes· beyond the 111:10ifesr,1rion CC)nsist in a concrete displacement of
of simple rootedness. The concept o( buildings and things. Whereas moving
atherin, im lies that natural mcaJJ.ings__ by me,rns of symboliz,nion is a creative
arc broug t ,oget ,er m a 11.e w W~}:.,J!L .-tc.t· of interpreration and transl_ation,
rclarion <0 • human p ur~ es. N atural concrete displacenwnt is passive, and
mc'l))'"SS :i'r e th,~ ya bm ai:,!£.!TTtom chG.i.r. mostly connected wit_h the wish for
natural ·context, and as clements of a gecring a ".'cllltural :tlibi .. ,; . T he Greek
la"nguage ,hey arc com~poscd to .fii'rl!LJt polis: was based 0.11 a creative rran,s- ·
"'!,s.'Y'\ c:'Omi?ICx~ mcanmg ~vJll.ch.-il!.Y..: positiOn of meanings. The meanings
nunates naclire'as ~vell as ma1~ 1,; r~le whi'ch are. revealed in certain natural
,viiltin the totali'cyl~.- -EviCICiuly°' Stich a places, were translated into buildings·

169
 182. Systl!m of nlle,s.
283. Valli!)' s.:ul(wmts, ,liagram.
284. Nl)m11•gum fim11, N(ltil<f.m11J, H(:ullll.

and moved to the city, chrough ,he and sky , and ,he bridge g,uhers 1hc mnh inw a work of archfrectur,c. To
erection of similar buildings there~ It is a earth as hrndscape ;1 tound the strtam. Jn scr-inw-,Vork here means to· build the
gfand conception, indeed, to visualize general chings gmher world and thereby boundary or "threshold" from which 1he
the qualities o f a landsc,ipe by means of reveal truth. To make a thing me.ins the seitlemem begins its presencing. The
a nH111-made structure, and then co "sctt:ing-into-work'' of rrurh. A pbce is hreshold is the meeting of "outside'' aijjl
gather SC.\•eral landscapes symbolic~tlly 111 such a thing, and as such it is a p6etical 0
ms1dc • and archuecmrc 1s h~!)~
one place! \Y/e ha\'e seen th.u the genius cc. iuc:athation of the l}~.tj.og.. "The place-
loci .of Rome stems from such a ga- The making of rlaccs we call ar- sifarchmg ,rnd place-forming charac,ers
theiing. J
chitcctur~:::thio.ugll:bt!tldiI,g..wau..i;Lv.es- of plastic incarnation"' ' here find their
0bviousl), meanings· arc moved becaus~ mem1ings concrc((:_p.ces,coGe,--ar-td-hc 11
look" and at chc same 1imc min finds
they arc of ge11eral imeresr, that is, ~ git!~Ulldings_C?_v.isuali•ze-~n<l-sym- his "outloo~11111 • !hus.. ,chc; rbrcs~ol<;f_is
because they .ire part of "truth". Thi\.~, 6ohze h,s form 0J;J1(c, :1s.;Lt{)tal1ty. Thus the "ga,henng m il!.d~...1\'.hct~,ngs._
symbols which make truth manifes, 111s cvcr,niay ..Ji(~c.!..llm!.mcs. :1..J;,e;;;;:- appear in "limpid brightness".
constitute cult,~re. Cultur~•. means rn i_ffi;ful home _where he i.:~n. d 1 11-There
!Q!!tSform the given •·forces IQto mean- , re many kmd~ bUJI · angs a1~d sct- 2. lde11tity
J m s wluch may be 1noved to ::mother rlemencs. \'v'hat they gather vanes ac• Places where narural and rnan-rnade
p ac,£.- · u mre 1s thcrcflifc:based on COl'diug to the building rnsk :rnd the ~lemems form a synthesis arc the sub·
~ .rncuon and concret1zation . By situation. Vernacular architecture, that jecr-maner of a phenomenology of ar•
me;ll\S of culture man gets rod-te4 Tn is, forms and villages, brings the im- chil'C<:ture. The primary r.elarion.ship be#
rca"Hty;·1a the same rnne as he 1s ~e'd· mediace meanings of the local earth and tween the cwo kind~ of elements is
fiom com.Jl.1$<J:-dep.cu.deoi:.~,n..a..p_:u=_ sky inw presence. Hence it is ·'cir- dcnored by t he world lute1tio11. Where
ll9lll\Ulli!,t1i.O.n. We understand that the cumstantial" and imimmely connected does man locate his sc,tlemcnts? Where
g~ven economic, social, poliric..il and rwith a particular situ:1tion. Urb.ln ~,r- aoe-s nature fo rm places which '·irwice,.
cultural conditions do not produce the ~chitccturc , ins,cad, has a ''!.2!4d" gcJ:ic.rai man to scttk~- ·1 he quest.ion has to l>e
meanings concreti1.ed by a man-made v'ali.'ic-;-:1sl f ¥is lfascOO nS ymbo ljzation answcreil- lmih in terms o rspacc ana
place14 • Tilie meanings arc inherent in ird rransposit-ionJ1.:-'tJrban.. #architeccurc characte_!.. From chc spaual _p oint- Of
the world, and ate in each case co a dtcreforc·- prcsopposc-.s a formal Ian- view man needs an endosyre, and
high extent derivCd from the loca1it,y as guagc., a ..style"'. In l'ltc rown, 1•forcign)' accordinglr rends co secde where nan1te._
a particular. manifestation of •4worldn. meanings mcer the local genius, and offers a defined space. Froin d,e point of
The: meanings may however be used by create a more complex system of mean~ view or character, a natutal ~l;ice which
the economic., Social, policical and cul• 1 ings. The urban genius is never merel}' comprises sevcra) meaning ul thingS,.
t(iral forces. This use consists in a local; although rhe examples o f Pr:1gue, Stich as r2cks, J.re•,;_,.'l,.n.d.••l~J!JJ:J, )VOUI(/,
selection among possible meanings. The Khartoum and Rome have taught . us represent an "'inyfracion". We ha.ve in
selection therefore tells us about the . that the local charaeter pl.1)'S a .decisive fact seen that Rome w;1s founded .in a
actual condition~, .but the meanings as role in giv;iug the scttlemem its par- ph1ce where these elements were Present .
such have deeper roors . In gei,eral they tfcular idcntit~. Url;an garhering may be Some t"imes the conditions may be
;ltc covered by our four carc.gorics unders~ood as -a n intcrpre.tatiou of the favo~,rable both ,vitH regard 10 space.
11
ching", 0 orderH, ' 1character' 1 and local genius, in aq:ordancc with chc and character, other times only o,re of
"light". Traditionally these carego·ries values and ..need of the actual societ):, In the two needs is nacurally satisfied (or
have been associated with earth, sky, genc(~1l we m~y say th:lt the: me£1.nings even none). \X'here che actual conditions
man and spirit, respectively. They thus which are gat.h,!l'l!d ~y a plaae cof,stitute are favouraOJe, v~suali~atiOn becomes
correspond to wh:ll Heidegger calls the its ge11ius loci. che most: ilnportimt me.ans o f place·
"fourfold" (das Gevierr)" . Dwelling con- Architecture is born from the dialectic of concrerization_, whcr.eas a locatior1where
sises in "pre.serving" the fpur:fold, which departure :md return. Man. ,he wan- nature offers Jess, has ro be '' imP.roved11
in general means co "'keep the fourfold dcrer, is on his way. His rask_..is- to- b)' complcmemaiion and srmboliza,
in that with which monals siay: in l P.enetrate t~ll.dd. and 10· ser~ it:L tion 2·1 •
things1•1,;. The nature of a thing resides mcanmgs into work. This is rhc rncan~ In a -very general sense, the surface ~elief
in its gathering. The jug gathers earth ii\gl1hlie wora"seiiie. 7ise'ttlcment .sets of ,he eanh .slopes down co,~ards <lie

170
 sea. Except for a fe,·v iso lated intern,JI
b:1sins (possibl)' of vok:inic origin), ··:1
norma1~• country is always (lirectcd
11

cowards the sea2 .?. On ,m extended plain

this direction is obviously less strongly
felt th;tn in a v:11lcy. In gener:tl , rhe
movem·cm of th~ land corresponds to ~
system of rivers (and lakes) which
\'isuali1,e the sparh1I pattern. \'qhen chc
river ~1pproaches (he se,l, rhe valley
usµ:1lly opens up a.nd becomes an
,unphithcatric:il bay. The location of
human sectlCmcms are to a high extent
determined bi• these conditions. Spaces
~uch ;1s. plains, valleys and b:t)'S have
given rise ti> chacacteristic types Of
sertlememst and moscly a river, a con-
I I I I I Auencc, o r a ,shore lrnve been used Jor
sp:11i:1I fixation, The endings of nurner.-
ous pl:tcc names express rhis srnre of
affairs: ''ford'\ "port'', "mouth'', "gate'\
rthaven'\ '~bridge". \1(.'hcn the SHrfocc
relief of a hill landscape gets ac.:en-
r,uaced, howe·v·er, rhe n,:nuraJ pl~ces are
found on !he tops ,tnd crests of the hills
rather than in the bottom of the vallC)'S.
We sec thus th~1c_ the scale of rhe surface
relief may influence location. A (op is
obvio11sly :tlso _often chosen bec.iusc it
forms a natural cemrc tlf the sur-
rounding landscape. Another general
factor which influences location is the
direction of ,he sun. A slope exposed to.
rhe south is ~videnrly more fa\•ourablc ·
than a northern one, and in many parts
of Europe ir i$ rhereforc common that
Jl:1.rms and villages are siru;u:ed on rhe
norrh side oP tl1e valleys. Sometimes
exposure and natural space collaborate
to create, very fovourabJc conditions for
scttkmcnr, or her times t hey are conrra•
Pictoqr c!nd' .sQllte kiricl of compromise
becqmes necessarr.
1f man-made place'ti:ire at all relared to
chetr env1ronmenr 1 ere ought to exist a
rnearlin ,' tul coircs ondcnce berwe'e1
tf:it"urai conditions ari sett eme,1/ m dr:-
phology. 'rhc has,c problem to Ge solved
28J. Pmltt' Vt-c:d,ii,. Fl<Jrt'll( l', 1$7. 1\loscuw, d1~1grm1imatie /drm.
1S6. Flort!ua / mm Pi,•1;:.111,· ,\·l:d ,dm1id.,, 288. ,\lo1a.:1,i:mum, PO1Mll1•y.

by a senlemenc is how to, gather the

sutroundiir;-JaifdSc.1P..£._How do \vc, 'in
terms o space_, gather a ph,in_, a valle)',
an undulating series of hills, or a bay?
E videndy, each of these situations: :I.re
open co differenr incerprcracio1isn. The
simplest, l!erm1culnt, solution consist$ in
a direct ,idaptation ro the n:nural space.
In a defined valley this would mean tQ
form a 1·ow par,t11el to the direction of
the land, chat is, along ,he n,1rural P.•th
of communicmion. This pancrn is found
i•n many countries, for instance . in the
narrow valleys of T clcmark and Sccesdal
in Norway, where rhe row-tun i!> the
dominant type of niral secrlcmem'·'. An
urban v.1lley-settlcment, instc:\d, rcpre-
sems a centre which gathers the sur-
rouuding space. This is achieved. .by
introP,uciog ~n :-txis :\cross rhe ,,:11l~y >
moscly in connection with a ford or -n
bridge-poim. The centre thus formed is
still a function of local circumsranccs
without ..cosmic" impl·ic:\rions. \'v'.hen
chc Romans uscll a site o( this kind,
however, they usually phtccd their ct1r-
<lo-d,tcwi10,ws axes on one side. of the
river, reducing rhus rhe imp,qr:tance of
the local spa·ce .(London, Paris, Cologne,
R,uisbon , Turin, et~.}. The Roman.
colonial settlement rtiercforc r::<:pr<:scnted
an absolute system, albeit of narural_
derivation,. rather tha~n a g:1thering Of
the local landscape. This is p:micul;irl)•
ev'ide;u in FIQrcncc whc::.r:e the Roman
:1xes were mrned ar. ;m angle to the river
and th.e v;,lle)'. During rh~ Middle; Ages·
the boundary of the urban cni::losufe
was tucned back to correspond 'with the
river. J;\ nothcr example of hp):lcc-free.11 ,
''cosmic" orienrariqn is the traditional
e~tst:-wesr ;txis 9.f che· Christian church_,
which in many Medi~\cval cowns contra;;,
diets the ilominant directions of che
urban tissue..
Settlernent.s on ~ plain have an:1logous
posSibilicies of •inrerprerntion. e.lere the
basic vernacul:-tr (ol"m is nor rhe row_,

172
HOSl<VA

bur the dense duster or che enclosure

(R1111dli113, VicrkntttlH~(f. These forms
express the gcncml, dircctionlcss ex-
tension of t he surrounding land. The
dc\1elopment of ;in urban: centre is
usuall)• combi.n ed with geometrization,
such as the building o r ~1 rcgul:,r ~ ·square
or rect.ingul.ir tndqsurc (Monragnan:t
ere. ), or, less frcqucncly, ;-1 ring. \Vhen ;;i,
river is present., inreresting combin~nions
of enclosure and longitudinal-transversal
directions arc formed. A good example
is_ furnish·ed b)• Moscow, where d'lc
triangular shape of rhe Kremlin is due to
the incei:penerrac.ion of ring, river :uid
transverse ;ixis. 011 a pH1in, th~ Roman
scheme .is congenial, but ev~clently ir i till
rcprc.>scms an absrracrion, as i$ shown
by tucca, where the sysrent w:1s filled- in
-by a dense cluster of houses ·during t he
Mid~I~ Ages.
Building in ·a n extended hilly lan_d·s cape
pos<'S diffor~nt problems. Here.' direc•
d ons are neither in fact n~r potentially
present, and t h~ only possible structur-
atio~consistS jn visunliiing- t h& tops ·a nd
crest~ by' ~ncans (,f concenrr;ited or
longitudinal clusters. The· result is well
known from Italy, where 11
hill-towns"
.ire· legion . In genernl they belong 10 the
vernacular <;atCgoqr, bur sornerimes the)'
gain the imporrn.nce o( a ·c entre, m~tinly
d ue ro an isolated, dominant location
(Orvicto) o r through 1•crtical accenru-
ation ( Palo mbara). A centre is_ also
formed when several crests meet, .is is
chc case in Siena, where the town
integrates three significan t directions:
north (Fl<ircncc),. so9th (Rome) ~n.il west
(Grosseto, coast), Wlrcri t he · scale in,
creases and rhe hills become rnol1nr.ains,
the serrlemenrs are usually located in the
~lopirtg mountairl='siclec., 1forming ,;1 se•ries
o f !erra_ces. Good cx_amples are fur-
nished by Gu_b_bio ·a nd Assisi. Terr:ices
also represent ·a namra1 solution when
an aml'hirheatrical bay h"s to be built,
which· m0reovCr demands a cominuous
289. Alam, l.t,~f(I. '291, AsSl~l i11 th,: laml$(;.1p~.
290. Si.:11:1. 192, A,;,,;,f,;,lf rom .1hvt1I!,

174
 293. Ciglio , Ca stello.
194. Sperlo11ga.

·engir,dling disposition of the houses.

Islands ;tnd promontories are somewhat
rcl3ted ro the cops and crests of the
'inland. Sperlonga is thus clustered alon·g
the-- crest of a promontory, whereas ,he
€;astcllo ,<Jn the Island of Giglio rests on
an isolated hillock near the rop of .the
island. O'n the s,ime island :m archetypal
baNettlemel\t is also found (Giglio
Porco).
Ou, few rcma,ks o n che locatioJi' and
·spatial morpholqgy 'of settlements might
seem ,ri\'ial. Today; however, these
simple srructural relationships are hard,ly
unde'rstood and still less respected. As
l hc general 'i<lentit)• of our ph1ces
deP,ends on such structures, they form
:m important part of the phenomenology
of architecture. Ln general, all the types
of settlement mentioned , reprCsenr v,,ria-
rions on the fig11 re-gro1111// theme. We
under.stand that figure'' here docs not
11

mean a "foreign" element whieh appears

on 3 1'neutral'' ground, bur a visualiz-
ation of potentially present foci.
So far_, we have mainly treated the
exremal structure of sectlem~nts, drnt is~
tfi<!ir "direct'' relation to rhe envifOll-
mcnr. The ;111cr1;a/ 'scrucmre is· neces-
sarily coordinated with the external
rtlations. The urban spaces do not fom1
ttn independent interior world. To ,allow
for man's odenrnrion \md idemTfic~tion
they have to concrecize the general
sirnmio,i of the settlement. Obviously
this cannoc be- done by means of
vis,uali1..atiQn, and symboli1.~,rion comes
to pjay a decisive role. This implies that
,~e aspi,cr of chameter gains in im-
portance, but a few spatial problems
also have to be mentioned. Whereas ·,he
iitteri6r spaces of vcrnac.--ular ~cttle1hems
l onn. a continuarion of the .surroun-
dings, or a simple "space within sp;tcet•
rcl~rionship16 , urb:m scrtlcmcms , are dis-
tinguished by a definition. of spafial foci
which make the Citizen c~pericnce rhe
general role of the place as a local o r

1?5
29S. Pia::.:.a Sau 1\fort:o. Vcufc,r.
1-96. Pi.-1::11 Smr Marco. Jiu: ftid:,:ctt.J.

regional centre. To fullfil their funciion,

these spaces oughr ro concain all those
"t hings" (buildings, monuments etc.)
which make m~lnifcst the meanings
gathered by the place. Thus Heidegger
says: " ... the iliings themselves are the
places, and do n9r o nly "belong'· t() a_
place"17. Jn Europe;1n cowns the priclL
srrucmre is usmlily centred on the foci,
making thus the whole settlement ap•
pear as a meaningful organism, where
the meanings present :tr the centre
derermine t he form 1 in interaction with
the external .Situation. The paths so to
speak illusrrnte how the 1neanings were
brQught inside from the "threshold" Q(
che city gate.
Exa,nples which illustrate the role of
urban foci as gathering centres are
legion. We have already memioned the
(;reek agom and the Roman forum, and
may :idd the Medi:icval markets ana
c;ithedral squares". On the European
continent rhe cathedral is preceded by
an urban space which serves to unite die
si•nibolic interior of the buildi.ng with
the town as a whole. The integration of
outside ;1nd inside is furthermore e.x~
pressed by deep embrasffred porrnls. In
England, instead, the cad1~dral is loca-
ted wichin a precin<::t; a more, con-
servative solution which divides space in
two qualitacively different domains. The
formal solu11on of the urban foci is
parti~ul:rrly be:!utiful in Siena, where the
squares of ca.the'dral and town hall arc
placed ou either side of the meeting
point of the three paths mentioned
above. A SP.lendid ~nswer to the prob-
lem of urban gathering is also offered by
Si. Mark"s square in Vcnicc,i, where che
larse piazu; forms a meani'ngfuJ trans-
ition l;etwcen. the dense labyrinth of the
citY. and the glit1ering expanse of the
sea.
T he urban .paths and _squares arc con-
sticuted by ·buildings·.which. embody ,he
me:1nings gathered by the ciry. We have

176
 197. Pia::::,1/ S..,n i\forco, Vcnic.:.
Z?S. Sa,i Gio~fo t\1agsi<Vt'; Vt'11ic..-.

alr~1dy shown that this e11lbodimc.nt

depends up_on how the buildings stti11d,
risii and opm,, and have mentioned that
their: ''beha\•iour•t is usually condensed in
molifs wliich ·char.actcrizt. an urban
environmcn't -as ii whole. Such motifs are
not ,lppliccI ·~dccorarion , hur Consist iri a
characteristic solution of t he "criflcal
parts" of the structure":'. Anal)1zing the
functions of s,tanding, rising and open•
ing, it follows that the criricaf ,parts are
base, roof, corner and opening (win-
dow, door); chat is, the "elements',
which relare t~e building to its en-
vironment and defines how it "is" on d·i c
carthJ0 • The p<~ss~ble· solutions are ob-
viously legion, but some primary t)•pes
ofmotifs ma)'.be singled out.
In genernl a building m:,y stand in t he
ground, 011 the ground, or over the
ground. To be ••10 the ground'' expresses
an. in.timate "rornantic" r.ehuionship ro
rhe "forces" of the earth. It i·s usu:tlly
conccerizecl by n1:1Ri11g the building grow
out of the ground withci.u r a distinct
base. ''On t he ground1', instead, means
t~a\ the building is sec off on a base as
~n inc.iividual, '"cfassiCal'' thing -berween
earth and sky. "Ovct· \he f,'TOund:',
finally, implies t hat the tontinuit)l of the
ground is preserved; t he building is
placea on de-n1aterialized stilrs (/iilotis ),
:md se,e ms to exist in an abstract.
'\,0smic,• space.
There are -also three basic cypcs of
rising. Either rhe building is, verticall}'
"oRen.. and jpins the sky in a ..free"· and
serrate silho~ette, or it is "dosed'' as an
indiv,idual body b)' me.ins., of a heavy
entablamre•or voluminous roof. or •it is
simply delimited by a ncucral horizontal
line ·w:h..ich gives emph·asis t<:> lateral
extension.
Tnc b:1sic types of opening depend on
the conservation Or dissolution of t he
con6mHt)' of the boundary . .In any ca~c
the result is determined by the- ~ize,
shape and distribution of the openings.

