EXTERNAL EARTH PROCESSES

❖ Weathering, erosion, sedimentation, and mass wasting are called external processes or exogenic
processes since they occur near the Earth`s surface. These external processes are essential parts
of the rock cycle because they transform solid rocks into sediments. Since the beginning of the
Earth, mountains have been weathered and eroded, lakes have been filled with sediments, and
plains have been formed.

WEATHERING
✓ The breaking down of rocks and other materials on the Earth`s surface is called
weathering. It is a slow but continuous process affecting all substances exposed to the
atmosphere. Large pieces of rocks break. Over long periods of time, the rocks crumble
and decay. Rocks on the Earth`s surface may undergo mechanical weathering and
chemical weathering. Mechanical weathering occurs when rocks break into pieces
without changing their chemical composition. On the other hand, chemical weathering
occurs when the chemical composition of the rock is changed due to the action of other
substances.

Mechanical Weathering
✓ Mechanical weathering causes rocks to be broken into smaller pieces. This type of
weathering does not change the chemical composition of the rocks, since they are just
torn apart by physical forces. Temperature, frost action, abrasion, and the action of
living things are some of the different agents of mechanical weathering.

▪ Temperature. Rocks break because of the changes in temperature. During the

day, the Earth`s surface is heated by the sun. As the surface of the rock is heated,
it expands but it remains cool inside. During the night when the temperature
drops, the surface of the rock is cooled and the rock contracts. The cycle of
heating and cooling, as well as the expansion and contraction of rocks, is
repeated daily. The repeated changes in temperature causes the surface of the
rock to peel off. This type of breaking off is called exfoliation.

▪ Frost action. A unique property of water is that it expands when it freezes. Frost
action occurs when water seeps into the small cracks of rock layers. When air
temperature drops below the freezing point of water, the water within the
cracks expands. As the water expands, it exerts pressure to the surrounding
rocks that causes it to break.
 ▪ Abrasion. This is the wearing off of rocks by solid particles carried by wind,
water, and other agents. Wind that carries sand causes abrasion of the rocks
leading to unusual rock formations on the Earth`s surface. Running water causes
abrasion as it carries other rock particles. The rock particles in the water scrape
the rocks in the riverbed causing the rocks to become rounded and smooth.

▪ Action of Living Things. Plants, animals and even humans can cause mechanical
weathering. Plant roots try to push through the underground rocks to get their
needed nutrients. As they mature, the roots grow bigger and longer and exert
pressure on the rocks causing them to brake. There are burrowing animals that
build tunnel into the rocks to create a space where they live. The construction of
roads, dams, power plants, and other types of groundwork by humans cause
rocks to break, too.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING
✓ Chemical weathering changes the mineral content and the chemical composition of rocks. As
chemical changes occur, minerals may be either be added or removed from the rocks. Water,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulphuric acid, and acids from plants and animals are some of the
agents of chemical weathering.

▪ Water. Almost all chemical weathering is due to the action of water. Water can
dissolve most of the minerals present in rocks. It can form acids when it
combines with some of the gases in the air. It can also combine with minerals to
form a different kind of mineral. For example, feldspar reacts with water to form
clay.

▪ Oxygen. Oxygen combines with other substances to form entirely new

substances. For example, when iron-bearing rocks are exposed to the surface,
their physical properties and chemical composition may change. When iron
reacts with oxygen in the air, it forms rust which is a different substance. The
rocks become brittle and break easily.

▪ Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide in air combines with rain water to form a weak
solution of carbonic acid. It can then seep into the rocks and dissolve the parts of
the rock that react with acids.
 ▪ Sulfur oxides. Sulphur oxides are produced when fossil fuels are burned. They
combine with rain water to form sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is stronger than
carbonic acid. It easily corrodes rocks, metals, and other materials.

▪ Acids and chemicals from organisms. Organisms such as plants can also cause
chemical weathering. They produce acids and other chemicals that dissolve
some minerals in rocks.

SOIL FORMATION
✓ The weathering of rocks on the earth`s surface results in soil formation. As rocks
weather, they change into smaller pieces. These smaller pieces are further broken down
into soil.

✓ Soil is very important to living organisms. Plants depend on soil for food, nutrients, and
minerals. It also holds water that the plants need. Animals depend on soil indirectly by
eating the plants, or eating other animals that eat plants.

✓ Sometimes, soil remains on top of its parent rock from which it was formed. This is
called residual soil which has the same composition as the parent rock. Soil is moved to
other places by wind, water, glaciers, and waves. This type of soil is called transported
soil. Transported soil has a very different composition from the rock that it covers. The
parent rock beneath the residual and transported soils is called the bedrock.

EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION

• Soil, the product of weathering, is carried away by erosion to other places. Erosion is
the process by which soil and weathered rocks are transported from one place to
another. Eroded rocks and soil are deposited in other places. The process through which
sediments are transported to another location is called deposition or sedimentation.
Over time, these materials accumulate and change the different features of the Earth
surface. Erosion moves materials from place to place, while deposition forms various
surface features. Winds, waves, running water, glaciers, and gravity are agents of
erosion that continuously shape the Earth`s surface.

1. Wind is the most active agent of erosion in deserts, open fields, and beaches. In these
places, loose materials are abundant and can be easily picked up and carried by the
wind. The amount of rock and soil that can be blown away by the wind depends on its
speed. The faster the wind blows, the more particles it can carry. As the speed of wind
 decreases, the particles that it can no longer carry are deposited as dunes and loess.
Dunes are mounds that are built by wind consisting of loose sand. Loess is the deposit
of fine sand and silt. It is light in color and without visible layer. It may be several meters
thick and can form a nearly vertical cliff. Loess deposits are very fertile.

2. Waves constantly erode and shape the shoreline. The shoreline is where the body of
water and land meet. Waves can carry large amounts of sand, rock particles, and shells.
These solid particles are then deposited in other parts of the shoreline. The shape of
the shoreline is always changing and deposits form beaches, sand bars, and spits.
Beaches consist of fine sand or large pebbles that are carried by waves to the shores of
seas and lakes. The sediments comprising a beach may contain seashells, corals, and
other materials that originate from marine organisms. Sandbars are submerged or
partly exposed ridge of sand or coarse sediment that is built by waves offshore from a
beach. Splits are elongated ridge of sand that stretches from the land to the mouth of a
nearby bay.

