Radioactivity – Summary Notes

 An atom has a central core called nucleus which contains protons (positively charged
particles) and neutrons (neutral particles). Negatively charged electrons revolve around
the nucleus in orbits located at different distances. The electrons very close to the nucleus
are called bound electrons. They are strongly attracted by the protons in the nucleus.
 The electrons moving in orbits lying away from the nucleus are weakly attracted by the
nucleus, i.e., these electrons are loosely bound electrons are called free electrons. Metals
which are good conductors, have a large number of free electrons.
 If we increase the kinetic energy of the free electrons, they start coming out from the
surface of a metal. The minimum amount of energy required to emit electrons from the
surface of the metal. The minimum amount of energy required to emit electrons from the
surface of the metal is called work function or threshold energy of that metal. The process
of emitting or ejecting out free electrons from the surface of a metal is called electron
emission. The phenomenon of emission of free electrons from a metal surface when it is
heated to a high temperature, is called thermionic emission. The emitted electrons are
called thermions.
 The number of electrons emitted per second, i.e., the rate of emission of electrons from a
metal surface depends on the following factors:
 Nature of the surface of metal: Less the work function, more is rate of emission of
electrons.
 Temperature of the surface: Higher the temperature, more is the rate of emission of
electrons.
 Surface area of the material: Greater the surface area, greater is the rate of emission of
electrons.
 A substance which is used as an electron emitter must have the following properties:
 Its work function should be low so that the electrons can be emitted at low temperature.
 Its melting point should be high so that the substance does not melt easily.
 A cathode ray tube is a device used for studying the current and voltage waveform in
various electric circuits.
 A cathode ray tube works on the principles of:
 Thermionic emission
 Deflection of electron beam by the electric and magnetic fields.
 Fluorescence produced by the electron beam.
 A cathode ray tube mainly consists of:
 The electron gun
 The deflecting system
 The fluorescent screen
 A cathode ray tube is used:
 Mainly to convert an electrical signal into a visual signal.
 For checking the waveform of an electrical signal.
 In demonstrating the features of wave motion.
 For measuring the short time intervals.

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  To investigate the changes in the varying potential difference.
 In televisions as a picture tube.
 The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an element is called mass
number of the element. It is abbreviated by the symbol A. The number of protons in the
nucleus or the number of electrons revolving around the nucleus of an element is called
the atomic number of the element. It is abbreviated by the symbol Z.
 The atoms of the same element which have the same atomic number but differ in their
mass number are called isotopes. The atoms of the same element having the same mass
number but different atomic numbers are called isobars.

Radioactivity
 The phenomenon by virtue of which certain substances spontaneously disintegrate by
emitting certain radiations is called radioactivity. The substances which exhibit the
phenomenon of radioactivity are called radioactive substances. For example, uranium,
thorium, radium and polonium are radioactive substances.
 In 1903, Rutherford and his co-workers studied experimentally the nature of radiations
emitted by the radioactive substances. On being subjected a radioactive substance to a
magnetic field, they found that three distinct constituents: alpha particles, beta particles
and gamma rays were given out.
 Properties of Alpha (  ) Particles:
 An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons and, this has the
composition of a helium atom.
 An alpha particle has a positively charged helium nucleus.
 An alpha particle has a quite small penetrating power.
 Alpha particles being positively charged are affected by electric and magnetic fields.
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 They are fast moving particles. The speed of alpha particles is of the order of 10 ms .
 They affect a photographic plate and cause fluorescence on striking a fluorescent
material.
 They have large kinetic energy.
 They ionize atoms in their path.
 They destroy the living cells and, hence, cause biological damage.

 Properties of Beta (  ) Particles:

 Beta particles are negatively-charged particles. A  -particle has the same charge as
that of an electron. It is presented as 01 β or 01 e
 They have almost negligible mass.
 Since beta particles have negligible mass, they can deflect more than alpha particles
by an electric or a magnetic field.
 They are emitted with variable velocities, approaching the velocity of light, i.e.,
3 108 ms 1 .

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  Due to their less mass and high velocity, beta particles have a high penetrating power.
Their penetrating power is about 100 times greater than that of  -particles. Their high
penetrating power makes beta particles dangerous.
 Since beta particles are light, their ionizing power is very low. Their ionizing power is
1
th that of the  -particles.
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 They affect photographic plates.
 They can produce fluorescence.
 They produce X-rays when stopped by a metal of high atomic number and high melting
point such as tungsten.
 They can pass through the skin of our body and, hence, cause more biological damage.

 Properties of Gamma (  ) Radiations:

 Gamma rays consist of electromagnetic radiation and have a shorter wavelength.
 They do not carry any charge.
 Since they carry no charge, therefore, gamma rays are not deflected by an electric or a
magnetic field.
 Their ionizing power is very low.
1
 They travel with the same velocity as that of light, i.e., 3 10 ms .
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 They are very penetrating. Their penetrating power is 100 times that of the  -particles
and 10,000 times that of the  -particles.
 They can affect photographic plates and, thus, produce fluorescence.
 They are very useful in treatment of cancer.
 When an  -particle is emitted from a radioactive substance, the new nucleus (called
daughter) has an atomic number 2 less than the original (called parent) and a mass number
4 less than the original.
For example:
92 U  90 Th  2 He   particle 
238 234 4

 In emitting a   particle from a radioactive substance, the mass number remains the same
but the atomic number increases by one. For example,
83 B  81 Po  1 β β  particle 
214 214 0

 There is no change in the mass number and atomic number of the nucleus in gamma
emission.
 The isotopes of an element which exhibit the phenomenon of radioactivity are called
radioisotopes.
 Radioisotopes find their use in the fields of medical, science and industry.
 The diseases such as cancer, leukemia, etc., are curved by radiation therapy.
 Radioisotopes such as radio-sodium chloride, radio-iron and radio-iodine are used to
detect the suspected brain tumours and blood clots.
 Radioisotopes are used to investigate the activities of a thyroid gland. A dose of radio-
iodine may be given to a patient having an over active thyroid gland.
 They are used as tracers to determine which elements in the soil are used by the plants.

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  They can be used to sterilize food by killing harmful organisms in it.
 They are used as a fuel for atomic energy reactors.
 Alpha particles emitted from radioisotopes are used as projectiles for nuclear reactions.

 Harmful Effects of Radioisotopes

 The exposure of radiation induces deleterious genetic effects.
 The strong exposure of  -particles can cause lung cancer.
 The exposure to fast and slow neutrons can cause blindness.
 The exposure of  -particles can cause disastrous skin effects.
 The exposure to neutrons, protons and  -particles can cause damage to red blood
cells.
 Some of the precautions that must be taken while handling a radioactive source are:
 People should put on special lead-lined aprons and lead gloves.
 Radioactive materials should be handled with long lead tongs.
 Radioactive substances should be transferred in thick-walled lead containers and
should be kept in rooms with thick walls of lead.
 The radioactive contamination of the work area should be avoided at all costs.
 Those radiations which originate from radioactive compounds in the earth’s crust and from
particles and rays entering the earth’s atmosphere are called background radiations.

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