177
,?:9.9. St1t.N•1I, military am/ r t'shl.1m ti.(1/ d l'd1itt-'Ctllrf', JOO. Stamling {1ttd risl,,g. OM hom1.• in
O-sti,1 Amiw.. Ro1lm1bmg.
JOr. Stam/i11g rmd rfsi ns.-Pala;:~o Cvnu111t1lc!,
Vi:llt'-tri.
301. Stmuli,ig and rising, Kloster Brm~. a,r,:,,,
11a11Ui<w l,y *"'"rmuum.
 .l03. Window i,i Salcn11>. JOS. Wimlv"' at tlu• UJ1J,a, 8c:lv~dert!, Vit:11m, by
)04. \Wndow i,1 1>a,i$. Hild~braudt.
306. \Vimlow 11t St. Gco,g,: ;,, tin~ Erm. Li::mdim
l,y Hr1wksmoor.

k is thus possible ro ctcacc :1 '"r<)m:tnric" -

interplay ht,~\1ecn cx,erior and interior ~ . : ~ ·_;,.:..i~:. - - ~
by me:1n5 of irregular :ind surprising
rr.anS\cions; or n clc:,rl)' defined <:om-
1t1unic:ition. where insid(• and Outside
preserve their disrincc idenrilies; or a n
abSlraCt\ sysremal'ic imegrarion where
die 1wo donn,ins seem made o( the same
eXtendccl "substance", Among all motifs,
th.e window is p~uticularly importanr. It
does nut only cxprc:,ss the spacial struc-
t;L1rc of the huilding 1 bm :.1lso how ir is
sel~ted ro li~lit. And , through its pro-
ROttibns aild demi.ling, it· P.:lrtiClp~ueS in
the functions of .srnnding ;tnd rising. In
che window, chus, chc g,mius loci is
lo~uscqiln,d "explained",
lfhe i</e,ility of a place is determined by
loaationl gcnt~..11 spatial configuration
and tlmractcr.izing articulation. A!:i a
rotaliry we experience for inscance .a
pince :is ":1 dense clusre-,· of enclosed
srone houses in a hill stde", or as •u;l
continuous row of brightly coloured
vtranda houses around :, small bay''; or
as "an (!rclered gwup of hal£-timborcd_
~a~le houses in a valley". 1.otacion,
configl_mniou and ;.\rticulation do not
always contribute in the snmc measure
to the final result-. S.o me places get their
identiry frc;m1 a. Pttrticulady iarerc~'iting
IO(arfon.., where:1s rhe nlan~madc cqm-
ponents are ntther in.signific:rnr. Others,
instead, nlay be situated in a dull
lani;lscap,c, but possess a wcll-dcfine_d
co)lfit}lr'ali,on and a distinct char:icter.
~\;/hen 11// the componenrs seem to
embody basic existential meanings., we
11rnr t:tl~• aliou_t a ·••strong'" place". Tlie
thr-cc. dtil\:s analyzed a~ovc) ;u:c such
strong pliurcs~ although Khanou(Jl leaves
samcching m be desired a~ regards
char:acletizing articulati"on. The ele-
ments, fo;:w,le\ler, a:t.e 1hereJ. and rh,e
"$ttengrh" of the place co~ld easily be
improved if the gel1ius loci is unders(ood ...,__
~nd cespccrcd. . f==i1 ,..,,·1- - - - -....
u ___..,.,.,. ·
Jn any case a s:rrcing· pIace prcsuppOses

179

that t ht rc exists .J meaningful cor-
respondence between sil'c, settlement
,md architecrur;1l detail. The man-made
place has to know ''what it wants to be''
relative to the na tural environment.
S.uch a corrtspondCncc ca n be · aChievcd
in ma.ny d ifferent wa)'s. \Y/e have ;,-tl-
rcady mcmioncd rhe vernacular ·•,1-
d:tprntiOn- and the urb~m 1oinn:qlrern-
tion''. The possibili.tie:-. o( inttrprcrariun
arc evident!)' determined by the site itself
and by the historical circumsrnnces
which mar both fovou1· ;,t cer.rain Hp-
proach of rhc ''romantic'' 1 "cosmic" or
·"clas.si,cal'' type. Moreover an inte rpret-
ation is alwa)1S open m indi\'idual
varimi0ns. In general seulemems are
therefore characterized by basic motifs
w~i~h are varied according to the
d rcumsrancc.s. Theme mu/ varialion is
in f3ct a basic means of· artistic co n-
creti.i',u ion. The '"theme·· represents a
ge1\eral complex o( me,tnings, and the
"variations·, its circumstant ial realiz~l-
rion. Such themes may be a parricul.u
type of building '" well as motifs o f
"crir.ic'al"' illlportance. \'v'ell-known ex-
:imples :ire the Italian l)alazzo , t he
French h6tel o{ the cour d'ho1me11r type,
and t he Centntl Europ~an Brirger-
haus32. The eu/,rancei?. is_ ~lso ih... mosc
setdemenrs a cOar.act~.riS:tlc mot'if of
'(t:hem.t~ic"' imporrance. American towns
arc thus disl'inguished by t he. v.1ried
repetition of conspicuous· porches. ln
general o:i:theme and variation'' allows for
the expression of individual i~catity
wirhin a system of ma nifest comm9n
mea nings. Thus it conserves the '"spirit'f
-□ f rhe place without' ma king ir becom~ a
lifc-le~·s straightjac ket.
;i. History . pCrtics a rc always capable o f various When Prague ·and Rome started to feel
Our discussion of the identity of ;t place
has alre_a dy brought us close to the
problem of consta ncy ancl cha nge. How
does a place preserve its identity under
the pressure of historical forces? How
307, Theme and voniuioi,. Dutd, fourn.
JOS. Tlu·me und 1m,i~11imt. Ht.ms~s. t1I l~rocidn.
NaJ,les.
309. P-0rcl1•1.11utif, Stred ht Cm,l1rM1,:11, MNsS.
J JO. M,usivt• a,1d sJ:el~ttm stmcturi;. Farm ;,, thl·
Po•v.Jltt•)'·
c,111 a place adapt to the changing needs ;ttmosphere or StHmmmg will not get
of public and private life? T he common lost. Ir is this Stimm,mg which first of
lt,isscz /'llire attitude. of ro day implie,s a all tics man to "his'' place and strikes
rejeccion of the fi rst question and a the visitor as a particular loe-.1l quality.l4 •
blind acceprance of adapt:itio n to cha n- The idea of preser\'ation, however, al§o
ge. \Y/c h;wc tried to show, howe ver, h,1s ,mother purpose. rt implies that
thac human identity presuppos<;s chc a rchitectural history is understood as .a
identity o f place, a nd that sm/Jilitas loci colleccion of cultural experiences. which
therefore is a b;isic human need . The should not get lost bur remain prcsenc as
dcvdopmcnt of individual and social possibilities for hunrnn "use''.
identity is a slow proccs$, which cannot What kind of ch,1nges does histor)' ask
c:ikc place in :~ continuousl), changing for? In general they may be grouped iri
environment. We have ever)' reason co three categories: practical changc.~s,,
believe that the human nlienation so social changes, a nd cultural cha nges. All
cdnlmon today , to a high extent is. due these c_hariges have physical ('envitQn·
to the sc:uc:e possibilities of orientatio n mental) implic.1tions. As rhe cultura l <111~
and identification offered bv the mo dern social changes become manifest through
environmen't . Piaget's i:ese~lrches in fact rheir physical implications, ,ye ma)'
show that a mobile world would tic consider the problem of change in
m·a n to an egocentric srngc of dcvdop- " functionaP' terms, ~,nd ask: How can
mern, while :1 srabile and ~trucrured the genius loci be prcscrVe<l under the
world frees llis menrnl powersJ.,l. Our pressure of new functional demands?
a na lysis of rhe c ities of Prngue, Khar- \Vhat h~ppens for instance. when new .o·r
toum and Rome have morCO\'Cr shown larger streets become uccessary? The
that it is possible t(> prcs!!rve the:: geu/us example of Prague has pught us that a
loci over considerable periods of rime system of paths may devdop during
without imcrforing with the needs of history in co nformity with the strUcture
successive historical.situations. of the natural pl~ce. We may a l_sp
Let u s sum up what. ought to be remind of Rome, where the breaking
preserved, before we embark up upon a thro ugh of Corso Virtorio Emanuele
discussion of t he problem of change. {afte r 1886) fairly well respect~d the
Tlie· genius loci Qeconies manifest as continuity and scale o f the traditional
locatibn, spat ia l .c onfigur:1tion a nd Roman street, whereis th e sven t.r11me11U
ch:1r:.tcteriz.ing ·a rt-iculation. All thc-sc as- carried out under fa§_cism introduced a
pr;cts to some excenc have to be prescn•- new and "foreign' ' urban pattern, al-
ed, as they are the objects of man's though the aim w as to restore the
orilcntation. and indentificacibn. \'i'har ugrea mess"' qf the Imperial capitaP 5• We
l:rns 19 oe respected a-re obYiousJy their understand, thus, that it makes sense ti:>
JJrimary structural properties.., sucb ns talk abom "good" and "bad'' changes.
the type of senlement and. way of One might object, howe,•er ,• that, our
bu ilding ('•masSivet'., •~skeletar etc.) as thccc main. examples arc not, suitable for,
wdl as characteristic motifs. Such pro- illustratin1;- the problem o( change.
incerprcrnt ions if they are propet!Y t~e full impaco o f modern life, t heir old
understo od, a nd therefore dp nor ha rn- centres wer,e alread)r under. pr~tection,
per stylistic ch·anges and individu;-\l a:nd ~liimoum is siill waiting for oecom-
cre.\tivity. If rhe primary struct ura l ing a modern metropolis. But the pr_<ib-
pro perties ,ue respected , the · general lem of change is not basically diffetent if
180
 •-
,~~' ln1
■ fF ,,. P•~

i '■
>--

we consider a grear :rnd truly modern
city such ;is Chic:1go. Even here the
genius loci is of decisive importance,
a nd changes have ro obey to cerc.ain
..rules·•. The infinite extension of the
gre;it plains and Like Mithigan is th~s
reflected in an "~pen'', orthogonal urban
scrucmrc, which is concrctizcd in each
single building. Enclosed, round or
"freely'· sha ped buildings are " mc~ln,
inglcss•· in Chic.1go; the pl:,ce dcm,rnds ,1
regular grid. The ge11i1,1s loci was under,
stood by the e,u:ly pioneers, and w.is
ser•into•work in rhe famous ''Chicago•
Cbn.s truccion'' which was invented by
Jenney about 1880. The local tradition
was carried -on after L937 by Mies \1,m
aer Roh~, wfiose personal idiom fi tted
Gliicago perfei;tly. The last :1i1d most
imP.re.ssive lntcrpretatio.n of t he spirit o_f
C hicago has . been given in rhe 420
metres tall Sears Tower by S0M'6 •
Today tltere is hardly any place w here
·Mchicects are so conscious of the need
for adapting to the given environment~
and this happens in a dty which is
among the most .d ynamic in the world!
It would qf course have·been f)Ossi/Jle to
interpret Ch.i cai;o differently. The imcr-
prct.:uion chosen, h owever t c.vidcnrly
suited the ccononJic, social, politicc11 -;;ind
cultural inrencions of rhc, ()ione.ers. Ther
w anced to concretize the image of an
Ol)en and dynamic world of OPP.Or-
tunities; and chose •an appropr,iare
spatial.system.
This does noc meah, hO\Vcvcr ; .th:1t
Chicago a rchfrecturc. m~ty be used when ..
ever similar imentions have ro be set•
into-work. Other pl,1ces h:ivc a different
relationship to ''open'~ form , and h,wc to
be treated accordingly. Boston may
serye as an i1ue resting example. Until
quite recently Boston appeared as a
dense duster of relatively small houses
on the peninsula between the hatbour
and the Charles River". The architec-
tural qu:tlicy was- gene[."ally very -bigh,
:md rhe environmem c haracterized by
signi(ic,1ht lqcal motifs. Duriog the last
decade large I" " " of t he urbim tissue
have bcL"n erased, ,md sc,1nered "super•
ouildings' erected 'instead . The c.levelop-
lllcnr cul minated wich the John H,mcock
T owcr by l.lvl. Pei. which completely
d estroys the scale of a major urban
focus, Copley Square''. As a result,
Bosron c,;,day ap1>ears a hybrid cit)' ; the
old rellltoins, such as Bc,1con Hill, make
the new buildings look inhuman and
ridiculous_, and che new scruccure have a
crushing effec r on rhe old environment~
nor only bec.1use of the sc.1le, but
because of their totnl lack of architec-
tural charn~ter. Thus the place has lose
its meaningful n.•l;uionship ro eanh and
skv.
OUr examples show that economic,
soci,1I, political and cultural intCnrions
have to be concrccizcd in a way which,
respeccs the genius loci. I( nor, the place
loses itS identity. In Bost0n the gl:1dn$
loci w:ts (or a long tiine. understood;
recently, howc.ver, a way of building has
been imroduced which is foreign to the
place, irnd which deprives in:-tn of tbc
satisfaction of o ne of his most fun-
damental needs: a meaningful environ-
ment. \'v'~ereas C hicago possesses the
cap,ici.!;y for absorbing this kind of
buildings, Bosron does not. Thus we
learn rhat cities have to be tr(•;.1tcd as
intlividual pldces, rather than abstract
space.,; where the "bli,id.. forces of
economy ,,nd politics may hav~ free
p,lar"- To respe.c t the geni1is lo.ci does
nor mean ro copy old models. lt me:1ns
ro determine t he. identi',)' of 1hc place
a,ld ro ime.rpr.et it ii, ever n~w W{!)'S.
Only t hen we m,1y tal)< about ,i livi11g
tradiJion which makes cliange meaning-
ful by relating it co a set of locally
founded .p'arametrcs. \'(/c nlay again·
remind o f Alfred Nonh Whitehead's
diccum: "The ,m of progress is to
preserve order amid change, a nd change
JI 1. St•,ut T<11,:c1r-; Cl,i(.,·1go by SOM (Klum.
GmlmmJ.
J 12. Bpston i1t.r()$$ th,t Ch11dci-s ffif(!r.
3 13. Cop/;:)+StJmlrt: , Boil<m witf, nmuJolm
1-ftlll(W:k T(>Wc'r l,y Pc!I:
amid orde r''-li), A living rraditi9n $crvcs
Ji(e because it si'ltisfies these words: h
docs nor undcrst,,nd ;'freedom'' as an
arbitrary pla)'. buc as creative p:u-
ticipatlOn.
In our context "crearive p:uuc1pauo,n
means two t~ing.s: firstl)' th~· realization
of a JJrhl(l/e '"inside· which concr.ccizes
the identity of rhe individual by ga-
thering t lie me~rnings which constirut·e
his personal existent ia l content, and
se..:011dl)' the creation. of :1 public "out-
s ide'' which gathers t he institutions 0£
communal life ,md makes tile me~Oings
(values} n1;111ifest on which this life is
based. T he private domain is the home
of man , in t he rl.lrrowcr sense of- rhc
word. It is person,-1I , bm not singul;u,
Personal '•foorhold"' implies an un'der-
srnnding O( fl s.ht1r(!d euvironmeul (a
common place), :1nd therefore has to be
concretizcd as a variation 011 a them,:~
The theme co nsists in a typical spacial
re la cion.ship berween inside and outside 1
and in cerrnin locally menni1lgCul motifs.
In the Nordic countries, for instance,
th·c house has t<) give m,ln physical
protection by being enclosed. At the
same rirne he w:1111:s- ir to be sy_mbolicnll)'
open t'O bring nature near, T hus we
find , for instance, a chamctcr:istic te1t•
dency to use "natural" lllaterials, inside-11 •
In the desert the house is enclosed both
in a pratical and a symbolic sense; it
represents a different '"pa(adisic:11" world
whic h forms a compltmcnt to the
o utside: In t he ''cl;u;.sical" cOunrries :t
favourable climate and a trustworthy 1
image:-1b1e n(tt·urc m,1kes the outside
become an inside; the boundary berwcen
pri.v;1te an~ public domains is weakene4,
and if it is maintained, it is co make rhc
inside a •plaee of repre.semat'ion r.ather
than a home.
In general the conception of the private
inside becomes m:anifest in the. ''thres•
hold.. O( boundary which separnces ir
from ,md unifies it witfi the outside. At
182
JI-I. Nvrw,,ghw ~cJtragt:, Tt:/t:m.u'k, J 16, Str1't!t in t;ld Na11lr:s..
J IS . .-\fn'i':m, Imus,• f rom Sml{m, J J !,; Stu1•I -,,J.ngre.:mi:,rt'• in Ei11/)(•ck, c;.i,,na,1>'·
J J 8. f',0 111 1l1e rJJ_:om of Pric1w,

... t he same time 1he boulldary givcs ~tht

public outside its parti~ular presence.
Thus Louis Ktihn says: "The · srreer is a
1'00111 of agreement. The Stre et is dedi-
cate b11· each house owner to the
city ..."''· Bur the public omside is
something more than a n °::l'greemenr" of
indi\lidual homes. The ~tgrecment it
represenrs is focused in public buildings-
which concretize the shared understand-
ing whicl1 makes communal life possible
and meaningful. These public buildin~
ought m ·ap_pear as p,Jrticularl)' complete
;-tnd arciculate variations on the then1es
which arc ,dread)' intoned in the. single
home. This was the case in the Greek
polis, ,vhcrc .the public.- buildings expose
(hose meaningful forms which in a more
modest way were used inside: the dwel-
lings (such as ,he anthropomorphous
column), ,111d especially in the Medraev;d
cown where· the exteriors o.f hoµses,
churches ilnd mwn halls are variations
on rhemes which express an integrated
form o f life. To fullfil its purpo~e, the
public domain obviously : has to be
spatially integrated; scattered institutions
do not form any true urban place.
We have introduced rhe co ncept of
"theme and variation" as an answer to
the problem of constancy arid · change.
The concept does not contain a9ything
new, it onl)r expresses in a dearer way.
what it means to respe.c r the gc,~ius loci.
A theme is a symboli~ form which
embodies _cxis_tenti,11 meanings. 'As such
it has to be circumstantial antl general.
It has to concrccize the local circllm•
stances, but at the same tir:ne ir should
pr.e sem these as a particular manife-
station of a gener;ll universe of mean•
ings. T-hc ,clationship between the local
anti the g~neral has been discussed in
terms of ''ro1n;rntic", 0 cosinic'' a nd
1-1,1:,ssicar environments. The ~'roman·
tic", ucosmic" and "dassicaJU modes
grasp th~ dominant character qf a
parricul~r p la~e, at th""e: same time Rs

184
 they arc general categories of under- new historical circumstances. P.Mlicipa-
standing, which directs attention tion. however., c:rn only be obtained
towards cerrnin types of meanings. The "by great labor"" , T he "threshold"
three c:ucgoric s cover objective en\•iron- which is the sy,i,liol of_ participation, is
mc::ntal properties ::ts well (lS human in fact ''curned co sm·,ie'' by "pain•i.
attitudes, and .!herefore grasp the cor- Parcicipacion presupposes symp(lthy with
respondence { UhereiJ1Slin11mmg) which things, ro repeat the word of Goethe,
ought ro form the basis of our being- and sympathy necessarily implies suf-
in-the-world. It helps our undersrnnding fering . .In our context symp,uh}' with
to relate the archireccural themes to things means rhar we learn t() see. \'<le
these cmc::gories, -:ilchough ic has ro be have to be able 10 "see" the meanings of
repeated char any concrete situation rhe things that surround us; be they
comprises elements from all 9[ them. natural or man-made. Things always tel1
The caregories h:ive been introduced several stories; rhey tell about their pwn
because human identity consisl's in :.t making, they tell about 1he hist0rical
particular kind of correspondence. circumsrances. under which they wci-c
As o ne gees ro know different countries; made, ;111d if rhey are real things, they
talking with people, eati.n g with people, alsq reveal trµth. The ability o[ a d1ing
feeling with people, reading -their litera- to reveal truth ·depends upon how it is
ture, listening to their music ;u1d usi,,g made, and the nCXJ. thing ro learn iS
their places, one beings to realize that therefore t]laki11g. Seeing and making
the correspondence of man and place are united in inspiration :\nil concrcci7.-
has nor changed much throughout arion. Thus Louis ~a.h n said; ''Inspir-
hisrory:'' . The local human attitude is ation is the moment of possibility when
surprisingly consrnnr, and we muse- agree what to· do meets the means o( doing
,v,ith Hegel when he saY.S that ir deter- it"46 ~ Soing and m:1king Constitute the
r mim.>S the people's up1ace in world basis of dwelling.
hiscory". We can therefore repeat thar The re.suits of creaciv<: parriciparion
the basic exjsrential contents arc not constitute man's e-xisccmial foorhol,d 1 his
. pcoduced by changing economical, culture. They make manifest what he
sp9ial <1nd pglitical co.nditions. The- has managed ro make out of his
existential contents have deeper roots, existence. ,Some of l'he. re-suits iJluminate
and the changing conditions only ask for a wider •-rnnge of phenomena than
·· lever new interpretations. The crucial ochers, and deserve the name •·work of
qu~eStibn therefore !s: "How is i( poss- art'', In the 1ivork of ilrr man Prflises
ib]e to remain an Italian, a Russi~tn, or :.t existe11ce. In his Ninth. Elegy a11d his
German undet this regime?." Regimes S01111ets to Orpheus, Rilke dcvclQps rhe
come and go.., rhe place persists, and· image of man as a p,raising singer. \Vie
\Vith it a· parricular kind of human ren,ember his question: uAp! we· perhaps
identit)' , When we have realized chis· /,ere to say: house, bridge_, fountain,
focr, we should start to improve · the gat<:, jug, fruit cree, window, ,at best:
woild by taking care of our places, colulnn., cower ...... , and ht.ilr his answer:·
rather than by abstract pJ:uming and ''Praise co rhe I\nScl ouc world, nor rhe
anonymous building''', T:hus we may unrellable:
leave utopia behind and return to ihe ypu Can•t impress hi,11 with grand
things ofour everyday life-world. emotion. In the cosmos
Creative participation .means re con- where he so powerfully feels, you're
cretize the· basic meanings under ever ollly a ne\vcomer.
 J,19. H()IUt.',
J-lO. Brltlgtr~

Th en show h is some simpk thing,

grc;iwn up through generations
rill ir became ours , and lives near our
h;mds and.in our eyes.
Tell him of things :incl he'll smncl
:tSronished. as you stood
beside 1he rope-maker in Rome , or wil'h
the Nile porter.
Show his how joyful ,, thing can be,
how innoccnr and ours 1
how even l;unc-nting sorn>w c,~n rake
purel)' its 9wn form ,
serve as a thing, or die as a thing - ;rnd
in ecsr.icy
escape beyond the vioiin. And these
things,
rhar live only in IMSsing, understand
1·hat you praise them;
fugith•e) t h c)r look to us. rhe mosr
fug!.ri\re, for ~escuc.
The)' want us entirely ro transform them
in our invisible hearts
into - oh, infinjtely - into us! \Xtho-
cvcr we finally arc'M' .