3. Running water is one of the major agents of erosion. From falling raindrops to rushing
rivers, running water has a great impact on the Earth`s surface. Rivers, streams, and
runoff are examples of running water. Runoff is the rainwater that flows on the surface
and flows to the rivers and streams. A stream or river can carry large amounts of
sediments. When the flow of rivers and streams slows down, sediments are deposited.
Large sediments usually settle on the riverbed while smaller ones are deposited along
river banks forming oxbox lakes, alluvial fans, deltas, flood plains, and levees.

• An oxbow lake is a U-shaped body of water that forms when a river finds a different,
shorter course.

• An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped deposit of gravel, sand, and even smaller pieces of
sediments, such as silt, formed when the stream flow suddenly slows down. The
sediment is called alluvium

• A delta is a landform created by the deposition of sediments carried by a river as the

stream flows to a lake or an ocean.

• A flood plain is a flat area of land close to a river or stream. It stretches from the banks
of the river extending toward the outer edges of a valley.
 • A levee is a natural wall that blocks the water created by the deposit of large particles.
A levee may be used to increased available land for habitation or divert a body of water,
so the fertile soil of a river or seabed may be used for agriculture. It prevents rivers from
flooding cities during storm surges. However, if a levee breaks, water may be released
and flooding may occur.

Glaciers erode surfaces through abrasion. As a glacier moves along a valley, it carries with it
rock debris, such as large boulders and smaller particles. These wear down the surface by
abrading the rocks that it comes in contact with. The moving glacier scrapes away and creates
grooves into rocks as it moves, creating various surface features.

A moraine is the accumulation of dirt and rocks that have fallen onto the glacier surface or
have been pushed along by the glacier as it moves. The dirt and rocks can range in size from
powdery silt to large rocks and boulders.

A drumlin is an elongated hill with the shape of an inverted spoon or half-buried egg, which is
formed by glacial ice acting on underlying unconsolidated sediments or ground moraine.

Meltwater deposits are sediments carried and deposited along the meltwater streams, which
are formed when glaciers start to melt.

Iceberg deposits are rocks and sediments that are picked up from land and deposited on the
ocean floor by melting icebergs.

A glacial lake created by melted glaciers. It is formed when a glacier erodes the land, and then
melts, filling the space that it has created with water.

Mass wasting occurs when gravity pulls rocks and soil down the slopes. The rock debris settles
at the base of the slope and is called talus or accumulated sediments.

A landslide is an example of mass wasting that can be caused by an earthquake, volcanic

eruption, or the weakening of supporting rocks caused by heavy rain. It can move tons of
sediments down a slope and cause tremendous damage.
A mudflow is another type of mass wasting that usually occurs after a heavy rain. The mud
slides downhill picking up rocks and boulders that cause it to become thicker. It can move just
about anything in its path including trees and houses.

A slump is the downward sliding of a mass of rock or unconsolidated materials along a curved
surface.

Debris flow involves the flow of soil containing large amount of water along a downward slope.

A creep is the slow type of mass wasting that involves the gradual downhill movement of soil
cause by the alternate expansion and contraction of the surface due to freezing and melting, or
wetting and drying.

INTERNAL EARTH PROCESSES

❖ Scientists have explored farther into space than the depths of the Earth. The tremendous heat
and pressure deeper into the Earth`s interior prevents further exploration. However, different
technologies now enable us to be aware of what is going on inside the Earth.

❖ The processes that happen inside the Earth are called endogenic processes. These processes
are important parts of the Earth system for they are the ones that cause changes on the Earth
surface. These processes include the heating of the Earth`s interior, formation of magma, and
metamorphism of rocks.

HEATING THE EARTH`S INTERIOR

✓ The Earth`s core is extremely hot. It`s temperature is about 6000 oC, which is similar to
the surface temperature of the sun. The heat in the Earth`s interior comes from three
different sources: (1) heat that was left during the formation of the Earth, (2) the
gravitational pressure on the core caused by the tidal forces of the Sun, Moon, other
planets and the rotation of the Earth, and (3) the radioactive decay of elements in the
core.
 ✓ The Earth was formed around 4.5 billion years ago. Gravity pulled matter together and
compressed them to form the Earth. Matter moving at great velocities resulted in the
collision of particles which generated heat. This heat was trapped and became the initial
heat source in the Earth`s interior. The Earth is under immense pressure due to the tidal
forces exerted by the Sun, the Moon, and other planets in the Solar System. Earth`s
rotation also heats up the Earth`s interior. The combined tidal pressure and rotation of
the Earth cause the core to be under immense pressure. This pressure basically keeps
the core hot in the same way as a pressure cooker. It also helps to minimize the heat it
loses.

✓ The last and most important source of heat is nuclear fission of heavy elements in the
Earth`s interior. The continuous nuclear fission of radioactive elements replaces the
heat that the Earth loses. This fission process occurs in the formation of radioactive
decay. It also creates the convection currents in the mantle that causes the movement
of tectonic plates.

FORMATION OF MAGMA
➢ Magma is an extremely hot and viscous mixture of molten and semi-molten
rocks beneath the surface of the Earth. Magma originates from the lower part of
the Earth`s crust and in the upper portion of the mantle. It can create new
landforms and cause physical and chemical changes in different environments.
The differences in temperature, pressure, and structural formation in the mantle
and crust cause magma to form in different ways.

➢ Decompression melting is a process in which magma forms due to decreased

rock pressure. Decompression melting often occurs at divergent boundaries
where tectonic plates separate. The rifting movement causes the buoyant
magma below to rise and fill the space of lower pressure. The rock then cools
into new crust. This type of melting process also occurs at mantle plumes which
are small rising columns of hot plastic mantle rock. As the mantle goes near the
surface, pressure is released causing the mantle to melt and form the mantle
plume. When this occurs beneath the ocean, plumes form the hot spots that
push magma onto the seafloor. This can accumulate as volcanic mounds that can
grow into volcanic islands over millions of years.