186
JU. Fo1mt~hr, J2J, Fmit-tree. 325. C-0/1mm.
J22. w,,., Ji-1.. \'(liHd()Ut. J26. TOU/1:.r~

...
187
 Vm JZJ. Vism1I t h1t1.>s. Os/v.
JlLACE TOD:\ Y 328, Spa,;ct b.!111,ceu lllfO epod~s. G(1llcrru1 Viuuno
Emmtttdt', M ihm by J\fc•itgcmi.
31?. (Jl,ar:1et1tr-.be1!,1i!1~n tu10 .:pocJ,s-:- Cast.d
.
Bcrmwcr. raris l,y Gui,,,arU,
' .
J.10. I),walttnllQlt of symbdls. Pain~() iii Clltsti~ia,
Rpme l,y Ci!M,:,h,i.

J., "J;J,e,Loss of Place

Afre, the second -world war most places
have been subjected to profound chan-
ges. The qualities which trt1dirionally
di"stingui~hed human scrrlemi!nt:'i have
heen corrupted or have got irrep,irably
fosr. Reconstructed or new towns also
iook very diffeccnt from the places of
the past. 'Before we consider the reasons
for this fundamemal ch:mge_, it is neccss•
ary to give ir a more precise definition in
·s1ruc111ral rem1s. Again it is useful to
cmplo)' our concepts o f j'space1 ' and
"character", and relate chc:m ro rhc more.

I
genei-al cacegories of n:-11:ural and m;;t n•
made place.
Spatially the new scttk~ments do not
anymore possess enclosure and density.
Tli.ey usually consist of buildings
"freely" placed within :t park-like sp:icc .

' .i6trce1s and squarC-S in t he traditional

sense are no longer found, and rhe
g,ener:il rcsiilr is ct sc,mered assembly of
units. This implies rh,u: a distinct figure-
ground relationship no more exists; the
continuity o f the lan~sc.tpe is inte(•
rup.ccd apd rhe buildings c\q nor form·
cl.ustcrs or group_s. Although :t gcner:il
order ll!ay be present, _partic ularly when
rhe settlement is scl'n from a n airphmct
it usually does nm bring abour any sense .
c)f place. The changes done to :tlrcady •
q:is't!ng _rowns have :rnalogous effects!,
'lihc urban tissue is "opened up'\ the
conrinuity of-the urb.111 "walls" is i1)rer•
ruptcd, and the coherence of the urban
_spaces clamagcd. As a consequence,
no~es, pa.ch~ and districts lose their
identity, and l"he town .ts a whol.c its
image:tbility. Together with the loss of
tlte. rra·ditiOnal urban structure, the la nd·
scape i~ deprived ()( its mc;ming ·a s
comprehensive extension.,, ::tnd reduced
to ,rests, within che comp.l ex network of
man•roa<le clcme.nts. ..., .... ..
~

The character of the prcsc,it day cn- •1 r. ~ -d · - I

vironmenr is usually discinguishcd by

- ~
monotony. H any variety: ·is found, it is

189
JJJ. Afom,1,:wy. New i ulm,I., ;,, Moscotv.
332. Visw,I d m<JI , USA.
.JJJ. The "'open" city. h:4Ja,·1I C.111ter, Cl,i~:,,gq by
Mfos mm dt>r Rtihe.

usu:tll)' due to clements ldt over from

the p;1st. The "prc.s encc" of th(• majority
o ( new buildings is \'ery WCi1k. VCI')'
often ..currnin -w;tlls" are used which
have a,, unsubsl:lntial and :1bstrnct
characte.r, or rather, a bck of charncrc.r.
Lack of character implies poverty of
scimuli. T he mode rn environment in fact
offers very liule of the surprises and l
discoveries which make. t hl' experience WHY\
o( o ld towns so focinaring. \X1hen AV
attempts ro break rhc gencr;tl mo11owny
art: made, chC)' most"ly appe~tr ;1s ar-
bitrary fancies.
Ju genera) , the symptoms indicate ,i /ojs
of pince. Losr is rhc scrdcment as ,.,
place in nz1curc~ lost :-trc the urb;tn foci
as places for common livin~, lost is the
buildlng :~s :1 meaningful sub•pface
whcrt man ma)' simulraneous1y e:.:peri•
c-ncc indiviclu:1li1y ;111d bclo11Ai1lg. Losr
is ;tlso rhc relationship l o earth an<l sky.
fvlOst modern buildings exist in ;1
''1lowhere·; they arc nor rel;ucd to ,,
l.mdscapc and nor to a coherent, urban
whole. but live their :tbstr:,ct Ii Fe in a
kind or m:1themmical-technologic.il
.space which hardlr distinguishes bc:-
rwecn up ;,lnd down. The: same feeling of
" nowhere" is :1lso encountered in 1hc
interiol'S of the d,vellings. A neutral, flat
surface Jrns substituted the articulare
ccil.ings of the p:1sc, a nd the w·indow is
reduced m :t srnnd:trd device which lets
in ~1 mc:1surnblc qu;unll'y of air and
ligh1 . Ju most modern rooms it is
mtanfog1cs!l co ask : "\v'hac 5lice of sua
docs your building h:JVe?", thar is:
"what l'ange o( moods does the light
offer from morning to night, from day
to da)'• from sc:~1scm to sc.· ason , :md .-111
t hro ugh the: ycar.s?'' 1• In gcncr:11 , ;-d i
qualities :1re losr, and we m:t)' indeed
talk.,abouc an ' 1c1wiromnental crisis".
It has often been pointed out that the:
modern environment makes hum:-tn
oricnrntion difficult. The work of Kevin
Lynch evidently took this deficiency as
 334. The "Grt't"' City" by I.I! Co,bus;e,.
JJS . Pavillrm de J'es/}fit nouveau by I..- Corl>Mi,:r
(r92S), relmilt in Bologna 1977.

its poim of clcpartun\ ,-md he implies

rhac poor imagt.·:1bili1)• 111;:1y cause emo-
rion:11 ini-ct.:urirv nnd fear! . The.·- effects
of scarce possibilities of identification,
however, h,wc hardly been the subject
of direct study . From psychological
literature we· know that :, gencrnl pover-
ty of stimuli ma>' C;mse passivity and
reduced intdleccu,11 capacity\ and we
111:t)' ;tlso infer rh:1r human idenriry in
gener;ll depends on srowing up in a
1
\:harat.:teristic" e11"ironmenr1, The cn-
vironmcnrnl c risis therefore implies a
human crisis. Evidently the environ-
mental problem has to be met with
intdligencc: and dficitncy. Ln our
opinion rhis c,in only be done on the
basis of an undersrnoding of the. concept
of place. "Pl.anning'' does noc help much
a~ long as the concrete, qu:tliwtive
nature of places is ignored. How, then.
may -a theory of place hdp us to solve
our :-lCtujJ problems? .Before we give
some suggestions for l'he ;1nswcrs ro this
.JL =Ai.-
, .-:.~.~-=~---;.-:=-
question, we have, however • to say a
-· few words about the: reasons for the
c nvironmcnrnl crisis.
Paradox ically,, rhe present siwation is ;,
resu ll of ~, wish for making man's
environment bcncr. The open, ''green
:_,, -t '~-~~~, . city"' rhus rr:presemed ;l reaction ~,g;1insr
' ..... :I,._ .• ~ • ~ t he inhuman conditions in the industri:11
ci, ies of nineteenth century Europe, and
f 't';,PJ:; -,_
,j._ modern a rChirecwrc in general took rhe
need for berrer dwellings as irs poinc of
dep,.u·uireS. Le Corbusier wrorc: "Man
dwells badly, th:,t is the deep and real
n:ason (or the uphL'.a\'als of our time"'\
and ar che Expqsition lnce rn,nionale des
Arcs Oecorntifs in raris 1925, he
showed a prorocype apartment which he
cal led the Pavii/vu cle lesprit nouveau.
To demonstrate the. uspirie· of rhe
modern age, he rhus m:1de a dwelling
for rhe common man . Le Corbusicr1s
poim of view is dearl)• indicated in Vers
""" t\rcl,ilec/11ra (1923). Here he tells us
that '·we ;tre to be pitied for living in
 3.16. 1:r,mk Lloytl \V,ight: Ht,,ma Hm1u, iut,:,ivr
with p,.iphw:.• ·p"/o ,\Ito, G1liforni:1.
JJ7. Fwnt· Lloyd \Vrigbt : Robi1~ Noui(i, 11l,11rs.

unworrh~1 houses, since they ruin our

hc:1lth and o ur momlc'" . The new spil'i£
t herC'forc aimed at somelhi11g more tha o
the sat is.fact io n of mer<: physical needs.
Evidently it implied a new way of life
which should make man ''norm:ll1'
agt,in , in 1.he scnst.· of ;\!lowing him to
follow 1'the o rganic developme nt of his
existcnce •s . At l'hc root o f t he modem
movement, as defined by Le Corbusier,
was the wish ro hdp ;llien.uecl mo dern
man co regain :1 true an<l rne:mingful
e xistence. To achieve this he. needed
"freedom" as wdl as ''idcnrirr'', " Free•
dom" me:rnr primarily libennion from
chc absolutisl systems of the ltuoquc
age and their successors. th,1t is, a new
right ro choose •rn<l p;trricipatc. ''1.<lenr•
ict' meant to bring man back LO what is
original and c~semi,11. The modem
movemenc in fact used the slogan Nc,w
Sachlic/Jkeit. which ought ro be tr:.lllS·
bucd "back ro rhings'' rather t han r·ncw
rarionalism".
The work of 1he first of modern
pioneers, Frank Llo)'d \'v'righr , was from
the very beginning conditiQncd by n
concrete " hunger for rcalit>•'', .:,nd a t JI
he w as sent tO a \X'isconsin form "to
learn how co really work''Y. As a result,
I his appro ach co the namral phenomen~
r d id not consisc in the abstrncc ob·
Sel'\rarion a nd ;rnalysis conuno n in
Europe, buc in the direct experience of
[..;===== = = ===..Li j archctyJM~, mcaninglul ..forces". Thus
he .said: "It comforted me to sec the fii:c
-burning deep in the solid masonry Qf the
house itsetr•rn, a nd accordingly he de•
0
•• j
vcloped his pl:ins around a· large chim-
ncy-st:1ck, ro make the fire-place the
expressive core of the dwelling. His use
of natural materials must also be under~
stood ;is rhc m:rnifesr:uion of a wish for
a returll m the concrete phenomena,
chat is, for a "deepe r sense or rcaliry"11 •
\'(/right w.1s also t he first to g ive :in
answer to the dcm~rnd for Hfrecclom",
T radirionally the hunrnn dwelling haJ

192
193
 been a refugc_for- the-indi.\'.idu:iL;~nd. the 110,wcau therefore: should free man from
familr- Wright '.\v amed rootedness
eedom, ;1nd rhus he destroyed the •thoughc and feeling- wlm:: h was a clrnr•
aditional ' 1box,, :ind created a new
CT ternction between inside and outside
y means of conrinuous walls which _)lead co the loss of place rather than a
?ic~q-:!-~d unif~ ~Tlic Conccpt'of rcc~mqucsr? As for ;lS we: ctn sc~, rhc
ms1de 1s rflcrcOy ch:mged from .t refuge
to a fixed point in space, from which
man could experience :l new sense of
freedom and p:.tl'l'icip:uion. This point is
marked b)• the great fireplace with j rs
\fCrtk:al chimnq' . Hence man no longer
places himself ar the center of the world
as was the case in Vers;1illcs. Rather we
find at the centre an t·lcmcnr which
symboliws the forces :111d order of
namrc. A rem:,inder evidently , that the
modern world should not ncga.re the
basic meanings of existence.
Thi, work of Wrighr m;1dc a profound
impr_cssion on the Europe;u, pioneers
after irs public~ttion in Germany in
1910. Evidentlr they rccogniied that
Wright had managed to define the
concrete means. which were nc:cdcd to
give man a new dwelling. lt is important
in this conteXt a lso to mention his ide~,
of ••m harchitccture of dcmocrac>,''. Be-
fore, archirecrurc was determined from
'\ibove", and the dwelling only reflected
the meaningful fgrm,Ji....,.dcl:clOpcd..in.....c$)!!-
n'ectiollWithC hurch and p alace. Mod"ern'i
architecture, on the concrary, cakes rhe
dwelling as irs point of dep:1rture, an~1
all other building rnsks are considercd
..extensions.. of the dwelling, ro· use the\\
-term of Le Corb,tsicr" . T he rraditional
order of building rnsks is rhefe6y 1:'ever0
ed. This means that architecture is no
longer based on dogma and :iurhority ,
bur ought to grow out of daily life , as
an expression of nMn·s unclersranding ot
1'1;,uure, of other men and of himself.
The "'higher~· building tasks thus become
n re.suit rather th.:tn a condition, and
they represent someching man must
conquer in his own life. The e$prit
;nc,,
the 11sysrcms'\ a~d conquer the split of
3crcristic product or'bou,rgcois societJ 1J .
~'(thy, then , did the modern movcm(:nt
main reasons ar(• two, ;md both 11npl)'
an insuffidcm understanding of the
concept of phtce. They an: moreover
relartd ro rhc climensions of "sp:lcc" ,rnd
"ch::1rncrer'' and rhus confirm the v;1)idiry
o( .our approach. T he first reason has to
do with the crisis as an urbtlu problem,
The loss of pJ;icc is first of all felt on ,he
urb~m level , and is) as we h..1ve seen ,
connected \vith ;.1 loss of the spmial
structurc.s which sccu1·e the identity of a
scttlemcnr. lns,ea<l of being ;m urb:rn
place, the nlOdcrn scttlemcnr is con-
ceived ;is a "l,lmvn•11p house'", of the
type developed by the pioneers of
modern archircccure: Frnnk Llo)'d
Wright, Le Corbusier, and Mies van dcr
Rohe. The plan of the modern house
w~1s: defined as "OP.en", and the sp:1ec as
a •'flowing" continuum which hardly
distinguished between omside :md i11-
side. Such a space may be apJlt'Opri:-uc
for a sub-urban one-family house (as
was the ideal of Wright), but ir is
questioo;tble whether it suirs an urb;ln
sim:HiQn. In the ciry a clear distinction
benveen private and public domains is
necessary. •:rnd space cannor ''Aow"
1 freely. T his problem was, however,
partly irnderstood by rhe pioneers~ _the
urban houses of Le Corbusjcr constitute
rrue "insides" and Mies v:\n dcr R<:>he
already in 1,934 suggested the use of
enclosed '"court houses" fo r the Ciq, 14,
When we talk about the modern set•
tlcmcnr as 3 ''blown-up house'', we
rnther have in mind the facr th:tt
q uarli!rs and cities arc conceived :ts large
bpen plans. Jn the urban projects of thl·
ttwcntics and 'thirries, and in man)'
neighbourhoods which are built today,
true urb~ln "insides'' arc lacking; c.Jw
space is freely Oowing bcrwccn slab-like
buildings which resemble the freesrnnd-
ing walls of :rn ''open" phln, such as the
pl,rn of the l\arcelon;i-p;ivilion by Mies
van d,·r Rohe ( I929). Spatiallj•, die
modern titv l$ rhereforc b,1sed on ~l
conJi,siou ;>/ ::ct1/es; ;l p,urern which
might be v;1lid on one level is blindly
transferred to another. T his unfonunare
"solution'' to the problem of the ser•
tk-mcnt bcc:1111e po~sible h cc:lOSC rhe
concept or "milieu" was :lt 1he outset of
the modern ntovcmcnt only undersmod
in ph ysical terms, rh,u is, as a mere need
for "air, light and green"1.t,
·rhc second reason has to do with the
idea of an internatiunal style 16 , In the
'twenties it was mainraincd th:u modern
a rchirecrure ~hould not be local or
regio11al, but follow the same principles
ever,ywherc. It is c harncn:ristic rhat the
first volume in rhe series or Baubaus•
biicl1t1r w:_
1s c:1llcd /11/tmtationale t"\rcbi •
l(!k/ur. Ale-hough G ropius rc:1crcd
:1gainsr the world "style''. he , hus cn'l-
bractd the idea of imernacionalism.
Thus he said : .. ." The forms of the New
Archirecnire differ fundamentally . ..
frorn those of the old, they are .. . simpl)'
the inevitable, logical product of the
intcllecmal , social :md ,echnic:tl con-
ditions of our agc1111 • This docs not
mean, however, rhar- modern ar-chitec•
turc: was conceived as -a mere practical
product; it also oug"hr ro gi'vc •·aesthetic
satisfacrion co the human soul"1~. This
smi$facrion ought to be ;.\chievcd b)'
substiruring :t "welter of ornament1' wich
simple, mass-produced forms. The result
was whar Venturi appropriately has
called an "archi,ecrurc of exclusion''.
This· does not mean, howc\•er 1 that the
buildings of the European pioneers were
aesthetically poor. or "ch:1nu:ccrless·\ in
an :1bsolutc sense. On the contrary,
some of them. ~uch as I..~ Corbusic:r's
Villa Sa,'O)'e ( 1928-31 ) ,rnd Mies """
194
dcr Rohe', Tugendhat House (1930), a general humani1.ing process; of ;1 served ~1s ":tids•· co chc domin:mt
are rrue m:1srcrpieccs which in a con- return co the human sc;\lc nnd the powets, but chc focc {h:;1r man}' of rhtrn
vincing way concrccizc .-1 new way of :lsserrion of the rights of the indivicl- had to leave their coum ries or withdraw
lifo. Alrhough rhcy lack ,he "su bstance" ual ... "" . Finally, in 1954, C ied io11 from acth•c p rofessional life bec:w se or
-and presence of m:rn>• old buildings, wrote ,a n cssa)' wirh the title ·•on chc rhcir artiscic crcc<l. is certainly more
their volumetric composition and srruc- New Regionalism" where he m;kcd for :1 .sig.11ifit.::tnt. Thus Gicdion could writ<:::
niral integrity fully satisfy modern man's new respect for the "way of life"', which '·Architecwcc h~\S lo ng ce:lscd co be 1he
demand for fn::edom :_111d idemiry. ought to be studied wirh ''reverence" ,unn·rn of p:1ssivc :md busii"icsslike
l\1._o'ti'o,•cr rhey undoubtedly represent ;l bc(ore designing a projecr. 'The new specialists who built pn:dscly what cht:ir
reconquest or csscnrial mc.:;mings :111d regionalism has :1s irs motiv;ning force a clients dcm:111dccl. It h ,1s gained the
me;1ns, nnd hence a m:w Sachlichkeil , in re.speer for individuality and a desire ·to cou 1'~\gc to dc:11 wirh Jife .. ."14 • ihe
t'he Lruc ~tnsc of thL· word. Bm some• satisfy rhc emotional and material needs criticisni or Lorcnzer thc1·efore onl)'
thing !\1:rnhgc happens ,vhcn the Hscetic of each area".!l. \Ve undersc~nd thus, holds true for the work of c<:rt:lin
ch,u:aecer of e:ll'ly modernism is tr.tns- that rhc leaders of rhe modern move- imitacors who did nm really understand
forrcd to the urban level. \Xth,n w~1s a ment olready 20-30 years :igo forcsa,v 1he oims of rhe modern movement. :tnd
subtle interplay of forms, which ("lmosr) some. o( t he most important problems h is criticism obviously Sl'ems from an
confirms Mies· rhesis rhar "less is rnore", wt an: facing now. T~C>se who got sruck _insufficient comprehension of the con-
becomes srcrilc monown ,· 1'1• The essene<.· wirh rhe earl}.' images of a green dcy and cept of ••function:tlism''. \V./c have dt·-
o( tetrlemcnt consists i,n:.,ga1]1eri11g . :;tQdscand,udized form , were rhe' epigoncs mo11sctated ch;1r the poinr of dep;ucure
ga.chering me,ms rhat different me.u1i1lgs ~,nd vulgarizers of modern architecture. of t'he modern movemem was profound-
fre brought 1oge1her. · The arcl,.iiecrure ly meaningful :md that its development
or - exclusion mainly <old us that rhe 2. The Recovery of /'lace sh6wtd an C\~cr 1110cc complete unclcr-
modern world is ''open'\ a sratcmcnr The critic..'i of the modem movement srnnding of rhe c nvi i::onmemal problem.
which in a ccrt;1in sense is :uni~urban. usu:1lly t:1kc the gener:tl discontent wit!\ A coust1'uctive cricicisrn on this basis is
Openness c~mnor be garhered . O'pcnncss our present environment as their point given by Robert Venturi in his remark-
means clcparture , g.:uhcring mtans of deparcure, and m;1inrain rhac modern able book "Complexity mu/ Co11tm-
rccurn. :ll'chitecrure h,fs nor been able to solve dictiou iu Ar,bitectttre'', which advoc.:i-
It is som1.:whar unfair, however, 10 the problem: ·runhcrmorc chcy often res :l "both•:\l'nf' r;nher than ;rn "eicher-
blame ,he modern moveme1lt for short-. criticize the architects for carr)'ing ouc or"·appro:1d1~t.
comings which only bdong,,<l to a. :.tll)' commission without rnking inco T he basic aim or the second phase of
cerc:tin phase of its dew:lopment. The consklei:mion the couscquern.:es of their modern :1rchitecturc is m gh•e buildings
modern mov·c mcnt did nc)r cQme to an act ions for society an'd the a nonimous -:md p laces individuality , wirh reg,1rd to
end wirh d1e images of ,, green clt·y and ''user". Thus the social psychologisr s pace and charac ter. This means to t;1ke
an imernation:11 :1rchitecturc. Already in Alfred Lorenzcr writes: ''The archircct ;ts tht· cirnnnsrnnrial conditions of locality
1944 the sp9kt:s111;m of the movcmenr, :;1 mere technical aid to the domi11:rn1 and building r:1sk inro consider:uion,
S. Gk~dion, pur fonv;ud rhc dcm;md for powers, corresponds to th<: ideal of rather t han b:tsiog che dcsig11 upo11
:r ''new monumenrnlity" :111cl said: consequent fuoction,11isrs. The sacrifi- gcnend types and princ i_p ks. The new
;'Monumenrnlicy springs fro,n the <:tenrnl cium intdlectus of these architeccs is approach bcc~11ne manifest in the works
neco of people to create symbols for architecrure•~2.1. \X1 hcreas we hove raken of Alvar Aalr() :tlre:tdy before rhe second
their nqivitics and fQr their fore o r the ~encr,:tl criticism vcrr seriously, and world war. l11 general A~•lto wanes ro
dcsriny, fo r rheir rdigious belief :md fo r :1skcd whether the modern mo\•emcnt :td:ipr the sp;ufal str.uccurc of his buil-
rheir socia l convinctions"16 • And in 1951 really foiled in giving man a new dings ;.\S wdl :1s the surrounding space ,
a CIAM conference discussed the Con' dwelling, , he scatement of Lorenzer and thus he rcimroduces ropologic,,I
of //,e; Cit)', that is, ch~ problem of sounds r<tther surprising co chose who forms which were IHtrdly admi rred b)'
i.n uoducing in the open tissue of the hav<: participated ,1erivcly in the propaga- early functionalism. l:lis a ppwach was
modern scrrlemcnr :1 garhering focus. tion of modern ;u;c hitccrur('. It is sho\vn in a programmatic w:1y in the
Ag,.1in we may ,·cfol' w Giedion : "Con- certainly possible ro fi nd cases when Finnish pavilion m the \Xforld's Fair in
tcmporM)' interest in chc core is part of prot:igonists of the modern muvem<·m New York 1939, and found " con-