➢ Heat transfer can also form magma when hot, liquid rock pushes itself to Earth`s
cold crust. The liquid turns to solid as it loses its heat to the surrounding crust.
This transfer of heat causes the melting of the surrounding rock into magma.
 • Transfer of heat often happens at convergent boundaries, where there is
collision of tectonic plates. As the denser tectonic plate subducts or sinks,
hot rock from below pushes its way into the cooler plate above. This process
transfers heat and forms magma. Over millions of years, the magma in this
subduction zone creates series of active volcanoes known as volcanic arc.

➢ Flux melting occurs when solid rock melts into magma through the addition of
water or other volatiles, such as carbon dioxide, causing rocks to melt at lower
temperatures. It usually happens around subduction zones. Water above the
subducting seafloor lowers the melting temperature of the solid rock and forms
magma that rises to the surface.

Magma After Its Formation

✓ Magma leaves the upper mantle and crust through intrusion or extrusion. It can
intrude through sedimentary rocks. When a crystallized magma is found beneath the
Earth`s crust it is called pluton. The pluton forms the intrusive igneous rocks.

✓ The most common way for magma to reach the Earth`s surface is through lava flow.
Lava flows through the fissures along the surface during a non-violent volcanic
eruption. When it cools, it forms volcanic rock known as extrusive igneous rock, as
well as volcanic glass. A violent volcanic eruption can also cause magma to go to the
Earth`s surface. The ejected magma solidifies in the air to form volcanic rock called
tephra or volcanic ash. Tephra, together with rocks like pumice, fall to the Earth`s
surface.

FORMATION OF THE MAGMA CHAMBER

✓ With favourable temperature, pressure, and environment, magma can

accumulate in magma chambers. Most magma chambers are located deep down
the Earth`s crust. If the magma chamber is subjected to extreme pressure, it may
fracture the surrounding rocks. The cracks called fissures may become a volcano.
Many volcanoes lie on top of magma chambers.

✓ Pressure within the magma chamber can increase as more magma seeps into
the chamber. This may result in volcanic eruption which reduces the pressure in
the chamber. As long as there is a continuous supply of magma in the chamber,
the volcano remains active. In violent eruptions, the volume of magma shrinks
and can nearly empty the chamber, causing the entire magma chamber to
collapse and form a caldera, which is a large form of a volcanic crater.
METAMORPHISM
➢ Metamorphism is the change in mineral composition and texture of a rock that
is subjected to high temperature and pressure within the Earth. The pressure
involved in metamorphism results from the rock being deeply buried
underground. The intense pressure causes the crystals within the rock to grow
together or separate and rearrange into new mineral crystals. The heat needed
to make this change often comes from the hot magma beneath the surface. It
may also be triggered by the chemically active fluids that circulate around the
newly forming rock and introduce different ions, which cause new and different
mineral crystals to grow. Metamorphism involves two processes,
recrystallization and neometamorphism.

➢ Recrystallization is the process by which crystals are packed together creating a

new crystal structure. This process requires a lot of heat and pressure to change
the mineral`s size and shape without changing its composition. A common
example is limestone that can go through the process of recrystallization to turn
into marble. Limestone contains tiny calcite crystals that come from shells of
marine organisms that are broken down and compacted into sedimentary rock.
When that limestone is buried and subjected to intense forces, the microscopic
crystals pack together and slowly transform into the larger crystals of calcite that
we find in marble.

➢ Neometamorphism is a process that results in the formation of new minerals.

This process is sometimes called neocrystallization, which means “new crystals.”
As an example, shale is a sedimentary rock that contains clay minerals, such as
quartz and feldspar. When shale undergoes metamorphism, the clay minerals
change to a new mineral called garnet

DEFORMATION OF THE EARTH`S CRUST

❖ The Earth has undergone a lot of changes since its formation. The changes are more observed
on its surface which has been lifted, pushed down, bent, and broken by forces underneath. It
takes millions of years before these changes can be observed. The movement is unnoticeable
because it is very small and very slow. Still, the different processes underneath are continually
working to change the Earth`s
 Rocks Under Stress

✓ Rocks are also under stress caused by the forces within Earth. These forces push
and pull the rocks on the Earth`s crust. As the crust undergoes stress, rocks
slowly change their shape and volume. They also move up, down, and sideways.
These movements cause rocks to break, tilt, fold, or undergo deformation. There
are different types of stress, each of which deforms the crust in different ways.
The three types of stress are compression, tension, and shearing.

1. Compression squeezes the rocks in the crust. This causes the particles in the
rocks to move closer and become denser and smaller in volume. As rocks in
the crust are being compressed, parts of these rocks move up while others
move down.

2. Tension pulls on the rocks of the crust causing them to stretch over a larger
area. A rock under tension becomes thinner in the middle and thicker at the
ends. As its volume increases, its density decreases.

3. Shearing pushes the rocks in the crust to opposite directions causing them
to twist or tear apart. This type of stress bends or breaks the rocks apart.

✓ Compression, tension, and shearing can change the volume and form of rocks.
Stress can cause the rocks to fracture or crack. If the rocks` fractures have not
moved, the cracks are called joints. Joints are cracks that are parallel to one
another. Some rocks form joints in more than one direction. These rocks may
break into blocks. The blocks form where the different sets of joints cross one
another.

FAULTING AND FOLDING

✓ Faulting is the breaking of rocks along a crack or fracture when rocks can no
longer withstand stress. When the rocks move along a break or crack, a fault is
created. Faults may be in the form of normal, reverse, and strike-strip faults.

• A normal fault is characterized by a rock on one side of the fault that is

lower relative to the other side. When there are many normal faults in an
area, a series of mountains and valleys are formed. Mountains that are
 formed by blocks of rocks uplifted by normal faults are called fault-block
mountains.

• A reverse fault is characterized by a rocky block that is pushed up relative to

the rock on its side

• A strike-slip fault results when the adjacent blocks of rocks move sideways
and not up and down.

✓ Folding is an effect of compressional stress. Some rocks do not break when

under stress. Instead, the rocks bend or crumple. A bend in the rock is called a
fold. A rock can fold either upward or downward. An upward fold in a rock is
called anticline and the downward fold, syncline. Large folds form mountains
that are called folded mountains. A plateau can also be formed by folding.

Determining the Layers of the Earth

✓ Scientists gather information about the Earth`s interior by observing energy
during an earthquake. Seismic waves are waves that travel through rocks in all
directions from where the ground breaks during an earthquake. These waves are
picked up all over the world by instruments that detect and record earthquakes.

✓ The Earth`s geosphere is divided into layers based on their chemical

composition- the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The varying densities
in each layer of the Earth causes the seismic waves to change in behaviour as
they travel deep inside the Earth.

✓ The seismic waves are in the form of body waves and surface waves. Body waves
are seismic waves of higher frequency than surface waves. They arrive before
the surface waves that earthquakes emit. The two types of body waves are
primary waves (P-waves) and secondary waves (S-waves). P waves are faster
than S-waves, and they travel about 6-7 km/s. These are the first waves detected
by seismometers. As P-waves travel along the liquid core, they slow down and
bend, and so they are not detected by seismometers as fast as expected. This
gives a clue as to the nature of the material inside the Earth.

✓ Secondary waves or S-waves have a speed of about 5.5 km/s, and move in an up
and down motion perpendicular to the direction of waves. S-waves can only pass
through solids and cannot pass through liquids.
 ✓ Surface waves travel more slowly than body waves. During an earthquake,
surface-waves exhibit an up and down, rolling motion and side-to-side vibration.

✓ Through data analyses of seismic waves scientists are able to better understand
the features and composition of Earth`s interior. Scientists determine that the
core must be very dense- it has a density of about 10 to 13 g/cm3 , which is the
density of many metals subjected to extreme pressure. Also, scientists are able
to explain that the magnetic metals, iron and nickel, found in the Earth`s interior
are responsible for the Earth`s magnetic field.

Layers of the Earth

✓ In terms of composition, the three layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle and the
core.

➢ Crust

• The crust is the outermost and thinnest layer of the geosphere. Its surface is
covered with soil and water. It is made of many different types of rocks that are
light and rich in silicon with an average density of 2.7 to 3 g/cm3 . The crust is of
two types- continental and oceanic. The continental crust which is thicker is
composed of low density rocks such as granite. The thinner oceanic crust
consists of high density rocks such as basalt.

➢ Mantle

• The mantle lies beneath the crust. It extends from the base of the crust to the
core-mantle boundary. The mantle is made up of two layers- the upper and the
lower mantle. The upper mantle is mostly solid, but its more flexible regions
contribute to tectonic activities. Rock samples from the upper mantle are
brought to the surface by volcanic activity. These rock samples are made of
silicate-based rocks that are rich in magnesium. The upper mantle consists
mainly of a kind of rock called peridotite. The uppermost layer of the upper
mantle is firmly attached to the crust above it to form a rigid, brittle single
structure called the lithosphere. Below the uppermost mantle is a less rigid
warmer region of the upper mantle called the asthenosphere. Underneath the
asthenosphere is the lower mantle which is thought to be made of more
compact structure. It is hotter, denser, and more stiff than the upper mantle.
Although heat may cause the rocks to soften, intense pressure keeps the lower
mantle solid.
 ➢ Core

• The core extends from core-mantle boundary to the center of the Earth. This
layer is made up of nickel-iron alloys. It consists of the fluid outer core and solid
inner core. Since the Earth`s core cannot be directly observed, most of what is
known about it is obtained from the observations of the behaviour of seismic
waves as they travel through the layers of the Earth`s interior.

Other Features of the Earth`s Interior

✓ Through further observations about seismic waves, seismologists are able to identify
the boundaries between the layers- Mohorovicic discontinuity and the Gutenberg
discontinuity.

✓ In 1909, the Croatian seismologist, Andrija Mohorovicic, discovered that seismic waves
from distant earthquakes reach the seismographs faster than those from nearby
earthquakes. By analyzing the times of arrival of earthquake waves to the seismographs
on certain places on the Earth, he identified the boundary between the mantle and
crust. Today, this boundary is known as the Mohorovicic discontinuity of the Moho. It
lies at a depth of 4 to 70 km.

✓ In 1913, German seismologist, Beno Gutenberg, discovered an abrupt change in the

speed of seismic waves recorded by seismographs from 2900 km below the surface
where the base of the mantle is assumed to be located. The core-mantle boundary is so
hot that that despite the tremendous pressure, rocks in this region are changed to
liquid. This boundary is now called the Gutenberg discontinuity.
 ❖ The lithosphere is the brittle, single structure, which consists of the upper mantle, firmly
attached to the crust above it. It is the layer of the Earth that is mainly involved in
tectonic activities. This layer is subdivided into seven major plates: the African plate,
Antarctic: plate, Eurasian plate, Indo-Australian plate, North American plate, Pacific
plate, and South American plate. The minor plates are the Caribbean, Scotia, Arabian,
Indian, Philippine, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, and Nazca.

✓ Tectonic plates have the following characteristics, which explain why the Earth is
moving and why continents and ocean basins always undergo transformation.

1. One plate can carry both continental and oceanic crusts. The average
thickness of the lithosphere covered by a continent is 125 km. The
average thickness of the lithosphere covered by the oceanic crust is 75
km.

2. A plate floats on the asthenosphere and slides horizontally over it. It is

like a block of ice that floats on a lake; it may bend a little or may slightly
move up and down. Each plate moves as a large solid rock.

3. Tectonic plates move at a very slow rate. Since continents and oceans
make up the uppermost part of the lithosphere, both the continents and
oceanic crusts move across the Earth simultaneously with the plates.

✓ Tectonic activity is responsible for some of Earth’s most dramatic geologic events
such as earthquakes, volcanism, mountain-building, and oceanic trench
formation. Tectonic activity also shapes the lithosphere itself. Most tectonic
activities take place at the boundaries of the plates. The movement of tectonic
plates is made possible by heat from the upper mantle. Heat makes the rocks of
the lithosphere more elastic.

Theories That Explain Plate Movements

✓ The changing positions of continents and ocean basins puzzled scientists in the past.
They tried to speculate the idea about the movement of the continents and ocean
basins. As they tried to explain this phenomenon, the continental drift and seafloor
spreading theories were conceived.
Continental Drift Theory
✓ In 1915 Alfred Wegener, a German scientist, introduced the continental drift
theory, which states that continents are moving. According to this theory, the
Earth was once made of one large continent called Pangaea. Pangaea broke
about 225 million years ago into the continents Laurasia and Gondwanalana and
eventually into smaller pieces that slowly drifted away from one another and
moved to their present positions. Scientists did not readily accept Wegener’s
continental drift theory because he had no concrete explanation on what might
have caused the continents to drift and what patterns they might have followed.
Wegener simply reasoned that the rotation of the Earth perhaps caused the
continents to shift toward and apart from one another. However, more concrete
pieces of evidence that support Wegener’s assumption were later discovered.