195
JJ9. Clunl1:s rlwr Jm,,, with n,d:<'I' HoMe by
ArJlto. H()St(}n.
J ;IO. Villt1 ,\foirea. iltl<'l'iur, by Aalw .
Noo..nmrkk11.

vincing realirntion in h is MlT Scni()r

Dormitor)1 in CambridGe, Mass. ( L947•
48 ). T he undularing wall of rhis build-
ing concrctizes t"hc general modern ldca
of •'freedom'\ at the same time :IS it
represents .a n a d;lprnt io n co rhc sp::uial
circumsrnnccs. Aalro also :\imed ;tt giv-
ing his an:hltccture an o utspoken local
ch,1rn..:tcr. In works such as Vilht M.ai,ca
( 19.38-39) :111d the town -hall in S:iy•
n:irs,llo (I 945•51 ), the Finnish genius
loci is strongl>' presem2(,. Maire~, m :l)' in
foct be. considered t he first m:utif.csrnrion
of the 11cw "rtgional" a ppro ach. ;\gain,
thus, the development of modern
:1r~hirc~t':!.r-~ took--thc:..;¥clwdling- as,~
e.91.nt·<.•f clcp;.trturc. The works of Aalrn ...
(,arc cmi1lcnr1y "rommnic", and illustnue
how this ;•1 nitudt· was :1ble to free /
\._ modern arch itcc:n1re- fronr rh·c- •'c"o~iC"'
:iusi6\Cffon~ of CMly European modern•
ism . Thus Aa)ro satisfies \X1right's
"hunger fo r realic)",.
A hu nger for rc;1liry was a lso feh hy Le
Corbusicr, although he, as n child of
E.urOpc~;rn · civilization, did nm h,1vc rh:\t
dirc..·ct conrnct wich the concrcrc phe-
nomena whic h w;;ts normal in rhe "new
wol'ld" o f America, o r in co untric.s such
as Fin land, where populM traditions and
a more " n;lnirnr w,1y o ( life had
survived. Le Corbusicr t herefore needed
a long :ui.d "patient search>) (to use his
o wn words), before he could give
buildings true presence and c har:tcrer. In
his Uuiti d 'Habitnliou in tvbrseille-s
( 1947-.52), however , a new plastic force
b ecomes manifest. The slender /Ji/otis of
the thirties Lrnvc become massi\1c and
llQWCrful, and the abstr:tct oucer skin
has been replaced by a /Jrisc·s0/eil which
c haracterizes chc bui lding '1S a sculp.turrtl
bod)', ,..A new, mid-twc11rieth-cenrucy
image 0£ th<: e mbattled human ,,resence
in the world''!?. is rhus concrcrizcd. The
gr:c.lt rurning point, however, c 1m c with
the church of Ronchamp (1953-55).
Herc the psychological dimension of

196
 3 41. Su·. ,\forie du Nm,t, Rvm:h,mr/1 l1y J,.,
..... . r"!:t lt Corbu.sitr, tlct,1i/,
•....-,;,
· 3 ·12. S11..•. Maril! Ju l•l(wt. R<mclum1/1 l1y Lt•
Corlmsit r, i11t1~rfor 1h·w i/,
J-13, Stt•, M ,1rit• du Haul, Rr:mduw,p b)• J.,,
Corl>,,si(r.

;1rchicccn,1re returns with full force. Le

Corbusier himself said that 1·1<: wanted to
cre;ne ''a vessel of inrense concentracion
aild medit:ition'"'". 111 focr the building
has become a true centre of meaning
and ::t "gathering force'', as Vincent
Scully said wi,h fine imuitivc- uncle(•
standing••. Lt Corbusier recognized also
:u an earl)' date the gathering nature of
rhe urban settlement, and indicated th<:
idea 0£ ~ corc" which comprises the
04

important instiiurions of the community

(Sr. Die J 94·5 ), His se,1rch i11 this
,dir.ecrion culminated with the Caeitol of
Chandigarh in lndi:1 ( 195 l-56 ).
A third decisive comribucion to the
recovery of archittcturt as the m:lking
of places, muse bC mentioned. T he work
of Louis .Kahn a ppeared as spmcrhing of
:\ revelation ;u a momcnr of crisis when
many archi.t ccts were losing their ·self-
confidence a nd filith in architcctnrc.
Kahn's approach is defined in his
dictum, " What does the building want
to be?"' In his projecls he gives a nswers
10 t his question ln terms of space mul
characcer. Suddenly everything is there
ag:till: open and d osed spaces, clusters
and groups , symrnctry and asymmetry,
node and path; and above all : the. wall
as a "'threshold" between interior and
exterior. In 1:he walls of K:1hn, pas, and
present are u nilcd, and thus he said: "I
thought of wrapping ruins around buil-
dings"30. First of :di, however, rhc walls
of Kahn ,ire there to receive light, "che
gi,•er of all presences"J<>. No wonder that
V incent Scully wrote: ''The impression
becomes inescapable chat in Kahn, as
once in \X'rig ht, arc.hicccrure began :, ..
nc,v" 1".?,
What , hen is the mcss;1ge of Louis
Kahn?
In numcroui ralks he defined his posi-
tion, usiug a Very personal, poetical way
of ex.presSibn. At :, closer scrutiny,
however , a coherent philosophy of ar-
chicccrure emerges. First of all K;.thn

197
 344. U,;itari:1" Ch11rd1 bt Rt>d,ei1er, N. Y. b,,
Louis ~aim, ·
.345. Rochester, im(!ri()r,
J46, Rirl,ards ,\k,lic'1I R,•st•t1rd1 8ui/di11g,
Pl,ilatl.dpbi11 hr Loi,is K,1l111, dt!wil.

underst0od ,1rchi,ccwrc in terms o ( ~1rticul:1tion becomes ;.1 function of S't'lll- c hfrs. \X1 he.reas nineteenth cenru·r y his•
place. A "room" is for him ,1 ph1ce with metry rather than "light'', This d a ng¢r is to ricism $hould gi\•e ma n a "culrurnl
its parricuk1r ch :1racce.r, it s ''spiritual howeve r counteractt'CI mosr efficiently by alibi", modern historicism :1ims nr prov•
m1r;1"', :rnd a hujlding is a "sodety of rhc built subst,mce. ing t hat he is "up to d :u c..,m.
rooms". The sucer is ··a room of In various wa)'$ rhe " third gcnermio n" \'(!hen.· rhen . do we find :i creativt"
ag·rcement", ;,1 nd the city •;:rn ;1sscmUly of modern :trchitects h;wcn r;1ken up inrcrprer;u ion o ( Lhc actual sirnarion?
of places vest'(:U wirh the care to upho ld and devclo ptc.l the i me ntions of the \'\1hcrc ,lo \VC fi11J an ;1rchirecturC which
rhc sense of a ,v,,y of Ii fe'H. T he p ioneers•1s. During rhe last two dcc1dcs H\IOids t he dangers mentioned abovc: 1
character of places is both determined a series of significant works have been nnd rcpn.:scms a , rue conl'ribution to the.
by . their spari.-1 1 properties and by the made which 1>romis<' a more complctt.· so lution of the .t:11\'ironrnenrnl crisis?
way they receive light. Thus he said: rccovc1) 1 of plact.·. This does not mc;m 1 One or rhe fir.st :-irc hirects who ap-
''T he sun was nor aware of its wonder howc,1e 1'. that the present situation is ptoacheJ the problem in n simple a nd
before it Struck rhe side o f a building", clear. T he devclo1lmc11L of mo dern ~u·- human way was l'hc Da ne Jorn Uczon.
a nd: "Of the c lements of a room the chiu.:cture m,,l.:es m~rny choices possibk·, who w;1s immedi;Hcly recogni1.ed hy
window is the most marvelous" 3·1• Merl· a nc.l rhc rcndcnc)' to undcn;t;rnd t h ings in Gicdion as ;l protagonist of the new
he coint:s "cry dose to 1-lcidcgg,~r, who a formalistic rnchcr rh;10 nn (•xistcmi::11 phase o( modt.·rn ;uchi,ecwrc'11 , In his
describes a Greek temple saying: •1Thc sense, is ~1lw:1)'S present, I11 the No,·dic residential projects. Kingo ( 1956), Bir,
luster :md gleMn of the stone. rho ugh countries, rhus, rhe "romantic"' approach kchi)j (1960), and Fredensborg (1962),
irself ap1>arently glowing only by the of Aalro rn;.1y easily degenc,·;uc Into ,1 Urzon crcmed unifil'd settlements which
grace of th,~sun, yer firsr lwings to l_ighr superfici~ll scndmenral play with ·\utti• possess figural c har;1cre r in rela tion to
1he light of the clay, the breadth of the classic;1)" forms. T his tcncknq ' is in focr the 1~1ndst::1pe , a nd .-1 strong stnsc of
s ky, rhc darkness of rhl' nighr,.·35 .And strongly felt, cspcci:1lly in .Sweden where place as a mc:rningful t s<>cial "inside''.
Kahn even understands rhe concept of conrncr wirh natu re has been reduced to ~1orcover rhcy have nn outspoken local
"scrcing•into -\vork 11 whe n he says th.n nosrnlgia. In t he ''classical" South , on charncte1· :md n ·covcr rhe tr:tdition:11
p laces "arc pw into being by inspired che coumrary, the cl~rngcr of mist~1king Danish value of culciv;u ed im imacv-.
tcchno)ogt'J". Of ,,articular imporr:incc "order\'. for concrete rcalit)' is most U tzo n has also proved himsdf cap ab.le
in the wo rk of Kahn is in faet the tJpic;1I. The ;•1 rchitccturt.· o( rhe Fascist of crc:uivc adapt;nion ro od1cr en•
conception of architecture·as bt1ilt order. epoch was b;1sed o n t his mistake, ;mcl it vironmcnrnl chnrae-cers in his projects
"Corm is not simply function, bm a reappears in chc strangely ;1bscracr for the Sydney Opera Ht)usc (1957) and_
conceived order; rhus a being .. ."37• ln works of Aldo Rossi and his fo llowers t he Themrc in Zurich ( 1964). His w9rks
the late works o f Le Corbusicr form which "stand fro1.cn in surrc~tl ri1nc- arc always "builr'', ,mcl posse.ss: the
bcc;tmc presence, but i, as srill conceived k.ssncss ..J 9. Rossi c:,lls his archiwcture qLrnlirr of true "things". (n conncccion
in ".sculptural" terms. Kahn, instead, ''rarion;.11'' , a r,-rm which may be.· ap• wilh the residential projcccs of Utzon , it
rerurncrd to ''building" and .thereby pro priate if it mc~rns ;1 complete absence is n;ttural co me ntion the widely pu•
reeo1•ercd a sense of tcurh which had f\ir of Jive chMacre l'. Rossi's conceprion of blishcd Sicdhrn$ I-1;1len near Berne by
lo ng been forgotten , His works arc real ~·rypol<>b'i' 'is certainly imporr:uu, b ut it the Swiss group of architects, Arclier 5
rhings which make us aware 'of our remains srcrile as loog :,s t ht local (1961 ). Here we also find a strong
ex is tence bet ween crnrrh illld s k)', circumstances MC left out, Anorhcr figural ch.aiacrcr, and a mosr ·convincing
Common to Le Corbusier a nd K:,hn is a c harncreris tic danger consists in ,n is- identity of place. Sicdlung Halen demon-
..classical" :-ttrirndc. 80th umll'rsrnnd ar• raking char.acter for e inpry urhet0ric" strates that ir is still possible co house
chirecrurc as an embodiment of ch:-1rac• gestures. Tliis rendency has been par- people in dense settlements which con•
tcrs which a rl' simuJr:rneouslv hu1n;m ticularly srrong in the Unired States, serve che integrity of th.e h1.n dsc:1pt', c,•cn
and namral, and rheir Uuild°ings give where architecture has become a means in a country where land is very scarce.
chcse ch:1r~ccers 1mm:rial prcscnc~. Al• m demonstrate the ,;powc,:'' of fi rms ,and Among the works of the rhird gener-
rhough Kahn's works arc rooted in institutions. :\ modern "liistoricism'' :uion , there is one which rrears rhe
concrete phenomena. rhcy tend towards results, where rhose forms which were problems of place a nd local charactec in
a certain "formalism". The spatia l lay- created to give man a sense of freedom :.\ parricularly interesting way. \Y/e rcfor
our srnrts to live its own life, and the a nd idem it)', are reduced to mere cli- ro che Finnish Students' Union Building

198
199
3·17. Building ,,s :p,1•uncc ... fNI•AS lmildmg.
tuuJJ, by P,,olo Pmtogl,t-si'.
348. Chrmw;:r and t1da/>ltlt;(),,. 8u;1'Jing iu Pfo:w
M,•Ja, Milim by BBPR..

ar Oranicmi by Reim a J>ictil,i (I 965-67).

\'(lith his "Dipoli" Pictil:l wanted to
express "1hc dream of the people of the
forc:sr"'·12• To gain hi~ end he used :1 new
kind of copological span· which \•i.su-
:,lizes l'he su·ucmrc of the Finnish hrnd-
scape\ itnd the choice o( inmcri~1ls and
forms gives the intention :1 most con-
vincing presence. In general, Dlpoli
represcms a culminarion of the "rom;rn-
tic" appro~H:h to architccrurc, :rncl ir is
ccnain1>• not .a "moder· to be imirated
cver)·whcrc. T he approach of PictiHi
howeve r is universalJy valid, ::md makes
us cager to see other a,rnlogous bm
cirumst:mriallv different solutions. Such
works acrnail>• cxisc. T he mctal-an<l-
glass buildings of J,1mes Stirling are for
inst:rn~c erninemly English :rnd seem co
embody "the clre'1m of the people of 1hc
facrory". In the houses of MLTW
(Moore, Lyndon, Thurnbull, Whiraker),
rhe American genius has found a new
convincing concrctization . The four ar-
chicens ha\1C defined their approach
wit h chesc words: ..The drc:-1111s which
~,ccomp:iny all human actions should be
nur1ured by the places in which people
live''4 l , \v./e may in this context also
memion a more particular work, Ricitr-
clo llofill's pynunid-monumenr on the
border between Catalonia and France.
1-lcrc the pointed shapes of the sur-
rmmcling mount:1ins arc "gathered~· and
condensed hy .man-made geometry,
whcre:,s the cl'owning •·re111ple'1 recalls a
decisive moment in the history of
Camlonia. A must convincing S)'mhesis
of general 1 local and ccmporn..l factors is
thus creared.
Our brief survey o( che aims of Aaho,
Kahn, the later Le Corl>usier, :rncl some
exponcncs of rhc third generation , shows
rhm· rhe means for a solution of the
environmenta1 c·risis exist. It has already
been demonstrated, ~rnd in most cm1•
vincing ways, how we m:t)' create phtces
which serve che complexities and contr;\-

200
 349. IAJCdl dwrac1tr. OipoU, 01a11i~mi, finl:md
by Reim,1 Pit:tild.
JSO. Loc11l .-rdaptatio,,. Set, Ram:J,, Cm1/ala.
California I>)' MLT\V,

dictions of contemporary life. When ,he

cxampk·s still remain scancrcd :-rnd
qu~rnrirnrivcly scarce, it. is bod, because
of a gcner.il social inertia and because of
vested intcrc-sts which do not acccpr
improvcmencs before chey ''selln. A
re;,\son is also, however, rhe lack' of a
clear understanding o f chc cnvironmcn·
ml problem. It is our convicrion char
such an undcrsranding onl)' is possible
on the lfasis of a tlu:ory of !Jlm.:e. As
p:1rticul:1rly v,tlu:tble contributions to the
development of such " theory, we have
mentioned the writings of Lynch and
Venruri. A ,he()r)' of place does nor only
integrnte 1he aifferenr contribucions, ·of-
fering a comprehensive conception of
the relationship between man :md his
environment, bur ir also shows 1ha1 the
hisrory of modem architecture has a
direction and a goal: architecture as the
recovery of place. Thus t he ..new trndi-
rion" advocated by Giedion becomes
meaningful. Moreover 1hc concept of
place unites modem architl'<:turc with
the past. "Boch above ~tnd below rhe
• surface of this ccnrury 1here is a new
1 demand for conrinuit>' · It has again
become appare-m th,u human life is not
limi1cd to the period of a single life-
~pan•i+1,
\X'he n ,ve see a rchitecture from this
potnr o( ,,fow, we gain understanding
a nd n d irection for our work. This
direction is nor d iem.red bt politics or
science, bur is existentiall)' rooted in our
everyd~,y lifeworl.d. Its aim is to free us
from abstrnctions and alienation, and
bring us back m things. llm theory is
no, enough t0 gain this end. h also
presupposes char our senses and our
imagin:.ltiou are ~duc~ued. This was also
undersrood by Gicdion who concluded
his book Architecture, you and me.. with
a chapter on ''The demand for I1m1-
gination,'"·' . Today man is mainly c-
ducaccd in pscudo•analytic thinking) and
his knowledge consists or so-c;tlled

201
 JS J. Pyramhl-mmmmer,t at L·J Pathus, U 1tolo11fit
I>)' Ri<ordo Bof,11.

"focts". His life, however. is becoming

ever more meaningless. and ever more
he w1dcrsrnncls that his ••merics" do nor
count if he is not ,,Ole ro ·•dwell
poericall)'". "Education through Art" is
therefore more ncct.lcd than ever b<:for<:1
and the work of art which above all
ought co serve ;1s the basis for our
cduc,uion, is the place w hich gtves us
our identity. Only when understanding
o ur place, we may be :able tO participate
creatively and qmrribure co its hismry.