Pieces of Evidence that Support the Continental Drift Theory

✓ Although there are more evidence today that validate the continental drift
theory, the following evidences are the initials proofs.

1. Continental fit shows that there is a close match between the coastlines
of continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The eastern
shorelines of South America and the western shorelines of Africa seem to
fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.

2. Similar rock layers and mountain ranges are found in continents across
the ocean. Rocks of the same type and age are discovered in both South
America and Africa. Wegener argued that the rocks could have been
formed in the same place in the past. The continents that are composed
of these rocks separated from each other.

3. Mountain ranges of the same age, structure, and rock types are found in
South America and Africa. The folded Appalachian Mountains of North
America move westward through the Eastern US and Canada and ends at
the Newfoundland coastline. Mountain ranges of the same age and
deformation are found in eastern Greenland, Iceland, Great Britain, and
Norway. It is believed that these mountain ranges were once only a single
mountain range but were separated when the continents drifted. The
courses of several mountain ranges seem to end at the coastline of one
continent and apparently continue on another continent across the
ocean.
4. Fossils of extinct plants and animals are found on rocks that ate of the
same age and these rocks are widely distributed in continents like South
America, Africa, India. Australia, and Antarctica that are very far from one
another. Since it is impossible for these organisms to swim across the
ocean, Wegener proposed that these organisms lived, died, and were
fossilized together in the past. They are now found in different continents
because of the movement of the landmasses. When the continents of the
southern hemisphere are reassembled into a single landmass, the
distribution of the four fossils of organisms form similar and continuous
patterns of dispersion across continental boundaries.

a. Mesosaurus is a freshwater crocodile-like reptile found in

Southern Africa and Eastern South America. It would have been
impossible for the Mesosaurus to swim between the continents.
This suggests that South America and Africa were joined in the
past.

b. Cynognathus is an extinct mammal-like reptile which is as large

as a wolf. Its fossils were only found in South Africa and South
America.

c. Lystrosaurus is an herbivorous, pig-like reptile that grew to

approximately one meter in length. Its fossils are found in
Antarctica, India, and South Africa.

d. Glossopteris is a woody, seed-bearing shrub or tree. Its fossils are

found in Australia, South Africa, South America, India, and
Antarctica.

5. Glacial evidence like scrubs and scratches created as plates slide along the
surface are found in different continents. These indicate that glaciers covered a
large continent. Impressions on rock layers that reveal the direction of flow of
glaciers are found in South America, South Africa, India, and Southern Australia.

6. Coral reefs and coal-forming swamps found in the tropical region are now found
in places that are very cold. It is believed that these animals had once lived in
warm climates and that their fossils and coals drifted to their present location.
These fossils evidences indicate that the Northern Hemisphere had a tropical
climate when the Southern Hemisphere was covered with glaciers.
Seafloor Spreading Theory
✓ The seafloor spreading theory introduced by Harry Hess, an American Geologist,
and American oceanographer, Robert Dietz, explains how the continents drifted
away from one another. They proposed that hot and less dense material from
the mantle rises to the surface along the mid-ocean ridges. This material flows
sideways pushing the seafloor away from the ridge in both directions.

✓ As the seafloor spreads, more magma is forced upward which thickens the
oceanic crust. The magma that is exposed to the surface is called lava. Lava
solidifies as It cools and forms new oceanic crust. As the oceanic crust waves
away from the mid-ocean ridges, it cool, contracts, and becomes denser. This
denser and cooler crust sinks and helps in the formation of the ridge. Because
magma continuously flows to the surface of the oceanic crust, it becomes part of
the crust, and this results in the widening of the ocean floor.

✓ What causes the magma to rise could be explained by convection currents. The
heat within the Earth’s interior causes the hot mantle to rise and the cold mantle
to sink. This creates giant convection cells within the mantle that move like a
conveyor belt system. Since the lithosphere floats above the asthenosphere, it
moves together with the convection current in the mantle. Ocean ridges are
located above the rising magma from the convection cell. Magma exerts
tremendous force to the lithosphere above it, causing it to break and form a rift.

✓ Magma flows through the rift. It cools and causes the lithosphere to move apart.
This cold magma pushes the portion of the lithosphere above the sinking magma
to move down to the mantle. It melts and becomes part of the mantle. This is
where subduction zones are situated and where volcanoes and deep trenches
are created.

✓ More researches and technological advancements resulted in the discovery of

more evidences that prove that the Earth’s tectonic plates are in constant
motion. The exploration of the ocean floor showed the spreading of the oceanic
crust along the mid-ocean ridge. The rock samples gathered from the ocean floor
reveal information about the events that happened in the past.

✓ ' In 1963, British geophysicists, Frederick John Vine and Drummond Hoyle
Matthews, explained that stripes of magnetic material on the seafloor provide
strong evidence for tectonic movements. They show that the Earth’s magnetic
field has shifted. This means that the north and south poles have changed places
many times over long periods of time. The stripes alternate between those with
 magnetic material oriented toward the magnetic north, and those oriented in
the opposite direction. Earth’s magnetic field reverses every few hundred
thousand years, and the stripes on the ocean floor show a record of how the
magnetic poles have shifted between the southern and northern parts of the
globe. The magnetic north today lies on an island north of Canada which in the
past was located in eastern Siberia. This is confirmed by the rocks in Alaska that
have magnetic materials showing that once they have been part of or near the
equator. Furthermore, the orientation of magnetic materials on the South
American east coast shows similarity with those that are found in the west coast
of Africa.

✓ By estimating when the reversal occurred and pairing that with the distance the
strips have moved from the spreading zone, scientists can estimate how fast the
continents are moving.

Evolution and Structure of the Ocean Basins

✓ Ocean basins are places on Earth covered with salt water. They are actively changing due to
tectonic activities. They are formed through seafloor spreading from volcanic rocks released
from the fissures along the mid-ocean ridges. The ocean basins have evolved through time.
They undergo the different stages in their development. Every ocean basin on the planet at
present is in its own stage of development.

Embryonic. Continents are starting to separate resulting in the formation of rift valleys. An
example is the Great Rift Valley in Eastern Africa.
Juvenile. Seafloor basalts begin forming as continental margins separate. Rift valley deepens
and is flooded by seawater. Spreading begins and mid ocean ridge is formed. An example is the
Red Sea, a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean that lies between Africa and Asia.
Mature. Broad ocean basin widens, trenches develop, and subduction begins. Ocean basin
with spreading center and continental margins are prominent features. An example is the
Atlantic Ocean.
Declining. Subduction narrows much of the seafloor and oceanic ridge due to converging
tectonic plates. This results in the formation of trenches, volcanic island arcs, and coastal
mountain ranges. An example is the Pacific Ocean.
Terminal. Ocean basin becomes narrow and becoming shallow due to sedimentation. Young
mountain ranges are formed along the sides. Examples include the Mediterranean Sea and the
Persian Gulf.
Continental Collision. The remaining seafloor is eliminated and continents collide, forming a
continental mountain chain. High mountain belts like the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau
form.
✓ Since ocean basins are created by tectonic activities, they also have different surface
features like the continental crust. Though covered with water, images of the ocean
topography were obtained through different technologies like seismic surveying, side-
scan sonar, and measurement of the height of sea surfaces by satellites. Through the
images, oceanographers are able to describe the structure of the ocean basin. The
geographic features of the ocean basin include the continental shelf, continental slope,
continental rise, and abyssal plain.

Continental shelf is the continental landmass that is covered by the sea. The continental shelf
slopes gently away from the land. It is covered by the shallow sea less than 200 m deep. Its
environment is rich in biodiversity since the depth can still be reached by sunlight which is
essential for food chain.
Continental slope is at the edge of the continental shelf where the seafloor suddenly drops.
The slope is much steeper than that of the continental shelf. This is the site where landslide,
turbidity currents, and sediment slumps are active. Massive underwater canyons and gorges cut
through the slope. This is created by currents carrying sediments from the continental slope
down to the deep sea.
Continental rise is located at the base of the continental slope where the gradient is shallower.
Sediments that move down from the continental shelf pile up at the base of the slope and is
gently sculptured by slow moving current, which travels along the contours of the slope.
Abyssal plains are characterized by a vast expanse of terrain that is flat, cold, and dark since
light can no longer penetrate through this depth. Only sediments of ultra-fine particles of clay
together with microscopic marine organisms can reach this depth. Turbidity currents carry the
sediments from the continental slope to this region where sediments spread out to form thin
layers on the seafloor. Layers have very distinct division of mud and clay and this becomes
useful in dating geologic events. With the absence of light in this region, there are exotic life
forms that can survive the extreme environment. They make use of chemicals from deep water
vents as energy source.

✓ The deepest parts of the ocean are the deep ocean trenches with depths that may
exceed 10 000 meters. Most trenches are found along the margins of the Pacific Ocean.
The Challenger Deep found in the Mariana trench in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest
known point in the ocean with a depth of 10 898 to 10 916 meters.
Plate Tectonics Theory
✓ In 1965, Canadian geophysicist, Tuzo Wilson, unified the continental drift theory and
the seafloor spreading theory into what we know today as the plate tectonics theory. At
present, the plate tectonics theory has been widely recognized as the scientific
explanation about the formation and evolution of Earth’s surface features. This theory
describes the movement of the lithosphere in simple and clear terms. It states that the
Earth’s lithosphere is divided into seven major plates and some minor ones that move
smoothly across the Earth at a rate of 1 to 16 cm a year. The plate tectonics theory may
be used to explain the continuous change of the Earth’s surface through time, the
occurrence of earthquakes in some places, the volcanic activities that take place in
certain regions, and the current location of mountain ranges. Plate movements are
responsible for changing and shaping the Earth’s lithosphere. Tectonic plates are most
active along plate boundaries. Different geologic processes occur in these regions of the
Earth that cause the formation of different surface features.

1. Subducting plates. At the convergent plate boundaries, oceanic crusts go under another
plate and sink into the asthenosphere. The sinking plates melt and turn to magma which then
gives rise to new volcanoes and volcanic island arcs. Subduction zones that are mostly on the
seafloor and deep trenches are found in this region. The subduction process causes major
earthquakes and volcanic activities.
2. Spreading plates. Plates may split in both continents and oceanic crusts. When a plate starts
splitting apart in the middle of the continent, the crust becomes stretched, fissures appear, and
the crustal block collapses downward. The result is the rift valley. A rift valley is an extremely
long depression that develops along divergent boundaries. Rift valleys may give rise to new
oceans. On the other hand, when plates separate in the oceanic crust, mid-ocean ridges are
formed. Mid-ocean ridges are also known as submarine mountain ranges. They are formed
when magma goes into the ocean floor, solidifies into lava, and forms new oceanic crusts.
3. Converging plates can also fold or form faults on the crustal-rocks. Collision of two plates
causes them to exert great pressure on each other. When the margins of both plates crumple
or fold, mountain ranges are created. But when the rocks cannot withstand the pressure, they
break or fracture. This results in the formation of faults. When these faults move, earthquake
occurs. This process results in the formation of block mountain.
 DATING THE EARTH

Determining the Age of the Earth

✓ The Greek philosopher, Aristotle (384-322 BC), thought that the Earth was in perpetual
existence. The Roman poet, Lucretius (15 BC to 99 BC), believed that the Earth had not
existed for a long time based on the absence of accounts prior to the Trojan War.
Biblical accounts were also used to trace the beginning of the Earth. One of the most
famous assumptions came from James Ussher of Ireland, who believed that the time of
creation of the Earth was 4004 BC.

✓ It was in the 1660s when Nicolas Steno, a Danish anatomist and priest, formulated the
modern concepts of deposition of horizontal strata. Through his work which took place
in the mountains of western Italy, he came up with the idea that the historical events of
the Earth can be sequenced from outcrops of sedimentary layers.