202
 NOTE
I 20. S. Gil.'dion. The f.umal Prt•sem: Th.! Hcsiu• 50. Scltsam, i1n.Nc:bd~1,u w:llldcrn!
f>l.t\CE?
J. R.M, Rilke, Tl,,: Dui,m l:lr:fit•1, IX Elegy.
N'cw York 1972. (fil'Sl Ct.·n11;1n <.·di1ion 1922.)
2. TI,c c1111( (•p1 "cn ·ryday life-world.. wa:; i,uro-
duetd b)• Husserl in Tiu.• Gri!i$ of E.i1r-01u.:;HI
Sd.mces om/ Tr.wf(.emleur,,J PIJc,ro11w,ro/o;;y,
19J6.
J . H1.·idegsct, li.1111:11 Wolnu.w J).:ukcn; l.ktllnow.
~fr,1u l1 mu/ Raum; .\lcrlc~lu-Pv,ny, Phc•m)m1:m>•
fog)' uJ l',•ruptitm; l.~1d1dnrJ. P~11•Jic)( of Sp:rce,
alSo L. Kruse, R,iumlicbtt Umu·c./1, Berlin J97•1.
,;. Mcidq;gcr: l.:ingu:1l:c, in Poetry , Lang:wg.c,
'rl,roi,gl,1. cditt.xl bf Alhcn Ho f:;rndtct. New York
L,97 1.
$'. EU, \Vhu,ir:1(umd
\Venn dcr Schm"C.' ,ms 1:CJ1:;1cr Lilh,
l:msdic ..u,...ndgk1cl:c: 1:iut\.'I,
\li1;kn isl dcr Tis,h bcrd1ct
Und das Haus ist wohlbcsrt lh .
Mancher :tuf dcr \'<':indi.•rscbafr
Kom,ut:uisT or :ml dunk1eu PfaJcn.
Go!drn bliih1 dcr U:uun dcr Gn.idl·n
.AU$lkr fade. kiihltm Saft.
W:unl("rC'r triu :;t ill hc:rdn;
Schmcr,. \'l'"l'$tt'1nl'ru,; die s·..:hwdle.
D,1 c~~n l.:I in rL•inc:r Melle
,\uf dcm Tisdlc 1\rm 11nd \X'c;in.
t'i. Hcidl1,!gc.:r: c)p. ~i1 . p. 199.
7. 1)p. cit. p. 20·1. S,,.l.!1d t' ,Jiscorsl, ;\ •lilan,:>,
Mursi.;i 19i6. 11. I H.
8. t . NorbL ·l1_~·$d1ul1., lnt('JJ/imrs in l-\rc:Mti:cum:,
0 $10 and London l96J. Ch:ipu:r on •·srm·
bc1liz:uion".
9. Stt· for inst;mce. J. :\ppkton, Th,• f.xpe.ri.tnc,• of
l.1mds1.·t1J11:. London l 9i $.
10. Ht'ide~ser, op. d 1. Jl. 14Y.
LI. op. ci1. Ill', 97. 9!),
12. Hci<ll't_=-!~..-r, HdJd du NuuefnwuJ. PfuUingen
l~.i7. p. 13. ' 42. Six M.M, Webber, Extdomtio,rs intn Urbmt
13. op. cii. p. 1-,.
14. Htidcggct, l'w try, ,,J)J), 18 1-182.
IS. Norb~-'1~·S..:hul1., f.J:i$tl'Ul'1', Sp,Kc m11J J\rd,i-
r.•'1tlll' , loilllun .rnJ New York 1971. whl•re
1hc<:uiti:t"pl ".,-xislC11ti;il spa<:l.'"is uM'd,
16', Heidcy.gcr poim s om the: rd:uionshl1l bt1wec11
the w~rds .~•!S('lt (~!fi:'l ins.1, 1:,pp<).Siu: } :iml Gt;.:,:1ui
(t,witoonwnt~loc.-nlity).
17. This has bl't'll done b)' ~omc \\·ri1c ~ such M
"· Gr:if \ 'l)ll ori,.::khtim. E. Straus and O.F.
Uolluow,
lS. \'\le m:ir comp,m.· with Albcn i"s dis1ii\ctio11
bctwttn ''h'c:mt)'°' :md "()rn.uncn('.
19. NQtbl·rg-Schub.. Exi$tl.'nCt'.... pp. 12H.
203
nillgs of r\ rdiirccwr". 1.on<lQll 1964. Einsam is1jcder Busch und S1cin,
2 1. K. Lynch, Tl1t• lnm.J:,~ "/ 1lu~ Cu y. Cam- Kein Baum sit-hr den :mdcrn,
bridg~. M:,ss. J 960. jcd1.--r ist allcin ...
l?. r.
PcmoghL-si, /,.r, ;,,J/)j:l()ni tli;/l',,r(/1il1:U11m SJ. Bolin ow, Stilmmmgau , p. 39.
m oderw1. lhri 197.5. J)J), 8SU. 52. Norberg-Schulz, foteut!ous, pp. 41 ff.
2;1. Htidl>t;i;cr, op.cit. p. IS4. .)3. Hcillc.i,;i;cr. Pm;rry... p. tS I. "\,?c ar<• th..-
2·1. Norhc-rg•Schulz.op. ch. p. 1$, be,,hingc:d", thcconditionL-<l ones.
lS.. l-lcidrgg..-r, op. cit. p. 15•1. "PrcsL·nce is the 54. McidL-gi;er . Building Dwelling T hfnk ing, ir\
old word for being... l'Oi"f1''.. , Pll, 146lf.
26. o.r.Bollnow. Dns We.~e11 der S1im,mmg_e11. 55, ()Jl , Cit, p. l-'17,
Frnnkfurr a.?\·l. I?S6. 56. Norberg-Schub:~bttf!ntfrms ... pp. 6 1ff.• 68.
17. R. Venturi. C<Jmple.-.:itr tmd Comm,Jictit>11 iu 57. op. !=it. pp. 168ff.
An:hitr:cum:. N..-w York 1967, p. ~$.
SS. Hcldcggc,.op . .:i1. (l, 218.
28. Vemuri,op. cir. p. $9. 59, S. L:mgl"r, Ft•1ding :mJ fomt . New Ymk
29. Hddl-ggcr, Die fo.,gc 11:tch dt-r· Technik, in 1953.
Vortriig.~1111,I Au/siit:e. rrullingcn 1954, ll, 12.
60. Geo. 4. 12.
JO. Norbtrg-.Schulz, o,l. cit. p. 27.
J I. op. d1 . p. J 2.
.)2. D. 1:r1.•.y , C rmullirgrmg :.u cim:r perglcli:heu ..
,J.:JJ Krm stwistt:nsc/111Jt. Vienn:1 :mJ Innsbruck
19•19. II
NATURAL PLACE
J3. No,·bt°t'!;•Schol;,,, Intentions ...
J ·L Htideggtr. Poetry... p. 152. I. ·nc plicn(lm<:1101<:,gr o( myths has still 10 bl'
J S. W/..f. Rkklrd~(ul, 1-1,•i,leggn. '/'J1p)ugl, Phe,io- wriuen.
1!1~·~:ology r,,
T/;()111.:.l:t, T he H;tgu'e 1974, p. 2. M. and H.A. Fr:mkfort , J.A. Wilson, T.
.-.s:i. J:lcobsc,,. &/On:. Pl1ili,sopl1)'. 1-1.umon<l~,\onh
36. For the oonct·p1 c)'f "c:1p,1d1y" St'<: Norberg• 1949, p. 12. Also Norbc~-Si:hul7., i\11~a11ing ht
Sdwfa. l1Jt(fnti1pr$, ,. Wes/em A,chitect:tre, Jl, 42$.
37: Venturi, op. cit. 3. $.;c HuSS(;tl, Tl,,, Cris·is of f.11ro/1crm Sclr:m:cs...
4, Comp;m.:· the (k\'do1unem of "1hin,1; cnns1:1.ncf'
JS. P,W(\'J1 H.t:.1J/en~):d1J/il!ilii~ ,l«r Classisd1('n Al•
tf'. rt:1111swi,'5f1t.iCl141. VII. 1, .:ol. 1155((, in the child. Norbc.rg•Schub., luumti,m.< ... pp.
4.lff.
J9. Nor~1~rg•Schul7., Mf'.1mill;: m Wcst,:nr Ard,i•
l1'('hlrc•. Londo n .ind New 'r'Mk 1975, pp. IOff. S. M. E.li;u,lc;, Puuc·m $ m ComJmrati1.-,• Rdigi(m.
Cle\'dand and New York 196.1, p. 239,
40. Cc>1:1hc-, l1ali'e11iu .lic Ri:isc, 8. October l 7S6.
6. l:.1i:1dc, op.d1.p. lOO.
4J. L J)urrdl . Spirit oj Phu:c. l.omlon 1969. p.
156. 7. J(. Cl:trk. L:mdsa11,,· i11U> Arr. London 1949.
passim.
8. Eli:,dl.',OJ), d 1. p. 269.
Struclurt•. Phibdclphi:l I %J, who c:tll.:s :tlx1u1
..non-pl:"c lltbJn N.--:ilm", 9. C. B:l(htk,rd . Tl1.: Poeti.:s of Sp:,c.r. New Y()rk
1964,p. 185.
43. Cf. Norbcrg-.Schul~, l•1trnri1m$ ... wh~rL' 1he
l;(mceptS "cogni1i\•..- ori<.·m,uion" .md ..c.:t1h<.'c1ic 10. Elia<le,op. d t. p. 18S.
oril-111;u ion" ;ireus('d. 11. op. 1.·i1. p. 269.
•i-1. Lynch. op. ci1. p. 4. 12. op. <:it, p. 369.
·IS. llp. o:it.p. i. IJ. fr:111kfort,op. d1.pp, ll5, 5I .
·16, up, o:il. p. 115. 14. P1ahf11Jtt~p, t1uot..-d :1(1er Fr;ml.fon, 01>. cit. Jl,
,11. op. cit. p. 9. 53.
48. for a dctu ileJ discussion, sec Norberg-Schub., 15. Fr:.mkfort.op.dt. p.54.
£:,.·i:; n·m:e .... 16. j , Trier , Jrminsul, in \Vt!$tfiilisdu; forst h11t1•
•·19. A. R:ipopon, Austr,tlfrm Almrigimr.> .wt! tl11~ f.?C1t,IV, 194 I.
fJ4i,1iti()11 of Plac.!, in P. P liv('r {ed.), Shdtl'r. S(i:,: J?. \YI. Miillcr, Die hr:ilig1~ Swdt. Srntt~,n 196 1,
&Symbol, London 1975. p . 16.
IS. I.. Curcius, Oit: .nmh• Jfomt II. I. Die
kl:isi.iY.:hc: Kuns, Griedw11l:t11lls. l'u1sd•11n 1938.
pp. 1.5, 19,.
19. \I. Xulh•, The l~,1r1I,, tbe. Tt·mf,l,· mul rlu:
C()ds. tfow t-i:wcn 1961, p. 9,
20. S..·ully,up, cil.p.45.
21. 0 . Ckmui,, Hv;:~mlim• Mosaic l)(:cr,mtim:.
London I94S. p. 3.S:
22. P:tr:uli54J 3 1,22.
!J. Cbrk.op.~it,J), 16.
24. W. Hdlp,"h , (;,10/"Y,1,.._ Snougan 1%5
( 191 1),
2.l. Ir also g:u·..- ri!-e io 1r pic.-:1I utusic;tl cmo-
posicio11s ::;m:h as TIJl' S<',1$0,1s h)' H:,ydn.
26. The c:i1cgoric:s ;UlS\\'c.'r th4.: 1111c:$tions. "\'\1h:1(·.
"\'<1 hcrc:'", '"How··. :rnd "Wh..-n".
27. Httl1uch.op.ci1 , 1>.1 92.
2:S. A. Sts1ioi, II /Mi.'Sdg,:fo. Mila nu 196.t p. 92,
29. J. Gottm:11111. A Ge.o.~r;.,r,/J." •>/ Eum;,1:. Lon•
don 1951.p. 265,
JO. finoish :tn is dctcr111h1c.·ll hy 1hel>l' n;11ur,1I
ch:ir:icu:-rs. :,s is p~1r1icul:trl>· c.•\•idtn1 in th4.." n111i,ic
o! Sibt:lius.
l 1. &-en fr(>1U 1hc sc~1. tlw kimJ in foe, :tpp<:trs :)S
:l fis ur4..".
32. We e;m here o nly foruish ~, few indic.nions.
33. In i;tner:tl i, is m '(('$S:11'Y u'l considl'f th<;
inicr:1Ction of vc1;c1:uion :1nd surlu:c relief.
.34, Hc\lp~,ch,up. 1.:i1. l'P· 17 1ff.
J,5. fm nkron,01-,,c"it. p.47.
.l6. Thi: silhoucue 'i::; in fact of d1:d$h·c- im•
pon:mcc in romantic lmldSiCl'I J)C p,;iinrln,;.
Ji. Sei: J, Cfo)'. L'imf1r(SSim1i5mt'. Paris .197l. pp.
134ff.
JS. Wi1h 1htcNccpcion of Vc11(;1fan p:timiu~.
.39. Norbcri;•Schulz, Exi::t,:,t<-t: ... p. 2l .
•lO. Cf. $1. J~r.:mds' Cmt1ieu d,;l!e crenlfm•.
41. T he s~\·cn m1li1 i(:m:1I 1rpcs of J:1p:1ncsc-
l:1n.:lsc:1p.: arc: 1ltus b .1Sl't~ 0 11 ''._(.lfc)ng" confi&l•r:t•
,ions of hills, pl:1i11s. \'<;>_~c1:uion a nJ w:uc.•r. $cc T.
f-1:1,;uchi. 'f11o · Vb:11,.1I ,md Sp.ui11I Str:tclllrt' of
Ltuu/;5a 1111: . Tokro 1975,
42, '11lt')' :ilso n.·:11)r~•;tt in more rc..·ccnt litc.·r:uure.
such :1i. lln,i:1fs Jl(•t·r Cyru.
4.l. h :,bo lm11lic~ mt ~·xri-crien..:e of the d1:to~in1;
si::isons.
44, 1-'o r :t most scnsici,•e llc~tiptiun u( 1111:
d1:tr:1c1cr o f 1hc ~k!-cn. sec A. (14,; St. Exupl·q ·:
Citt1dt'lk.
4.) . .A.,; for ius1:rncc in lc;1li:m.
46. S.M. N:lsr,Su/i &S11y$. tc:indon 197?. J'· 5 1.
47. Nasr. op, ,:i(. p. SSf.. who rcfc:ri w the
Islamic imjgt' of the sky ;,s tht Oidnc 1hro1w 19. The !>Ubu,h,rn c.lwdling 111so bdongS 10 tl1c
(t,/• ·arsl, }. c:11egory of"\1em.1cul:1r :,rchitccmrc".
4S. ···O:,:;is" is ~n Etmni:tn word which 1111;:tn~ 10. Sculh-, ·I'Ji,•l:.:1rtli .. .. p. 17 1.
..dwelling pliu;e". 21. Norberg•S..:hub., .U,•.ming ... . pp. n n.
49. In tlw dtstrt thi,,gs :ts '"dcS1roy('d" by lig.lu . in 22, G. Ni1schkc. $HIM E. ..\rcliiM.:t11r,1l Design.
the Norah 1hcr hc:conw mys11.:riously luminous-, Jcccmber 1974.
SO. Cunius, vr~- cit. p. I 5. 23, Nils..:hkc,op. ci1. p. 756.
j I. "V1.-dma" 11tl•:111s something seen or lo<)k..-i:I :11. 24. Tri4,;r, First, pp. S6, 89.
52. Rilke,· IX Eltgy, 25, ll.J.C. :\1kinso 11. $1w11·l":ng,~. H:1tmundi,•
worth 1%0. pp. 22 •.U , 56{(.
16. Pormi;,h<.·si, l .11 i11ibhfoni, ..
27, Norhc-.rg-Sd1t1h,. On tlu• s~:ucl, /or J,qsr
,\rd1i11.·cw,,:, R.omc- 1976, I'· 40.
Ill
MAN-MADE !•I.ACE 2$. Le Corl.iusicr, Ve.rs-- rmti A rd,itccturt. , Paris
1923.
I, The cidstcmial d i1111;:nsi1)n of thl.' m~11Hn:1dc 29. Mtio:c11, Sit>,l!tmg uml Agmm•'<!.SCfl ,l,ir \t'est•
cn\'iromn('nl w:1:;. inrniled in the pjSI, bur is tod:i~• ,gcr,umrc" 1mcl 0$tg,mmm<'II, 8Ctlin I895.
n:ducci:I to 1h.: more superficial c<111cc1>• of JO, :\ s suc:h it St:Ntd the "opcfl" ~p.,ce o(
··runction··.
1\mcric:m-sectlcmc-ms.
1. Norbcri;•Sc:hul1,. J,uemi,ms•.•• p, I lS. JI . Sec S. Bi:111C:l, Arcl,itcktur mu/ L•bc,:/mm im
J. C. \'On Ka)('hnic;,,-Wcinbcrs. Die c-1muiscb,m isk11nl$c./nm S1atl1u:,•sdn, Zllrich 197j.
Grwul!ttg,"11 ,le, fmti kcu Ku11.s1. J~rankfurt a ,1\f, 32. Norbcr~•Schulz. Lale JJamque mul Row.:,o
196 1. Att:.hitt•t:t:m .:,
4 , T his rd:uionship is ,lir..:-c1ty c\'idem in 1h~· w:tlls JJ, Venturi, CornJ,lt:xit)'.... p. SS.
o f Al:nri in L:uium.
34. T ric.-r. Fitsc .
..). N orberg-Schuh:. i\ Je,miu:; .... ch:,pu;r I.
J.) . op. ci1, Pl)· 22ff.
6. C. von K~1:sdmit1,•Wdnbers, Ofr, mi11,dmt'.:r-
ischc11 Gr:mdl'lg,:,1 der :mtiken K:mst. Frnnkfott 36...lcidL-ggc.•r. Po,ury... , pp. 36, 4.5. 74.
:t. ~-1. I 944 . 37. In l!,cncr:11 sec S..:llll}', The for//,, tlJ.: 'fompfo
7 . t. U:ildwin Smi1h. EJ:~•ptitm Arcl,itcthtftJ :rs m :tl Jiu• Gud->.
C ult1mrl f,x1, r<:ssiQ11. Nc.-w York :ttHL London JS. l!J .. \\hlghl, Tiu: N:1tuml Hc_lldt'. New ·York
1938, p. 249. 1%4, l)<lSSifll.
8 , Cklrk , op. cit. p . 10. J9. 1:or :, 1ht:<•I'.}' of building·t:1sks s~'t' ·Norbtrs•
9. K:1schni1:r.-Weinberi:;. Die: miudm,·eriseb,rri, ... Schult . lrue,ttions, p. lS I ,
p . .H. 40. T he n:unes thus reflect our ..im:tgc" o( the dty
in terms of .squ:ircs, stl'«TS ,md distric1:1:.
IO. iricr. lrminsul. \f.lt:s1f.i/iscl,c• f1Jr$Ch1111g1m,
lV. 1941. T rier. First. N,,i;/;ric/mm vo11 <1(:1' 41, CL VOil Ka.schnitz-\'\ l"inbcr.i;, n;... l'llT+1$ild1.m
1
Cesel/s,.;/u,/1 cfor \Viuims,.;l,.J/te.11 ;:u C611i11gl'11, Cnmdlag,m ...
1,hil.-hi~r. KlasS<: IV. NF 111,•1, 1940. 42. Organli:tjt should not be ,onfus,•d wiih
11. ·nus Jaspers says, "In iti;df every exiittncc "or&,1nic".
:1ppc:1ts round". J(. J:tspers, \1011 1/1rr \flalirl,cit, 4J. Rorn:uuic sp:i«:, on 1h<: comrar)'. 3lw:1ys
"lc:11:ls some\\/hetc".
MUnchen 1947. p. SO.
12. \'i,/. Ml111er, Die lu•iligc Stacll. passim. •14. 8i;1nc:1, op. cit,
45. Th us Vi:rgil .said: ·'\Vhen you comp!)' with 1he
l3. Mi1lkr, op. cit.
gods~ rou :.1re mailer"',
14, $('C ..:hap1cr II of the presi:m book. 46. \'(' e say "forms 1ht• basis (or... bc-c-.:iuse its
15. i'forbc-rg-Schukz, Alc,wi11g •.. chapter II, pas:• identity is incomplctt \Vi1lt()ur-a llcfined.chnrncu'f.
sim. 47. Set J-1.P. L.'Orangc, t\,, F<,rms.a,:d Civic Life
16. Ai, ~111 e,<,;:tll\plc we m,1r rm:ntion «he: archi• in 1J,4! Lot.: Ronum lim/>iu:. Princeton I%S.
1ccrure or j11\·:1rr:,. Sec Norberg-Schuh:, l:'tt4!. 48. Norbc-r15-Schub., M c.?1:ing ... , pp. 250H.
81JTv11m· ,md nvcuev A,,•l,iu.·.-tute. New York 49. Le Corbusier, Vt1:t5 :me A r~l,iw:lun~. English
J9'i-1. edici<111, London 1.927. p. 31.
17. Norber&·S<:hub.• i\fr,ming .... p. 222. .50, t. Panofs~\'. Cotl,k t\rchiuc11, r,• mul Sco/asti•
JS. D. Fn.-r, Cnmdf;wu11g ... , p. 7. cism. l.:u·wbe 19.S I.
204
 5(. NQrbctg-~chul1.. Ur,roquc _j\rd,;1e.c11m:. Nt:\Y
Y,\rk 1971.
S2. Thl• Jklvcdch: in Vic11n:1 scn.•Ssl"S th(' rom:.uuic
compoitl'111, wf,l;reas du: lar-om o f Vl·rs11ilks is
m:aiul}' o( C:oimic dcriv~11ic,11.
~-1. Hl'idc:·i;.1;cr, f)fo . K11rs$t u 1ul tier R,mm. SL
Oalltn 1969. J>J', 9/(.
IV
rRAGUE
I. F;,K.-i/k;-1, Leu('r m Osbr Po ll:lk 1902.
2, G, Mey rink. l),;r CuMm. MUnc.h cn J 969.
Gh.1p1er·'Spul.::'.1>1>, 12lff.
:3. Mc,,schtn, <lit libcrdunklc l\riickcn gdm.
\'OrUber an Hciligcn
mi1 m:1111.'n l,idnkin.
Wolkt•n,dil.' Uber grnuen Hi1111ucl i idm
rnriilm :in Kirchto
mit \'C"1d:im1l1erndt-u TUrmcn.
srn . .,," tlt·r an dcr Qu:Ull·rl>rUMung 11.' hm
111,tl tn·das Abl."ndw:,sser schnm ,.
cli.e H:indc :1uf :1ltcn S1cinc11,
4. The wori:I "cubis(' is ust:d in rrn,;uc: m deno~c
:a p:inicul:ir lot.·;11 v:iri:uu of early 1110.;ltrn ;1r•
chit,t.'Cturc.. su,h :) I) 1hc works of Jost( Guc!N" ~,iul
Jo;c;,:f01ixhol.
J. Only after the Sl'Cou() Wotld WM 1hc i;t:o•
i;r.~phit :il :ind linguistic hordc;-t:;,oom.-spimd,
6. The New 'fowo ll;'HI it:. own :1dmini.~rradon.
i. C. fchr,8c,rctlikt Ricd: Mllnchen 196 1.
8. Norbtrg•Schulz. Kiliau lg,m': I)iem:e,rl,ofer c. ii
luuocco luHtm,,. Ro1111: 1968.
9. Goc1hc. Oi;ir)'. 22. Jul): I SO~.
JO. I>. l~ib:,I, ,\/tc S1,.1d1c i11 dl'r Tid1rd10 ~
s]ow:,kd. Pqti;uc 197 1.
11. Norbt:rg,Schulz, op. cirj pp. 85ff.
12. The_ projl-c,· is pr(!b;,bJ)' by Kili:,n lg1l:r1.
Oil'ntzcnhofo-r, chc C):t.'t,;litic)n by :\nsclm Lum~o.
13. K'.M. Swoboda. Pcl<lr P,1rler. Wien 1940.
14. Fdu o.o p. , i1.
IS, 'Norbcrg-S.chulz. op. dr.
1&. 'Norbcrs-S<l1\1l-i, 6J>, cit,
1•7 , Thcs:imei.schecaSl.'in the Powderl'nwcr.
l8. Ci. Norberg-Schul;,,, Me:ming .. .• 1>, .?22.
l9. 'NQrbt'ri;-~huh:.• Bnrr(>mini c ii b:1rcxco boe·
mo. in StutU s11l IJ.orr(lmiui. Rome 1967, Norberg•
Schult., L.o SJ):l1,i~ 11cll'11Khitcttum post-guarini•m:i,
in Guar;i110 Grmrin; ◄: J"i11terp:rzio,w/i10 tld l>.1r<JC•
e-0, Turin 1970.
20. E.. Btwhm:mn, Archi1cktur. in· 8rm:u:k i11
80h,t1e,1(ed. K.M. Sw6bo<fa), Mi'inchto 1964.
205
21. S<·e Norbt.•rg-Schul1., Kilhm l.gmr: /)ient.:.,m•
hof~r... · ·
22. i\Sin thcwt)rks ofJ:ln i;,:isto(ori.
23. (~. J:u.1oul'h, Ct•spr,iche mil K.(,/J,·11. f!r,11ll:lur1
a.M. 1-9 51,p.42.
V·
KMARTOIJ~I
I. ·n,t: Nile \'~Ile,· proJ)er ,,StllttS fnflhl"r to th('
north , ~1t S:ib~ll()b.·
2. A first ..-:-:tension Sttm~ from 1912.
J. C{, A. di:S1. Exup~ry, Chadd/11.
·I. Bhmc:1, Archit11#tt1r um/ l.,d11.:n.$/vn11,
S. l.i,,;,1g mi tlM t•,lg,· 11/ tlui Sr1/um.1. (K:isba 64
Stud)' Group), Thl· Hague 197.3.
(; , Tht' colonn;tdcd streets of Antiquit)' were
usu:tlly tr:1nsfor10cd (built up) whl'n chcy b,x.1mc
l sl:imi;;, SlX' Bianca: op. dr. p. 45.
i. Co1111,:1re- the tfoM'n st•ull·lllc11h of 1lu: nn,:il·n1
R,~111.1115.
S. Till' <•:u ly sc11lc111e11t -:u Sob:t ()ll 1hc Blue Nik
o nly w:is ofloc,,1 impott:m,;:c.
9. Hr MEFIT S,n,A. , Rome.
VJ
ROM1'
J. E. Guillo1ii, ll sir,uiflc:uo urh:inisiit."O di ROm~
-:1111ichi1:, e mcdkH.-vo, in P(,/hullo ..XXII, n.
tr:t
J-IV,J.972,
2. 6. K,uchnit1. von \,qcinl,t;rg~ Mittclmer.rischt·
Kumt. Berlin . l,65. H. , K3hlcr~ W'nudhmgr.,t ,lt:r
1m tik~11 f orm. MUnchen 1949.
3. H.P. L'Omngc~ lfo11lt rs!:. idyll. Oslo 19$2.
.i-\ gf)lxl g1.-i1cnd introductio n 10 ·, he ..:h:iractcr of
i~Omt' is offered h>• I.. Qu:tmni, lmmagiu,t ,Ti
Ronm. 11:tri 1516,.
4 . t·Or.iO}:e, cJI'· t:it, p. 17.
S, Of>, cit. p. 36.
6. 01,. d i. p. S.
7. C. Lu!!li, II /()m r(Jm,rno it ii p:tl.11iuo. Romn
1971. p. 102. Al::o J. Ryl,mi:ri, rim ltlt·t1 qf :1
T<mm.Londun 1976. p. 114.
8. Porroghc$i. l..1r i,iihhic)u1...., p. 46((.
9. Su,mr.tl>• c:nelugh. lhl.· Alban Hills have nm ycr
been subject10 ;i monographic:if srnd)'.
10. J:l. K:ihlei-, 0:1s 'r om1nahcilign11n ,·on Pak•
srrllm Pr:icnc.::m:, in AwUJlt•1 Uuivti~1'/a1is S:1ra•
,,lrnsis, q j l, VII, no. 3-•1, Sa:1rbrllckcn 1958.
l J. for 1hc orisin:d 101,os.t;1phy o( RQnw s1.-c S.
Mur.1toti, R. Bollllti. S, BoUaii, C. t-.farinucci,
St:uli p1rr tuJd i)Jlc'J'illll•· slorir, t11b.w.1 di Romu,
llt)m:, l963·,
12. Guiduni, op. cit.
13. Guiduili. t>p. d1. p. 6. Jr is si~nilk1m tel 1lme
th:11 Nt:ro buih his 1,:ihu.:c: whtrc 1he- ColOS$tmn
now srnnds. t·xprcssin1;, 1hm; th~· wish for ..,;tking
po$scssfon" of the cicr. ·
14. CuiJ<,ni, op. ,:i1, 1-111, 10((. Guidoni poims om
1h:1r dw churches Qf S1. Pc1er :ind S1. Paul were
b1,1ilr far :tw.iy from the pl:1c.,:!'. oi their martyrdom.
IO make 1he s.ymOOlk cross possible,
15. Sec S. Gicd ion, SJJ,tU, Time am/ ,,,-d,lt,•ctJui?,
C:unbridgc, ~,1:1.s~. 1967 . Pll, S2ff,
16, Nt)rbc,r;.-Schul1.. Mc,mi11~ .•.. p. 270.
17, Norbt.•rg•Schulz, Bamqru· ArclJltcchlrt'.
18. Vl.'rgll, .1.t111r~itl VIII. 327-.iS.
19. Ponc,ghi:si, I .rt foil1ido11i... , l)J>i 44(1,
.?0, A. B,xihius. Tht• G1,ldcir House ,if Nno. Ann
r\rbor l960, PJ>• J29fl.
1 1. Norbcri-Sehulz. i\k':w ing .•·., llp. I I 9ff.
22. IJc)tr(lmini'.s Re M:tgi Ch:1pd rrprt'SC'nts :m
C.\:CCplion.
23. Kaschnir1. \'O n \'l:1cinbcrg, Mittc/met:risdu:
Kwm •··P· S13.
24. Th,r0dt·$O/H._ir:rcc. Book 1,lX.
25. C(. R)'kwcrr, 6p. cit.
2G. W/c mar in. this C(1111c:-:1 :ilso rem('n,bt."r the
S)'llllflc1tic;1I 1t'darirmr which \,·:1s used m protect
thl.'.spl"C1alONl from the sun. ·
27. P:L. Ntn-i, N.:w Slrw:tuN>.$. tondon 196.l.
V il
PtACI~
I. \"Il e m:ty io (hi:; comest r1.·miml u( tonct.•pts
:-~ich JS.,for111" nnd "comc1it".
.?, Norbl.'rg•Schull, l1tltwtious ... ll. 4J.
3. J. Pi:igcr. '/'/,e Childs :t Ccms1r1,c:1fo1t.f>/ .Rc:ttlity.
LQndM 1955. pp. 88ff.. pp. 209ff•• pp. J .)Off.
4, J. Piaget, T/11: Child's Coucl!pti(w of rl,e
W'(>rl1l. Lond9n 192.9,p. 169.
.$ . Hcllpad,, Gt.1lfl$)·t:lu:.
6. G.\'\1 ,F. l-lt'gel , Vor/C!sm1g.:.•11 iiber 'die. Philo•
soJ1hiir tier G'1..-schtch1,:. Ch:tpct:r cm "Geogmphi-
si:hc-(inmdL1gcn der Wdtgeschichtc...
7. J.G. Hcrt:ltr. ldc:t'.11 :.ttr N1ilos-0j,/,;t,• d,:r G(:•
schicl,1e 1-lcn\frmd,h,:il. 7. l\uc-h, 111.
S. A. Toynbee, ASt1,d)•1)/HiS1ory,
9. It i$ flcu1l)tfol, lu)\\'lWC'r. wlmhcr .M;trx himStl(
 •
i11t<.•ndt·cl , he on(:•siJc:d :lf>pm:11:h <)f l:ucr M:uxi,rn1.
In his E.c,JmJmi<: rmd Pl1ilos(Jfi/;i,:11/ Mmm :ialpts
lruin IS•III hl' untk•rsrnruls m~m :1s :rn ··:misr.. :Uhl
:,s :1 "'suffering bdnt~, :1od $in.;c: ht i<:cls his
.Sl1ffcring. :l (J# $:'om11.: being'". Stl' Mmx, E.Jrl)'
\tlriti n>:S\ tr.in~l.nt·d ,tnd cditn:I by T.ll. 1~1)(·
1omorc. Lon,lon J 963. 11p. 206, .?OS.
t(). M:11·~ w:,s 1hc first to point om this dan~l·r in
his Ernm,mlc am/ 1'11i/os-ophi,·t1/ Afo,m;1:ripu .
("W:1rc11ft-1isd1i,.<,;m11)").
11. l·foii.k;_:g~•. P~•rry, .. , pp. 172fl.
12. Norbcrg-Schulz . lnlMll( mf. . .. , p. 74.
1J. C f. the Rom;tn dis i:>l:ti:cmcnt of Eg)'l)ti:tu
ohd i~ks t;h ; •• 111111 1ht· mvrc N:Ct'nt imJJt.•n,uion o f
Europc;m works of :an to 1ht· United Sr;ucs.
H. If 1hc)' did. the pbcc.., 1111; work of :u1 etc.
wo~,lcl be.:o,nc:tmt:rt> idc:ologi"·:il illustr,u iu n.
I 5. Heidei,;gt•r, pp. I•19ff.. o p. cu.
J 6, Heidegger, op. ci,, J), 15 1.
17. A. lb popc>rt. No 11$t' h mn (1ml Cu/run:,
Englewood Cliffs 1969. mrns these foc1s upsidt'·
down mainrnining 1h:11 the ln1ildin~$ (If ..the gr;mJ
,ltsigu cr:uli1ion'' arc um1:-m1I :md :ire buih 10
"imprl'SS 1hc.- popuktc:e"!
J S . Hc:idl-ggcr, /)i,! K.wm um! tlt•r Rm" "• 1,, IJ,
19. Hl·id1:gg(•r,Poc1ry., .. p. ·13.
20, Hei<lc:~er,i,p. cit. p . 2Q.I.
21. Thus 1hC" Eg)·p,t ms onl>· b1.1ih J))'rnmids in 1hc
Noni!. In the. Sou1h, m t u .-..o r•Thdx:s, they u¾'d
tht'mountttin itSt.•Jf.
22. The only l.:tq.;e-sc;ilc exec-pt ion i~ 1hc ,lcS<:n ,
whot-c "c:oi;mic"' d1,vnc1tr- in fo.:t ,kpemls on du:
hl<:k o( p:micufo r J iret1ii:ms. IL is ..isol:ncd .. :ind
simuhnncouslr .,in finite".
13, S"c J-~·1. Ho uswo, A S<id11I C,rog raphy of
Er1ro1u.·. J. un<lcln 196.l. Chttp1cr S. pp. ISiH.
24. G. Bug~c, C . No rbcr~•Sc:hull.• Early \V()o,J.m
Ard1ilt't:lu11· in N-0 r111:1y. Oslo 196S.
25. In lrnlian 1hc dlspositiu n is: cnlled '".schema
,cmncol:.rc". • Sag ihm die l)in&<:. Er wird .)1:.m ncudl•r stchn; wic
26. For in'>1:u11:c iii the Vilrr lamtl10/ vr Rrmdling.
!7, Hci<lcggl'r, Die Krm$I rmd 1lt1r R.:mm. J), I J.
~'I)' it;tlio: :md <1uonuion mnrks.
28. Cil· rlion, 1m :hitr.·,·1ure )'Ott ,1,uJ mo;. C:1111•
bridgi:.·. t,.fass. 1958. pp. 'IJ(){(,
2~. No rberg-Schull. Arl.'.hitckturorn;1111cm. iu Or•
mmw111 ()/ur,~ O,·m,m,:ut (m . lluch u1:U'u1 ed.).
Zurich 1965.
.)0. Norbcrg.•Schulz, lntcntio11s. . . ch:1p1cr o n
··Forn,'".
31. Cf. the conccpt ":str-OngGe~tah''.
]2. Jfor v,u i:11ions o n the: 11r1/:1~~a :uul h6td
I h<'m',;S, S<'C N()rbcrg•S.::hul1., &1r<,,111~ Archi1,x 11m:,
JJ. t•forbtrg,S<h11l1,, l;,\'isr,·m:,• •• ., p. JS. For ,,
gcttl.'."r:11 disc:u s,_'\iOn u( ;ilicn:uion sec R. Schadu.
Alfr::m11icm. Ncw York l9i0.
34, \"i/c ought 10 cmph:1sii't :11;;1i11 1fou 1hc
:u mosphcrc to n high ex1<·m d1:pc-n<ls on the
C'011,li1ions of li.rd11.
35. S. Kc>s10{, 'l'lu'° ~I'hir,J Rwn~•. Hcrkdc)' 197.l,
36. Dl-signcrs r:;w:hit K;lhn :lOJ Brue."\' Graham.
37. SC"<.: Jfosw,, Arcl1irt·r.111,·,· (D. Fr.:cm:rn l'lL).
CambriJgc, M:LSS. J97H.
JS. \'<1.r,.,t, Whi1d1ill, 1-l. ►srcw , r, 1o ru,gmpldc,, /
lliswry. H<1s1011 I96S.
39. 1'hi-. h;1) :1lso bcl'n (mgonl·n l11 n d 1y , m'.h ;1s
Mt ►J.COW.
,10. A.N. \VhirchC":hl, 11, ,.,c~•ss .iml Rc·"litv, N<·\\'
York 1929. J>,5 I5. . ,;, St·c Ch~11m:r I uf 1hc pres.cm book.
-i I. For inst:tllL'C in t he works o f Frnnk Ucwd
\Xh ightand in Sc mdinn\'iao :1r.::hitc.::111rt, · ,h·rn !vlfwem<.:1n··. in I..OTUS IHtcrmuirmfll, no. 9 ,
4 2, L Kahn. "C rc.·do", in Ar.:hiu:ctur.J/ /),·ii.gn,
S/ 19i4 , p.2$0.
ilJ. Alrcndr Vitru\'ius wrol<•; "Svu1lu:rn pc-upks
h;wc the k i:t ll(':>t wit~, but l:lck ,•;ilour, nor1hcrn
pcopk•s h:1,·c 1,trc:u c:our:1g<· but ;11•t s1ow•wiul•,l'*,
Vl, i,ii.
44. Cf. K:ul Po1,pcr ; Tiu· Powerty uj llistm··
{ti-sm. London 196-11 pp. 64fi.
45. (;i~Jion, Camwncy, Ch.w gc mul 1\rd,i1c:c•
t:rrt•. M:uv:udlJnh'. 196 1.
•16. K,1hn, o~,. d t. p. Zfll.
,17, Rilke , IX Ek·gr.
Prc:isc •:lc111 l:n&c:I die- Wdt. nidu die unsilgliche,
jl,,u
k:innsr du nid u ~rossiuu .nit hcrrlich Er(Uhhcm;.
i,, Wclt:1II
wo er ru hk·ndcr fiihh. bis, du dn N<.:uling. Drum
7.cis
ihm d:1s· Einfai:he, d:ls, \'Oil C.L-sc:hlc;d,t Zu Ge•
sc:hlcchtcrn gts{.1hct.
:1ls dn unsrigt's lcbt . nebcn dcr 1-1:ln<I 111,d iin
Blick,
du s1:1ndesc
lil'i <lern Seiler in Rom, <idcr bcim TOp(cr :un Nil.
Zdg ihm, wic glUd:lid1 cin Dinit sdn k~,,m, wic
.s.::huldlos u nd unscr,
wit: sdbs1 das· kl:tgcndc tcid rt:in zu Gt.st:dt sich
emschlic::,s1,
d itnt ;1ls ein Din.i;-, oder siirb1 in cin l)in& - , und
jcnsd1s
sd i!> dcr G<•igc <:mgd u . l'.lnd t-licsc, \'<)II
Hingang
ld>C"ndC"n Oini;.c n ·rstdui, J r1ss d11 .!iie rUhmcsr;.
\'t-rt;i'inglic:11,
traun Sil• t·in Rt•n crh-lc:s mi$ , den Vcrt~inl~li<;listcn
l ll.
Wollc;n. wir sollcn sic g:101. im unsklub:im
Ht:n.cn \'l'rwnndcln
in - u t1l1<'1tdlich - in ttns! W'tr w ir :011 Endc-
:iuch scien.
VIII
l'I.ACf. TOI),\ Y
I. K~1hn. C,·,.,t/11, fl· 2SO,
2 . t.~,n,:;h , "Thd111.1g~·...- . pp. :;.5,
3, A. R:1popor1 , ll.E. K~mtor. "Compk•xil)' :mJ
:\ mh-if!.uity In Em·irnnmcm.ll D<.:sii;n\ in Am,•ric,w
lmtitut,: of l'lmu:ers )<.1unu,I, Jul)' I967.
5. Norberg-Schub:. ..Tlw Dwdllns .md 1hc. Mo•
Mil:ml'>75.
6. Le C.Orbusicr. '-'' 11wfso11 di'$ 1,ommt•s. P:1ris
1941. p. ;i.
7, 1...- CorbuS:il·r, Vt',/ :orl! .Ard1i(tctlire, English
ctfoion. J)p. I iff.
S. 1..4.' Corbusicr. Ven... , 1>. 26K.
9. 1:.1.. \X' rigl,t. Tlu: Nmrm,11-/uusc,p, IS.
JO. Wright.op. cit. p. Ji.
I J. \\;?ri~lu , o p. d t. p. 5 1.
11. l.og,imf nl ;,rolm1g,~.
1,L (;ieJion, t1Kl,irt·l!turr: you ,111([ mt', p:issim,
l •I, r.
Johnson. ,\Uirs 1.-.711 da Roi,~. New York
1947 .
15 . Which, :iccording tu l..t' Corbu~icr :ire t he
joic1 ('-$S('lflit·ll,•1,
16. H.R. J--fi1ch.:ock. r. Johnson. The· /11t.:r-
1m1imral Srrle . Nc.·w Yorl. J932.
Ii. W. Gropius i Tht• Nt•rv Ard1fll!•:t1m ~ mrd 1/Je
H:mlt.ws. l ,ondi)n 1.935. fl, 18.
JS. Gropius, op. d1 . p. 20.
19. s~ for insrnnce L1faycuc Park in 1)('1roi1, by
i\,l,ics \ ' :lrl tier Rohe. 1,ss-63.
20. 1., 11. 2t1ck<-r. New A rc/;i1,•,:m rt mu( Ci1y
P/(mnlns, Nt·w 'fort. J 94 1I. Also in Gil-dion,
arc/n'uaur,· ywcam/ mi:, p. 1$.
2 1. GkJion , (lfL i:i1. p. 117.
22. In Ard1iMct11ml H.ea)rd, Janu:irr 1·9S4. '"The
Staie o f Contcmpor.111• ,\rthitecmrl:, tht' Rcgion:il
Appro.ich... AJso in Cicdion, op. dr.· p. J.4S.
23. H. Berndt, A, l.orl.'."nzcr, K. I-lorn. t\rcl,iukwr
,1/s l,t.iologic:. Ft;lnHurt n.M. 196$ , p. S I.
24. Gicdion. S11:ru , Time allll Ard,it.~tlmv:1 J>.
70S.
2.i. VC"muri, Com11!.:xit,\• :uul CtJtilr:ttlidkm iri
A rcl,irccrurt~. New York 1 J 966.
206
 26. Cie<lion. Sp..,<,i... p. 620, pp. 64Sff.
27. V. Scully. i\lodm1 Ard1luct11re. Ne-" ' Yori.:
1961,p.15.
2S. le Corbuslcr, 01l:1~1r,· 1:01111,Jhc 1946,52. ZU·
rich 196'1, p. 72.
29. Scully, op. d1. p. 46. f ~<)t :in ;m·~llysis sec-
Notbrr!i•Sd1ub., i\lnming. ... J)p, 407ff.
JQ. Scully, 1.iMiS I. K"hn. New York 1962, p. 36.
;l J. Loui,: I. Kahn, Ct1r<MN·ct11r,• d"n uj()urd1mi
1-12, Feb. 1969, J). U .
207
32. Kahn, op. c:i1.• ,,. 25. Y:mms..1ki, Swnc_, Johnson, Kallnunn c1c. Cr.
Gic•
.33. Kahn , Crt•tlo. clion, Napol,•on ,mtl th•• 0<-:11alua1ion ofSymbols, in
34. K:1hn,01>, ci1, '"Archiu.-ctural Re\'icw", no. J J , 194i.
JS. Hcidesger. PiJdry. .. p. 42. 41. Cicdiun, Spac~... pp. 6~8Cf.
J6. K:ihn. op. c:i1. 42. . Norberg-Schulz., M, r,11ing ... J'P• 420((•
.J?. Scully, l.ou;s I. #folm, p. JJ. 43. C. Mf>C>n: 1 0, L)'ndon, 1'ht• Pl:m.'. of Houus.
3~. '11lc tcnll stem:; from S. Gitdion. New York 1975.
39. A. Colc1uhoun, R."tional Ard,ltecturc.. in "Ar• 44. Cil-dion, Cous11.wc:.y••• J'• 7.
chict•ctural Dcsi1:;.n.. ,June 197.). 4.S. CicJion, atf.hit(<:lme ) 'Olf :md me. 'Cambridge,
40. \'(/c h:1vc in mind ..:cnai11 works hr Rudolph, Ma'>-s 1958.
INDEX Of NAMES AND PLACES