✓ In the 1700s, James Hutton, a Scottish geologist, proposed the principle of

uniformitarianism which states that the physical, chemical, and biological processes
that work today are the same forces that have worked in the geologic past. This means
that the forces that keep on changing the Earth have been working for very long periods
of time since the beginning of Earth’s history. Hutton stated that to understand how the
Earth began, we have to understand the different geologic events that are occurring at
present. This idea is commonly expressed as “The present is the key to the past.” The
various agents that cause the tectonic activities remain unchanged through time, and
they only vary in intensity and frequency.

✓ During the 19th century, geologists used observational evidence, suggesting that the
Earth was 100 million years old. At the time, radioactivity was not yet understood, and
it was only during the development of the modern quantum mechanics that radioactive
dating was used to date the Earth. In 1926, the radiometric time scale was adapted by
the National Academy of Science, and the resulting discoveries from improved
technologies led to our understanding that the Earth is 4.5 billion years old.

✓ The natural sciences, such as chemistry, astronomy, geology, physics, and biology, have
been useful in creating a timeline of Earth’s history. The results of the studies in
specialized fields, such as paleontology, as well as the discoveries made using
techniques such as stratigraphy, the study of rock layers, and radiometric dating, the
use of radioactivity to determine the age of rocks and fossil remains, attest to the very
long history of the Earth.
Relative Dating
✓ Before radioactivity was discovered, geologists could not tell exactly when geologic events took
place. They could not come up with a numerical date, which is the specific actual number of
years that have passed since an event took place, for example, the Earth's formation 4.5 billion
years ago. Geologists analyzed rock layers, which are called strata (the plural form of the Latin
word, stratum), to determine the relative age of rocks through relative dating. Relative dating is
a method of showing the sequence of events, that is, which happened first, next, and so on. For
example, the rocks beneath the volcano were formed much ahead of the volcano, which means
that the volcano is younger than the rocks beneath it. The science that deals with the
characteristics of layered rocks and how these rocks are used to trace Earth’s history is called
stratigraphy.

Stratified Rocks
✓ Geologists work like detectives in fitting pieces of evidence to establish the age of the
Earth. They make use of certain principles in stratigraphy as their guidelines in
determining the Earth processes that happened in the past. Most of the rocks exposed
on the surface of the Earth are sedimentary rocks formed from sediments that resulted
from the weathering of rocks. If rock layers are no longer horizontal, it means that they
are already disturbed by the forces within. The layers are already deformed due to
folding and tilting, faulting, and volcanic intrusions. These are the important elements
considered by geologists in carrying out rock correlation.

✓ As early as the mid-16OOS, Nicolas Steno studied the relative positions of sediments in
sedimentary rocks. He found that the sequence of solid particles that settled on the
seabed was determined by their weight. The largest, or heaviest, settled first, and the
smallest, or lightest, settled last. This resulted in the formation of strata. The stratified
rocks are useful in estimating the age of the Earth. The basic principles considered by
geologists in relating rocks to Earth’s history are 1) principle of superposition, 2)
principle of original horizontality, 3) principle of cross-cutting relationships, 4) principle
of inclusions, and 5) principle of unconformities.

• The principle of superposition states that in an undisturbed sequence of

stratified rocks, each layer is older than the one above it and younger than the
one below it.

• The principle of original horizontality states that sediments are deposited in flat
layers. Thus, if the rock still maintains its horizontal layers, it means that it is not
yet disturbed and still has its original horizontality.
 • The principle of cross-cutting relationships states that when a fault or a dike-a
slab of rock that cuts through another rock-or when magma intrudes to the rock,
that fault or magma is younger than the rock.

• The principle of inclusions states that a rock mass that contains pieces of rocks,
called inclusions, are younger than other rock masses.

• ' The principle of unconformities states that rock layers that formed without
interruption are conformable. Although there are sections or strata that are
considered conformable, no place on Earth is completely free from interruptions
as the rock layers are deposited. An unconformity describes a layer of rock that
has been deformed or eroded before another layer is deposited, resulting in rock
layers that are mismatched. Some rocks are missing due to erosion, and some
period in geologic time is undefined. The different types of unconformities are
disconformity, angular unconformity, and nonconformity.

✓ Disconformity describes a sedimentary layer that is deposited over an eroded

horizontal sedimentary layer. Angular unconformity describes a sedimentary
layer deposited over an eroded, tilted, or folded rock. Nonconformity describes
a sedimentary layer that is deposited over an eroded igneous or metamorphic
rock.

Correlation of Rock Layers

✓ Rock correlation is essential in developing a geologic time scale, a system of
chronological dating that relates rock strata to time. This is used by geologists
and other scientists to describe the timing and relationships of events that
occurred during Earth’s history. Geologists apply the principles of stratigraphy in
comparing the sequence of rock layers. Rocks of the same age in different places
on Earth are matched. Geologists look for similarity of rock types and their
characteristics such as grain size, composition, cements, sorting, and rounding. It
is also possible that a layer may be identified in another location if it is composed
of very distinct or rare minerals. A more extensive view of the geologic history of
a region is revealed through rock correlation.

✓ As climate Changes over time, all rock layers present in a region experience the
same condition. For instance, at one time, large lakes and rivers maybe very
common in a region. Millions of years later, the lakes and rivers may dry up and
there will no longer be traces of water. Though there is no evidence of water at
present, geologists try to find clues for the existence of lakes and rivers in the
 past. Evidence is gathered in the sediments deposited by the water which also
shaped the landscape. The sediments in the rock layers reveal the kind of
environment that a particular region had in the past.

✓ Change in sea level is a natural part of Earth’s history as shown by ancient rock
layers. At times, sea level rose by as much as a few hundred meters, causing the
water to move inland creating shallow seas that covered the interiors of the
continents. There were also times when sea levels dropped by hundreds of
meters. The water receded to the sea, exposing even the continental shelves
above sea level. Geologists reconstruct the events that happened in the remote
past by examining the rocks in a region. They look for very fine sediments that
reached the farthermost part of the land, which is an evidence that sea level
rose. The coarse sediments that reached the farthermost part of the sea is an
indicator that the sea level dropped.

✓ However, rock correlation is applicable only to short distances since rocks are
covered with soil and vegetation. When correlation is required between widely
separated areas or between continents, fossils tend to be more reliable.