Numb<rs in iMlics refer 10 ill11stratirms

A:1hu Alvar Hugo Henrik. Fionish archit('Ct. Kuor- 8omarw, 166. Dclphi, 3 t , S8.
t:mrt898-l977, 70, t9S , 196. 198 . 200; JJ9. .140. Botfroj, SS. 1'c-mp1c of ,\p(ll10, 31; JS.
,lfric,,40, 116,1 28; 185. Tholos o( :\lhcna, J 7.
Borromini (Fr:mcc~co C:tstdli), 11-alinn 3rc.hi11.'<1 , Uis- T heatre o f Apollo, JS.
AJ jtri, 289. sone 1599,Ronw J 66i, 108, L5J. ISS, 163, 166 ;
Alban hm,, 143.146, 147. 149, 1'54, 164, 166;3/, 26S. Dcyr d -Lbhrr, ·rcmplc: ofl-la$CpSowc:, 36.
232, 2J9, 245, Bosmn, 182; 3 11. . Di~'1111.<:nt1ofor Cristo ph, (.icriu:111 :1r..:hi1c<t, Aiblin&
Alb~no, !:Ike ol. 67. Baker House. JJ? .. 16S5-Prngu, 1722, 94, 98, IOJ, 10•1. !06, 108,
Bl<H.'Oll Hill, 182.
0 1090 1-1.1, 1-1-1. I SJ, 166, 172.
Albc-ni Leon Ranist:1 , trnli:rn ard1itcct, Genoa 1406-
Romcl472, S8, 1,)8, J66, CoplcySqu:uc, 1$2; ,l/J. Oit:1111.tnhofor Kili:111 IJ;ti:1i, Gc:rn,au ;irchititt:1 , Pr:t·
John H.lllCOCk Tower, 182.;JlJ . gm.- 1689-rm_g.uc 1751, 9i~. JOO, IOI , 102. 104,
Alighicti Dame, 32, 106, 108 . l09; 14.1, 1.0, H S, 160-Ml, J6J, lliS,
(irnndenbur&, 47.
Alp,,47. 17l.
Ur.aun \·on Braun t,.fauhias, I 74.
America, 196. Dinkd ~bllh1. I 12.
Urno . Tugcndh:11 I-louse, 195.
Amicns, C-:nhcdr:il, 86. Domailic<, 99.
Cou1ury$iJe, 70. Ooxiadi.s Construuinos .Ap,os1ulu, Crc<:k arc:hi1cc,.
,\ntonio da S:angallo, the Younger (Antonio Cordi, C:ilc;na, I S. 120, 137; 19'1.
ni), Italian :uchiu:cc flofc-ncc: f48J,Romc 1546. Caldcrini Guglielmo, halian architect, Pcrusin Durrdl L-:iwrcncc, 18 .
JS7. 1837, Rum, 191 6. 330.
t\nzio, 1-16. Cambridge (M:tss.), 309.
Tcmplcoff(lteunt, 146. M:'lss:ichustus Avenue, 119.
,\ssisi, 17J; .??I, 29.?, M,I.T. Senior Dormitor~•, 196. E1.•ypt,24, 28,116, 12~.
Eri:mo ddlc C:trccri o f St. Pr:mcic;, 40; 60 Capr:1rola, 97. Einbeck, 3 17.
Atelier 5, Swiss group of ar<-hit«ts, 198. Car:tni fr:111cc:sco, h :ili;m ,uchireo, Bissone-Prag:uc El C i1.ch, 1cmplc o( CJ1('phrtn. SJ.
Athens, 1h<: Ac,opolis, 1l/. 1679. 106; 170 .
rropylat·a, 120. Elia~e Mir«:1. 27.
C:md d't\sso , 144.
Temple of Nike:, 112. England, 176. •
C:ualonia, 200.
,\usufa,84, 108. Etiopia, J 16.
C:u:1,,1,:1ro (cl'l .,,irvns), S. G regorio, olive gro\'c:, 34.
Etruri:1, 143, 147, 14S, 154, t64.166 .
C:1\•<). Momc, 146~6i. 232. 2.19.
Europc,40,42,70,84 , 108,17 1,191,192.
Cdk. 70; 113.
CL'$ke Budt:jo,•icc, 9.9.
B:tchcfardC.-scon, 25. C&:mne Paul. 1~0.
8,gl,JaJ, 122. Chandig~nh, CapitQI. 197. Finl:md,, .lS, I96.
Bagn,,i:i, 166. Ch:ttlei: IV. 85 Flo r<:nc1.· , 67, 172. 173 ; 286.
8:ul>.arano. 144. C h.irks, river, J 82; j / 1. 339. O:-pl'<l.tlc: dl-gli lnnOCcmi, I1.'f.
forre, 231, J>ome V1.-cchil), 18S.
Chi:1,fom:, 235. l~uc<:11:li P:ifoc~, 158.
~:tr«lon:,, lmern:uional Exposition, German p,,vi• Chicigo, 182.
lion, 194. Suoni Pafocc, 109.
Fedn;1I Ct:mcr, 333.
B:udonccd1i:i, farmhomi<", I 10. Fischer vo n Erl:td1Johann lk m h:ud, Aunrfa'n a rchi-
Robie f-lousc , JJ7, JJS'. CL'CI :'I nd SL~ulptor, Gt:.n 1656-Vicnna 172.l~· 102.
ltR.r.R. (6:mfi, Bdi;iojoso, Pcressuui, Roger.s}. SeatS1' owcr, 182;JI I.
3i8. for Ii (t'n\·irons), Marccc11ia vall1.-y, 41.
Cimino,Montc.147.
ntrlin,21;.24. Fr,1ncc.·, 34 , 35, 40,200.
Civita Castellano. 14,1: 255.
lkmc, 'Siedluug H;1kn, l 98. Frosc:u i, J 66.
Cologne, 172.
lk:mi11i Ginn Lorenzo, lr.ilian ardtitc:cr, Naples Frcdcnsborg, D:insk 5:um·irJ..cs, J98.
Cons1:1nrinc, l SO. I$2, 16.1.
1598-Rom, 16$0, 1.12, 164. 166; 251, 2S2, 273, (::'(11iSt:1n1inopfc, 152.
275.
Corinth,Tc:mplw( ,.\pollo , 66.
Bianco. Mom«:•, 26. Gtr.1$;1(Jordan) (orum, 81.
Cos....mrn {cn\'irons), S. Crcsorio, 12.
Birkch0j, 198. Occum:'ln\ls, 116.
Cunius l.udwi&,45.
Bofill Rk:trdo. Spanish :1rchi1~•c:.1, 200; JS I, Gcrm:tn)', 70, 84 , 194.
C1.ccho..\l(w:1kfo ~ 106.
Boltcmi:t, $4, SS. 97, 98, 9.9, 100, 104, 106. 108; Gic-diQuS.itg(ricd.12, 195,198, 201.
I )2, Gi&Jio, C;1s1dlo, 17Stl. 29.3.
BollnowO.l:. , .S , 21. L)cmnark, 34, 42, S8, 70; 142; 47, 58, 62. Gig.Jiu Pono, 175.
Bolngn:t, J.U, De: l)ominkis Ann:, M:1rin, 6. Goe1hc-Joh:m11 \X'olfg.-ing, JS, 98, 166, 185.

209
Gl\Ucr.;Jor(, Ch.1pd, 2. J;•11;u1, 58. l.e Corbusier (Cha rlc.s•Edoo;)td Je:urncrct), French
GOuwcig. g_;uew:&)' to the :,bbe)', 107. Jcnm;y Willi~m Le B:1ron 1 Amtric:111 architcc1. F:lit- atchitcct. La Ch., ux-de-Fonds 1887,C:tp ~fanin
Gmham £rncs1 Rohen, Amcric:in :m;hi1t..-cc, J.owdl havc:n {M:1$s.) I 8.\2-1.os An1,dc.·s I 90i, 182. 1965, 6, 61, 76, 191 , 192. 194, 196, 197, 198,
(Mid,.) 1868·1936, 31I . Jicin, 99. 200; JJ•I. 335, J<l .343,
(;r('('("-C, 28. 45. Lcpinc moumains, l •li.
Gropius Waher, Germ:10 :irchi1ci.:1, Berlin 18.33· l~iguri:,, 34.
noslon 197(), 194. Litom)'~I. 99.
K:,flrn. Frnn'f. 1 5 1 78. S!. I 08.
GrOS'St·to , 173. London, 172.
Kahler H .. 140. St. Ceorsc in,hc E:m,306.
Cuafa'Ja (C:tlifornia); Sc:t. Ranch. ,150.
Kahn Louis, Anwric:m architect. Osd lsl:ind ( Esto• St. M:u)'°s Woolnmh. 12 .
C u:nini Gu:1rino, lrnli:t.o :ttchitcct. Modto:i 1624• nfa) 1~01 Ncw York 1974, 6 , IS , 184, 1$5, 197, L'01.111gl.'H.P•• 140.
4

Mil:ln 1683, 108. J?S, 200;JI I• .l<'l•.!-16.

Guhbio. 173. Lorcn1.cr Alfrc.:d. 195.
K:dlmann Gerhard , 21.
Cuidoni Enrico, 150. l.uci::1, 17.1.
K:1schnit1. ,·on WdnbcrgC., 140 , 16•L f..N PAS building, J 47.
(;uim:ud Hecior. f'ri:1l<h :1n.•hi1C-4-'1, Paris IS67°N('w Kh;1ttOl11n (Sud:rn), I IJ 1~1S. 170 . 179 . 180~ 21, LUncburger He-ic.lc. 55.
4

York 1942,J29. 33. 177, 187,189, 195. 1?6, 198, 206. 2 12, 2 14•
21 i. l.urnso ,\nsdmo Martino, Italian ~m.:hitc.:Ct 1 Com(,
Abt., S:iid. 118. 1702 c.-rr.1g\1(' 1765, 165.
F:llfor.i. 226. Lusor, oaSi) , 66.
Grnnd Hotd, 1.14. T emple of Amcnophis Ill. 80,
H:iriltlst:td, Hc:id:il, 284,
Gre;u i\,tosquc, 122; 197. tfnd, Kc\·in, 12, 19 , 10, 190, 201..
Hiirint; Hugo. 70, 71, l•l~dfay.,., 118.
Hawksmoor Nichc>fo s. English :.m:hittct, R:ign:dl H:,111:ld. 11 8 .
1661-1.ondon 17.16, 12, J06·. Kho~:ili, I JS, 120,136; 19 1, 192.
Hegel Gcotg Wilhelm fri<:drich, 16R. lS.S. Khl)g:,li Mosque:, 12.S; 224.
Htidtggtr Martin , 5. 6. 8. 10, 12, 13, IS. IS. 21, Khog~di Tomb, 126, 1.35; 22-1, Mahdi. 1.17.
22: 23, 6S, J6S. 168, 169, 170,176, 198. Lord Ki1chcnc-r's r:11:t.cc., 122.134; 222, 22J. M:1h:t, 111c.•&,1lithic ttm1,lc:s, 52.
:-.1<>qr1.·11 . 118.
Hcllp:,ch Will)', 32. Railw.:t)· Srntion, 122. ~foutua .thurchofS, Andre.a, 166,
Hds.ingOr, .Kiog(> houses, 198. S11k, 114; l fl l , 11.l. Mar:m:-a (Pmcnz:,}. J I.
Herder Joh:inn GouJried, von, 168, Tuti isl:111d. 113. 114, 11 8, 120. 124, l ,16: 177, M:trsdllc.s, UnitCd 'H:1bi1.11ion. 196.
Hesiod, 2.4. 190.11.5. ri.-1:trx Karl, 16S.
- Village, l JS.
HC$..« Hermann, 2 l. Universit}' (for merly Gordon Coll~c), 124 , 134. t\'l:J1hcy Jc:-:irt•B;1pcis1(', frcn ch :,n.:hitect ;ind p:1intcr
Hildtbr:llldt Johann Luc~,s vc,n, C cnn;l1, archilcct, - F.:icultrofMc.·dicine, 122. Dijon 1630-P:iris 16951 102,108.
Geno:t l(;6S-Vienn3 l745, IQ0;2,J05. S1rt•t:1s: ri.•tccc;.1, 40.
Hofsfadter A .• $. -EIG.1mhuriy:1, 122. Meger, 40.
HOkkrlin fric:drich, 2J. - EJ Camfo, 124. r,.,1e11goni Giuseppe. f'-0111:1111:licc {l~olog11:1) 1829·
- El K:ilifo E.IG:11ni, 122; 1•9k.
4

Mibn ISii , 328.

Holl:ind.40, -El Q;lSr.1 2.?..
Hor.1c:c.•, 16·1, War Memo rial, 12.2. Mcrrink Gus1;1v. 78.
Hus J:tn, "JOS. (c,wirons). fort:;1 of Stmt, 11 S. Michd:ln&dC> Huorurro1i, C:.11,test (Artzi o) 1475.
( cn\·ir ons), \'illagl', .S. Rome 1564, J OSt 15J . 153, 166; 1,.19. 250, 2M.
Kitchc,'11.· r HOr;uio l-11.'rbert-. I 13, 120, 122, 131 , 168, 278.
JJJ, 134,137; 196. Michis:1n. b kc 18 2.
Ibrahim lbn' j.1kub. 85, Kleh•i, 1\ amots&1l, loft, 10.1. Mies \·:,n ~!tr Rohe Ludwig, German a rchitect, Aa-
Kl(l$1er Ram., 301. chen l 886-Chicago 19i2, 66, 182, 194, 19.i;JJ J.
lcdan.d. 53.
Milan. Galleria Vi1.torio £ m:111ucle, 328.
ldri:t , \':1lfc:r of O,ugfi:1}, 42 . Pi:1:n:.:i M1.xfa, office building, 348.
111 J c;r Wies, S;lllCUJ:l()' • 99. Morocco, J 18,
Innsbruck, 70; 105. Lobe ( Elbe), 84. M .L.T.W. (Moore, Lyndon, T hurnbufl, \'(lirnkcr).
lrd,md, 53. Lanjter Su~:,nnc. 23. 200:J.i0.
lscrnb, Capr:icona, 8. L:111u\·io,239. Monet Cl:u.idc, 4Q.
J~lam,45. 116 , 13.S, 1.16. Temptcoflmo. 146 , !--l<,11frrr:1to. J 4; 48,
lst."tnbul, C1.lur1y:1rJ of the r-..•.tirimah mosql•t. 1·17. la Pen hus (C:tt:tlonia}, 35 1. ~,fo,1tt1t,n:ina, 173; 23S .
h.1lr , ,10, 70, 173; ·16. 6 .1, L:)zio (l.:itium), 142, 146, 149, 166; 134. Momcpulciano , scone building, 104.

210
Montcii.i;&ioni,15, 91, 17?. Palermo , C:tpjXll:1 P:\bti11:1, 8S. - SquMt. ,~7.
MOSCow, 197, JJ I. S. Ca1t1ldo. 92. Lorc10Sanmrnry, t 72.
Kremlin, 173. r .,lcstine, ;15. Ncw ' l'own (NQv~,\-li-sm). 8S, 87. 94, 97.
O ld Town (S1:ue MtS10), 78, 81 . $2. 85. 86, 87.
P:tlestrin:i,J43, 147, 14$, 16.:i;lJJ, 242. 92, 94 . 97. 10 1, J0•l.
T<'rtapk ur Fortun;, Primit;cnia, J•~7: 2·11. 2·12. - Dlirchh:ius. 92; 1.59.
r,,11:ulio An<lr<:~,, lrnli,m :1rchi1C.'cr, Padu:i HOS- - C h<'uo, ~H. 109.
N:1plcs:,47;23. ii. 316. 1\fasc:r J .S$0, I 06. - Old Town Square (S,aromi:stskC N.-im~ ti),
Ncmi, l:1kc, 146; 2J2, 2J9. Palo Aho (C:iliforni:1 ), H:,nna Hou:..~·, JJ6. 86,9·1, IOI; JJ8.
Nepi, H4, r;1lomln1r:1S:1bin:1, 173~ 96. - S1. Vc-nn-slaus St1u;1rt ( V:1,bvskC Nam~sti),
Ncrcsbcim, IJ. 87.
Paris, 172; 108. 304.
Monastery. 1.1. C:lscd UCr:mser, .129. . l'irlao:-,·s:
Nel'\ i Pier Luigi. h:1liM :m:hi1ea, Sondrio 1891 -
1
l:,l(pt:>Sition lntcm1'tit:malc lie:. Arts Dc:Cor;ui(s, - Clam,Gall:1:f., 10?.
Rome J9i9, 166. 191. - Czernin, 106; r70.
Ncum:1nnjoltann fSaldrnsar, German .1rchitt(1, Eg~--r - P:wilionor £sptit NfHIVt:'IU, l91 ; 335. - Kinsky, 102; 16.5.
\& hrmia} l687-WGributc 17SJ.1J• .102. Gu.im:trd 's hou.st.·. 115. - or theOldTown, 158.
- Thun-Hohenstdn, J i 4.
New York, ,vurld'~ Fnir, Finni:.h J):l\•ilion, 195. r:uh.-r Peter, Swabi:m :icchitc-ct, Prague IJ25• 1399. -T-0sc:11u, 102.
Nile, 28 1 .'i2. 115, I 16, 118, 122, 125, 126, l,l5; 9$ , I02. I04; / 49. -- Town M:ill, 86, 87,
184,ZOS. P.;-i Jeoh Ming. Chinese :1rchi1ect, C :1111(u1 CChin:1) Sin:.111 Town (t-.HM Str:ma), 8 I, 82, 85, 86. 87.
blue Nile, I Ll , J M . 116. 118, 125, Ul, 136, 1917, 182;JJJ. ?2,94, IOJ; J.14, I S i . 157.
IJ7; 188,216. Pckinth Temple of Hc;l\'t:n, I 00. - Small Town Squart• (M:ilc)Slr:11,ski- N:unCri),
\Vhitl' Nile. 113. 114 . JIS, I J 6, 1 1S, 125, J.l6. $6; 145. JJ6.
Hi; 179,225. Pcru:n:i 11:lldass:mc, ha lian 1m:hicecc, 1481-J5.l6,
26.J. StrC('I$:
Ni1si.:l1keGUnier, 58. - Cdetn:i,86.
l'ccr.1 (Jordan), 17. 28, JO, 79. - Mostcd:::l. 87, 94; I •12.
Noorm..irkku. Vill.i Mairc:t, 196; .3•10.
Phil;tdelphb. Rich;uds Medical R<'search Building. - Nerudov;\. 87, ? 4.
Norchfa. 1-14, 155. J46. St. V ims Cnlu:dml, 8 1, 87, 94, 102, ICM; I-fl,
fom~, 2311. /49. .
Piagt1Jt:an. l J, 20,180.
Norw:,)', 40. 42. 70, 172; -14. 52, I OI. St. Vitus Hill, 94.
Pietila Rt:ima, Finnish :ux:hittct. J923. 200; 349,
No\'( Me.510 n:l(l Mtcuii, 99. 'fow,•rs:
Piscicci( li:tsilicarn). 9.S.
-rowdc-r,86, t 36.
Pitigli:1110, 8S. - Bridge. 106.
Po v:1lle)'. JJ0. 'r)•n, X6.
Ol)•mpia. 58. Poissy, Ville S:-avoyi• (by l.t•Corbusit r), 194, -Courtv,mt, I J 7.
Onul11m1:tn, 113. 114 , 11 6, 11 8 ,1 20.12$, 130, Pokmd,84. VrSchmd. fortrC$$, 78. 94 .
JJl, JJS, 136, 137; 180, 195, 200-203. 207. JJO, (ciwirons), Smichm·, Porchdmka by Kili:in (gnat
(1c)rtog.1,c:.i Paolo. Italian :m:hitcc1, 12, $9, ISS; Oicnrzcnhl)for, 100; 160, 161.
Ul,218, 119. .J.17.
f,.•b hJiSqu:irc, 12$. f1ricnc {i\sfa Minor), 58; 90, J I ,j,
Quarters: P t:lJ;Ul', 78-1 10, 170, ISO, ,26. 127, 129. 131, IJJ. Prodd~,. :JOS.
- Alm Jtour, 120. qs. 139. 1-18. ISO. 175, 176. Pru~i:l, N4.
- Ekit El Mal~ 120. Brldge,::
S11k, JJ4. tlS, t .!J; 218,219. -Clt;nks,Sl. 85.86.92. 97~ rJ O. HO, HI.
T ombo(1hc M:1hdl, IJJ. - Judith, 86.
C:,sino o r t he lkl\'(:ckrc. I 06; J 7 J.
01'\'ic:m, I73. Clmrch1~~:
O,lo,40;J27. - Brernov, 103. 104: 166, 167. Rajhrnd (Mor:a\'ia), church, 173.
N~uio,1:'ll G:illcn·, 280. - Holt Vcrgl11, $5.
(cn\'iroos). fore.Sl~ 4 . Rapop~m• .S.
-S1. John onchcRock, 104; 168.169.
O.ub, 1S8~299. - S,. Nic:hofos{in 1hcOt.:ITown), $7. IO I , 102, R:nisbon, J72.
Osumi. 98. 109; / 62-16>. Rkd Bc-11cdik1. C,:C(h :1tc.hi1t<:1, Pr:lgut 1454,1534,
- St, N id ,olas (in 1he Small Town}, 8 1. 94, 94, IOJ; JJ2.
Oniniemi (f-ldsi nki}, Finnish Stmk-111·$ Union Buil•
ding, J.j9. 103. 109.141-1 46, 15.1. Rilke Rainer M:ufa, 6, I.), 4$, 1$5.
- l'i'n.Sl,86.96, 102·; 118. Re>chcsccr (N. Y. ), UnitMi:t11 Church. J •H, 34S,
Hr:od/;;my, 78, 81, 85, 87. 94.
- C:mlc,81 ,8S.86~87: 13.J, 147. Roe,,;lcr Fr:mi , 228.
- - Vk1di:.l:t\' 1-1:lll.,4, 103, 104, 106; IS2. Rome, 28, 9~. lJ6 1 138-IGG, 170, 173, 180; 117,
Pac:stum, Temple or I-km. 66, - l.trn:·t Park, 85, 2-13, 246. 2.$8, 177.
Temple or Mera II , ,'1.1. - Pcciin Park, 85~ 147. C:1mp(I M;-iri io, 148.157.

211
GOllcrsdorr, Chapd. 2, J:ip:in, S8. l.c Corbusicr {Ch,ulc.•s-Edou:ud Jc:ann~((1), trench
GOttwc,i,;, ~:ucway to the a bbc>', IOi. Jenner William l.c l\aron, ,\ mc:ric:an architect, F.,ir- archiu:ct, t:, Chaull:-<lc-Fonds J88i-Cap M:lnin
Gr:1h1un l:rncst R<ibcrt. American Mchi1ei.:1, Lowdl hnven (to.•l~1S), ) I832•tos. Ang\!'lt.'&191)7, I 81. 196.1, 6 , 6 1. i6. 191, 192, 194, 196, 197, 198,
JM;ch.) 1868, 1936. Jl I. Jicin, 99. 200; .JJ4, JJJ. 341 -1·13 .
C r('ecc, 28, -15. Le-pint n1oun1.1ins. 147.
G ropius Waltc.r. Ccrm~rn ;irchitccc. Ucrli11 183.1- Liguri:1, 34.
BoMon 1970. 194. titomySI, 99.
K:1fk~, fr:tnz. S. 78, S1. IOS.
Grosscto , 173. to,,don, 172.
K;ihlt;r H., 140, S1. George in the [ ;1st . 306.
(;ualnla (C:iliforni:t), Sea Ranch, JJO.
K:ihn Louis, 1\m..-ric;m arehiu:tc, Osei lsl;.11ld (f.$tO· S1 . M..iry'sWoolmnh. 12.
Guarini Cu:trioo, lrnforn :'lt(hi1cc1, MC>dcoa l.624- ni:t) l 90 1-Nt.'w York 1974, 6, IS, 18-1, 185, 197.
Mifon 16S3, I08. t.·Ornnsc ~f.P.• 140.
19$. 200; .l J J • .144-.146.
Gubbio , 173. Lorc,, ,:cr Alfred. 195.
Kallm;1nn Gcrh:.rd, 21.
Guidoni Enrico, I.SO. Lucc~,. 173.
K:1schnit1. von \'('c-inberg G., 1·W. 164, ENP,\ S building, J-17.
Guim:ird Hooor, frCnch ;m;hittCt , r ,,ris 1867•NC\\1 Kl"m oum (Sud:in). 1 JJ.IJS, 170, 179. 180; 21.
Y• rk 19·12,329. l.Unc-hutger Mcide, 55.
33, 177, 187-189, J9.S, 196, 198, 10(i, 2 12, 2 M -
21 7. Lur~1go J\nstlmo M:m ino, halt:.'ln ar,hite<:t. CQmO
,\hu s~1id, 11 8. 1702c.-Prnguc 1765. l6.5.
f':1ll:11:1, .?.?6. l.uxor , oasis. 66.
Gr.10d l-lotd , 13.;, Templ~~o( Amcnophis 111,SO.
1-t:irild:.t:tJ. Ht'id:,I , 284 .
Grc:11 r-.1()squc. 112,;. 197. Lynch Kevin, 12, I? , 2(), 190, 2()1.
H iring Hugo. 70, 71 , l-l:111:i>·a. 118 .
H;twksmoor Nicholas, English :irchit<'Ct. R:,g1111II l·fam:1d. I 18 .
166l t.ond<)tt 1736. 11. 306.
4
Khog:1li, 118,120,136; l?I , l?l.
H~gd Georg Wilhelm fr-icdtich, 16$, 18.li . Khogali r,.,tosquc-, 125;22-f.
HcideggerManin.5~6,8, I(), 12, IJ, 15, 18,:? I , Khc.lg.tliTon•b. 116 . l ,U ;114 . M:ihdi, 137.
22, 23, 65. l 6S. 168, 169, 170, 176, 1.98. lord Kitchem;r'.:, Pnfact. 122, I34·; 222, 12.J. ;,.,1:111:1. mc.·i;,.,lithic temples, 52.
Moqre nt 1 IS .
Ht llp;u:11 Will>•, 32. R:iilw:l)' St:llio.o , 122. M:inma.church ofS. Andre.,, l66.
HdsingOr, Kingo houses, 198. S11k, I 1,1: ISi , 213. Mat:llC":t (Pocc111,:1). S I .
Herder Johann Goufril-d, ,•on1 J 68. 't u(i isfand, 11.J. 11 4, 11 8. I 20. I 24, 136l 177, l\.·1:lrstillc:s, Uni1C: dH:ibit::uion. 196 .
Hesiod, 24. 190. 215. Marx K;irl , 168.
- Vilbi;c.•, I JS.
He$S<: Hctm:inn, 2 l. Uniwrsi1r (formcrl>' Gordon Collt.-gc). 124, 134. M:uhey Jc-.;m-B:iptiMe, French :tr<:hitect and painter
Mildtbrandt Johann l.uc:,s- \'On , Ccm,a,, ari:hiteci, - f.11..'l.lhrof ;>.•k dicinc:, 122. Oijo n 16J0-1•:1ris 1695, !02, 1()8.
Genoa 16{,S-Vicnna 1745, l00;2,J05. Strt•elS: t-.·1cc:c.l, 40.
Hors1:1dccr A. , 5. -l;.JC,1mhuri}':t , 122. MC"gcr, ·10.
HOldcrlin Friedrich, 23. -EIG:unia.1 24. Mengoni Ciust:-ppe, fomanclic:e (Bologna) 1829-
- El K,Bfo-EICarni, 122; 1•98. Mil:lo I $77, 316.
Holland , •10. - F,I Q:tst. 122.
1-for:ice, i 64. W:1r M~mo rial, 122. Mcrrink GuS1:1\·~78.
Hu.sJ:m, J08. (environs), fo rest of Sum, 11.S. r-.•ti<:hclani;do Buon:uro1i, Caprcse (Areuo) 1-t?S-
{en\!irons). ,•ill:1gc:,J. R.omc ·1.)64, 108 . 15 1, l.SJ 1 166~ 249. 1.50, 164,
Kitche11ct Hor:uio Herb...rt, 113, 120, 122, 1.11 , !68, 278.
133, 134, 137; 196. Michigan, lake: 182.
lbr;1him lbn' ,l;1kub, 85. Klei,·i, A:mmtsd;il, loft, JOJ. Mies "~m der Rohe Ludwig. C('rman architect. 1\a•
KlnMcr Hanz, 302. .c:h.:-,, 1$86-Chic:tg() 1972, 66. 18 2, 194, 195;JJJ.
lccb1ld, 53.
Mil:m, Galleri:l Vitto rio Em:muelc.·, 328.
ldri:1, \·;'1k)' of (Puglk,), 41. Pi:lna Mixfa, o£licc buildini;, J48.
In tier W ies, S<HlCHl:lt)'. 99. rvtorocco, 1 J 8.
Innsbruck, 70; ,OJ, 1.alx{Elbc}, 84, M.1,..1".W. (.'vloQrc, l..ynd()n, 'rhurnbull. Witjkcr).
lrd:md,53. t;ingcr Susanne, 23. 200;350.
lsemi:i, C:1pr:1coua, S. l,:lnU\'il'), 2J9, Monc.·t Cfaude,40.
lsl:un, 4.i, 116, I.JS , 1.16. Tc:mJ)lcorhnc). 146. Munfcrrato, J•I; 48.
Istanbul, courty:1rd of 1hc ,\<lirinuh mosque. JI 7. ta Perthus {Cat:1Joni:1) 1 351. Monrnt;n:tn:t, J 7.l; 288.
h•lr, 40, 70, 173; ,16, 6 1, L11Jo {l.:uium), 1-12, 1•16, 149, 166;23·1. Momcpulct1no. :,1onc building, 104.

210
Mumrriggioni, 25. 91, 279. P:tltr1110 1 C:,ppc-lb r:11:uina, S.t - Square, Si .
Moscow, 287, 311. S. C:.it:lldo, 92. l,oret0 Sa;1c111:uy, 171.
Kremlin, 17.l. Palt's tinc, 4S. New Town(Non~Mes.10), 85, S7, 94, 97.
Old Town (S1:tre :i.-H-sto}, i8, 81, 82, 85. 86, 87,
P:tld 1rin:1, 143, l4 7, J48, 165; 233, 2·12. 92,94. 97, IOI, 104.
T<•mpleo(Fortuun Primigcni:t , 14i ;141, 14l. - ·Durchh:tus. 92; I 59.
Naplc!i_, •17; 21, 7J, J 16'. Palladio Andrea, lrnlbn :m~hi1cc1, P:ulu:, IS08· - G h<:UO, 85, 109.
~faScr ISSO, !06. - Old Town Squttrc ($t;'lr<11utscsk~ NamCSti)..
N't"rnl, lal:e, 146; 2] 2, 239.
Palo Alm (C:.,liforni:1}. H:mn:i MouS<:. 3.16. 86, 94, 101; /JS.
Nrpi1 144. - St. Vcocesl;ms S(1u:m· (V:td avskC NamCsd );
r :1lumbar,:1Sabin:1, I i l; 96.
Ni:teshcini, IJ . raris, l 12; lOS', J04. 87.
Mona.siery 1 11. P.•,/acc>s:
C:1s1cl lJ.er:111gtr, 3.?9.
CNrrvi Pier Lui~i. h :tlb n :trchit.xt, Sondrio 1891 · b:po~i1ir,n l111ernationa1e des An s l)fl-or:nifs, - Cl:1m•G~1lb s , 102.
Rcn"nt: 1979, 166. 19 I. -Ct<:min, 106; J70.
Ncumarin johann Bahhasar. C cnn:tn :.irt hiu'<1, . Et,<:t - r :1,•ili&n of EspriL Nou,·t.•au, J9t ; JJS. - Kinskr , 102; 165.
(801,Cmi:t) 1687-Wlirz.hurs 17.B. tJ•.102. Guim:ird's house, I I S. - o hhc Old 'fown, t58.
- Thun•Hoht llSICin, I 74 .
Ni:w Yodcf WotlJ "s. f:i ir. Fio,li$h p;wilio n, 195 . P:trlcr Peter, Swabian architect, Pr:1gue 132$-1 3,99. - T osc.ina, 102.
Nile, 28,52. 11 5.1 16 , 118 ,122. 125, 126. 135; 9$, 102,104; 149. - Town H:ill, 86, 87.
184,205. Pti Jooh Ming, Chinese- :m:hit<:<:t, ~a nton (China) Small Town {M:U:l Smrn:.,), 8 1, 82. $5, $6. S7.
Blue Nile, I 13 1 114. 116. II S, J25 , IJJ, 136. 1917, 182; 313. 92, 94, JOJ ;-IJ·l, J-51, 157.
U 7; 188, 216. - $nu ll Town Squ:trc {Ma1ot.tr:tnskC N:tmi:tl),
Pd:ini;. Temple o( Meavc-n 1 100.
\\lhitc Nil<:, 113, 114, 115 , 1J6, 11 8, 125 , 136, 86; 1'15. 156.
137; 17?, 225. l'emni ll:11d:,s.,,;.1 m:.• lt:tli:rn :t(chi1«1, 148J- ISJ6.
26.l. Streets:
Nitschke Ciimer, 58. -C...lc111-:\, 86.
Petr:i Uordau), 'I 7, 1S, 30, 7-9.
Noorm:trl:.ku, \liU:i Mairea, 196; 3•10. - Mostecka, 87, 94 ; 142,
11hil:tdclphi:t. Rich:1rds :\.lcdiC!ll Rc:sc:uch i~uild i11g. - Ncrud<1v:i, $7, 94.
No~d1i:l, 144, ISS.
fo rrl!, 2)8,
3 46. St. Vitus Cathl"<lr;1I, 81 , 87. 94, l0?, 104; t47,
Piaget Jt :m , l 3. 20, I SO. 14 9. .
Nonrny, •10 , 42, 70, 172; "4, S2, 10 1, St. V ih1S Hill , 94.
Pietila Rcinm, Finnish-.m :hitect, 1923, 200; 349.
No\'CMCsin n:td Metuii. 99. Towas:
r isricd (Basilic.at:t}. 9$.
- Powdcr, 86 ; 136.
Piti&linnc), 88. - Brid~e. I 06.
ru"alley, JJO. Tfn , 86.
Olympia, SS. Poi.ssr I Villl" S:ivoye (by l<: Corbusier) , J 94. - Couny:ird. 137.
Omdurman, I 13, l 14, 11 6 , 11 8 , 120, 125 , l lO, PQl:tnd, 84. Vy~chr.ld, fortress, 7 8, 94.
133, IJS, 136', 137; ISO, 19.!, 200-203, 207, 210, (em·irons), Smichuv, Portlu:imk:l by Kili;m Jgn:'li
Por1oglu:si Paolo, lrnlian :irchill"tt, L?. S9, 155;
w: 2 18. 21?.
Mahdi-Squ:arc, 12.S.
347.
l)ienizcnhofor , JOO; 160, 161.
Pric,1<: ( Asi:1 Mi11or), 58; 90, J t $.
Qmrrta!: Prague, 78•1JO, 170. 180; 126, 127. 129, 13 1, tJJ. Pro.:hb, JOS.
- ..\buRouf, 120. 135. 139, H S, 150, 175, 176.
(fridges: Prussia, 8·1.
- Ut'i1El Mal, 120.
Suk, I J.1.12S, 133; 218,1 19. -Ch:.ulcs, 82,85, S6 , 92,9i; 130, MO, 141.
Tomb of1 heM:ihdi , 135. - Judith, 86,
Orvic10.17J . Cn$ino(lfthc lkh•,~tlm :, 106; 17 1,
Clnm:h.~-s:
Oslo, 40; 327, - Brerncw, I0J . 104; 166, 16 7.
N:ttion:11Gallery, 280. t:b jht;1d (ri.for;wi:l), c hurt:h. I 73.
- Hol)' \!4:rgi11, 85. R:.11,oport,5.
{c,wiron.~). forest, .f. - Si. John on tlw Rod,.. H.14; 168. 169,
Osti~, 158;' 299. - S1 . Nichol:ts (intlie O ld Town}. 87. 10 1, 102. R:uisbo n, 172.
Osrnni, 98. I09; 161-1 64. Jlied Benc:dik1, Czech archirecr, J)t;lt;ut 145'1•1.534,
Ornnicmi (Hc-lsinki), Finni.sh Suedem's Unio n Buil- - St, Nicholas (in the Sm:111 T own), SJ , 94 , 94, IOJ; IJ 2.
ding, 349. JO.I, 109; 141- 146, I SJ . Rilke R;,int r M:ui;1, 6, 15 , 48; 185.
- T j'n. 8 1. 86, 96 , 102; 11S.
Rod wste r t N. Y.). Unit;trt:ln Church, J .f-f. 34-5,
Hr;1dC-lm)', 78 , 81,_8.~t 87, 94.
- C.i.sr1c, 8J.8.5,S6, 87; 134, l-47, Rol-sl<:r Fr:in1., 11$.
- - Vl:tdisl:n- H:111, ?4 , l03, 104 , 106~ 152. Rome, ! 8, 9$, 136. lJ R•166, L70, 173 , 180; 227,
~:tCSmm. TC'mplt' uf Hr ra. 66, - Lm1;1Park, 85. 143, 246, 258. 277.
Tc111pll·<1fHcr;1 IJ, 33. - Pc1fin l':uk. 85; 147. Campo Ma n.lo, 14S, 157.

21 1
 C:tpitol (C:1mpidoglio) 154,161. Salerno , 303. 1'frl)l:in. 1ml)ul:ir lbroql1c hou~s. I SS.
Capimline hill 148.154. S:llzburg, I 8. 1\,nis , c l:ir ho1.1 S\.-s. roi..
CIJ((rch~s (atJd INuHic,t$h S.1ng.allo Amo oio, the Younger, Italian architeL"t, Turin , 172,
-Consrnntine. 2S3. Flof('OCt: J483 • Rome l 546, 1S8~ 264.
-Maxcmius, i 64, Tus.c:tny,34.
- Sc. Ago('S'S, I 64, S:mCimignano, 10. 9'4. l ' uscuhun, 146 .
- S. Andrea dclla V:tllc, 170. San C iuli:mo (Vi1crbo). 2j6. T uti. isklnd o(. S, Kh:1rtm1m,
- S. C:irlo alfc, Quattro Fomane (St. C::irlino's} S.intin Aid,d Johann, archit<.·ct o( h:ilian origin , Pra-
163;27 1. gue 1667-1 723, 108; 17.1, 174.
-5. Coslanza,269. Saqqar:1., step P>'T:tmid, 7S.
- St. John"s in chc Lateran, I.SO, 163.
-S, h·o, I.SJ. Sax()n)', 84. l.'J kr:1ine, 84.
- St. P:tul's, ISO. Sllrn;itsalo. T own Hall, 196. Urn cs (Norwa}'), St:\\'c c:iu,rch. 76.
- S1. Pct«:r's , 150. 153, 161 ; 278. St.indina~·ia, 40, •12; 59. Uni1ed Stntd;, I 98; JJ2.
-S, Sabin.a , 89. Scull)' Vincent . 197.
Colos~eun,, 150,1 51,152.160. 16S, 166:266. lJrwn, Jorn, Danish :m:hitect, Cop<.•n:1ghcn 1918.
J:miculus hill, J 48. Scg,li (L:11,iv). 111egalithic.:strucwre, 77. 198.
Jewish Glu'.'UO. 259. Sc1inuntc, temple, 106.
·1':tl:uinthiU 143, MS. 149. Scrlio Sebaniano, h :,lian architect, HQlogn:1 1475 •
P11k1:ii: f ontainchlc,,u ISSS, 54,157,
- Cancclkti:1, 158; 262. Strmom:la, 11; Vald.irno . 46 .
- Consrrv:uori, 268. Sctesdal, valley, 172. Vaux•lc.Vicomtc, B:uoqm· g..,rdcn pal:,cc. 12$.
- Farnese, 158;264.
- -<:ourty:trtl , 267. Sicna, 67 , 173,176; 111,290. Vdo. Erruscan tomb. 237.
-Giusrizin, JJO. C:uhcdr.11 Squ:'l rc, 176, UtQQk, .15.
- Massilno, 263 . II Cumpo, 9, 9J. Vdlctri, r:,l:11.to Cvmun;il<.· , JOI.
- Propaganda Fide, 158; 165. Town H:111, 176,
Venice, 47; 73.
- Sport , 166. Sixn ,:s V, 151;247. $. Giorgi!) M:iggit)rc, 198.
- ViJoni, 84. SOM (Kh,111. G r,d,am), J 82; 3 JI. St. M~rk'Ss(1u:m:, 176, 295·297,
ranthL'On, s2,. 153, 161, 164, 165; 2S-1. Soractc, Moum. l-17, 164; .2-IQ. Venturi Rohe n , American archi1cc(, 14. l5, 63.
Squares: T cmplc o rSor:111us, 147. 194, 19S • .?01.
-C.1pirolinc, ISi , 152,160; 249,150. Sori.loo :,I Cimino, 69. Vergil. L54, 161 .
- dcl PopQlo., 1$ 1~248,
- N:t\'(Ul;l, 155, 164; 22.9, .?i2., 27.1.
Sperlonga.175;29•J. Vc rs.:tillt.'$, 194.
- S, Piciro_, 152, 160, 161 , 164, lSJ, 252, 2i5. Scirlin~J:tntl'S, Eni;lish nrchiicC1, 200. Vc&1J\'io, 27, 71.
TemplcQfJupitcr, 149. Smnchcngc, .S8. \liemm lklvedtrt.~. 100, 1(16;87. JOS.
Tc-mpl<: of Venus a nd Rome, I SO. Simsbourg, C.ith<'dr:.1. 124.
T raste\·crc, 148, 15.7 . \litorchi:mo, 1•1-1; 236. 257.
Subiaco (environs), Spcco oFSt. Bencdicl., •10; 7, J9. R:1\'ine, JO.
Trc1:i ft)IIIU.tin. 276.
Sp:mis.h Seeps. 27,,. (r nvir<>ns), ,•alter, .56. \lilfU\•ius, Roo1;111 :1r<:hircct, I en 1. n.c.. .S4.
Sud,n, 113, 116,118.136. 137; Jl5. Vltava, 8 1, 8·1 . 85, 99; I 19.
Streets:
- Bibc-r:11ic:,, 158; 260. Smri, 1.41 ,
-Go\·(•mo \11."Cchio, 261. Sw~den~40) J 98.
- S;1cm, 149; Z4S. Switzerland, 84..
- Vinorio l::10::mude, 180. Whitehead Alfred Nonh, 182.
T r;,j:m·s forum, Vi:i Hibcr:11ic;1, 260. Sydnc}'. Opera H(lusc, 19S,
V:uic.:m, J SO. Wright Fr.ink llord, ,\incrican :uchir,ccc, Rid ,bo
V:uiL".1n Circu~, I 50. Ccm(r 1869 • Phol'nix 1959. 67. 192. 194, 196;
1'dt • .109. J36-338.
Romagna, •1J .
Rond1:1mp.S1c. M:ui~-du-H:mc . 196;J41 ,J •rJ. T ckm~uk. o1d con age. 6.
Rossi Aldo, h:1li:m :,rchit('Ct, t-.•lilan I 93 I . J 98. Con:ige. 1 14.
V:tll<J. 171.
Rothenburg, JOO. Yemen, I 18 .
Tibt r , 14J, 144, 147.148. ISO.
l'h·o li, I 46, 166.
Tjdnnt\•e it, lo(ts, IM.
Sa«:o v:1llcy, Mi;.2.10. Toynbee Anlold. 16$. Z urich, 19.
S:tint•DiC-, 197. T r;,klG,-o,g, 8, 9, 10, 13. 23, 69. T hc.,trc, 198.

212