Fossils
✓ Fossils are the remains of extinct plants and animals embedded in sedimentary rocks.
They are the most important inclusions for they are the basic tool in interpreting the
geologic past. Paleontology is the science that deals with the study of fossils. Knowing
the kind of life that existed in the past gives clues on the environmental conditions in
the different regions of the Earth during a particular geologic time. Fossils are important
indicators of time and have a major role in correlating rocks in various places in the
planet.

Types of Fossils
✓ Scientists have discovered different types of fossils left by ancient plants and animals as
they dig into the rock layers. These are true form fossils, petrified fossils, molds and
casts, carbonized fossils, and amber.

1. True form fossils are the actual remains that did not change through time
like teeth, bones, and shells of animals. A few of this type of fossil include the
wooly mammoths which were prehistoric elephants that were preserved by
 the cold temperature in Siberia and Alaska. Another example is the
mummified remains of sloths preserved in dry caves.

2. Petrified fossils or fossils that turned into stone were formed when all or a
part of an organism were replaced by minerals. Water containing certain
minerals seeps through the layers of sediment to reach the dead organism.
When heated, the water evaporated and only the hardened minerals were
left behind.

3. Molds and casts preserve the form and shape of the organism. Molds are
formed when organisms buried in sediments decay or dissolve. When
minerals are deposited within the mold, casts can be formed.

4. Carbonized fossils result from a process undergone by leaves and delicate

animal forms, through which they were covered with fine sediments. After
several years, liquid and gases are squeezed out of the animal forms due to
pressure leaving a thin residue of carbon.

5. Amber is the hardened resin of ancient trees where insects are preserved.

Principle of Fossil Succession

✓ The principle of fossil succession was formulated by William Smith in 1800. It states that
the fossils of organisms succeed one another in a specific and well-established order,
and that any geologic time or period can be recognized by the kind of fossil present.
Sedimentary rocks that existed in the same age can be correlated over long distances
with the help of fossils. Rock layers containing similar collection of fossils are of the
same age. Applying the principle of superposition to the rocks in which they are found,
fossils are systematically and sequentially grouped within the layers. The oldest are at
the lowest layer while the youngest are on the uppermost layer. Fossils show how life
evolved from the simplest to the most complex life forms in the geologic time scale.

✓ Fossil succession is based on the observation that certain groups of animals and plants
lived during certain periods of time throughout Earth's history. For example, human
beings and modern breeds of dogs are part of the same group because they live in the
same period of time. The Age of Trilobites was the earliest to exist in fossil record. It was
succeeded by the Age of Fishes, followed by the Age of Coal Swamps, the Age of
Reptiles, and the last, the Age of Mammals. These ages refer to groups that were
abundant during a particular period of time. Within each of the ages, there are many
 subdivisions based on the species, for example, of trilobites and certain types of fishes,
reptiles, and so on. This same succession of dominant organisms is found on every
continent.

Index Fossils
✓ Index fossils are fossils of organisms found in most places in the planet but lived only for
a short period. They are useful for dating rock layers since they are fossils of organisms
that were common, that lived in many areas, and existed only during a specific span of
time. These characteristics of index fossils make them especially useful in determining
when rock layers were formed.

✓ The time span of organisms that lived in the past is measured by radioactive dating. If
the time span when an organism existed on Earth is known, then any rock containing a
fossil of that organism must have been deposited during that same time span. Index
fossils are useful for correlating rock layers from widely separated regions. These are the
fossils that are useful for relative dating. They help distinguish between rock strata from
different periods, so it is important that they existed for a short duration Species having
a very long time span is impractical to use. For example, cockroaches have existed for
more than 280 million years and are still alive today. Therefore, cockroach fossil cannot
be used in measuring the age of rocks.

✓ The shellfish Inoceramus labiatus, for example, is a kind of sea animal that appeared
144 million years ago and went extinct 65 million years ago. If a rock contains a fossil of
this invertebrate, the rock must be between 144 million and 65 million years old
because this organism lived during that span of time. Nerinea trinodosa is a sea animal
that lived between 206 million and 144 million years ago. Tropites subbullatus is a sea
animal that lived between 248 million and 206 million years ago. Applying the principle
of fossil succession, T. subbullatus is embedded in the lowest rock layer, the layer with
N. trinodosa overlies the lowest layer, and I. labiatus is in the uppermost layer since it is
the youngest. When the same rock structure is found in other continents, it can be
concluded that the rocks in these places were formed simultaneously during that span
of time. Index fossils must be common widely-distributed species that are easy for
scientists to identify. Some common index fossils used by scientists are the trilobites,
ammonites, and scallop shells.

✓ Aside from being an essential tool for correlation, fossils are important as
environmental indicators. For example, if clam shells are found in limestone’s of a
mountain, it can be assumed that the place was once under the sea because that is the
habitat of clams today. Knowing the characteristics of organisms, geologists can
 conclude that animals with thick shells have survived the strong force of giant waves in
the shore where they lived, while animals with thin and delicate shells may have
survived in the deep sea. Fossils can also indicate the former temperature of water.
Species of some corals at present require the living conditions of a warm and tropical
shallow sea. When the same corals are found in ancient limestone in places located in
the middle latitude, it means that a tropical marine environment existed in that region
during that time.

Absolute Dating
✓ Geologists are often curious about the exact age of rocks they encounter. To measure
the age of a rock, they use a different dating method that is much different from
relative dating. Relative dating arranges geological events in sequence. Absolute dating
methods, sometimes called numerical dating, gives rocks an actual date or date range in
number of years. Most absolute dates for rocks are obtained with radioactive or
radiometric methods. Radioactive minerals in rocks are used as geological clocks.

Radioactive Dating
✓ Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but with
different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Some isotopes have unstable nuclei,
which makes them radioactive. Radioactive isotopes break down over time into another
form. This process is called radioactive decay.

✓ The radioactive decay of the parent isotope, which is the original element, leads to the
formation of a stable daughter isotope. As time passes, the number of parent isotopes
decreases, and the number of daughter isotopes increases. When the parent uranium-
238 decays, for example, into its daughter, lead-206, it produces subatomic particles
and energy. These rates of decay are known, so if the proportion of parent and
daughter isotopes in a rock is measured, the age of that rock can be calculated.

✓ The rate of change of a radioactive element is measured in half-life. A half-life is the

length of time for half of the atoms in a sample of a radioactive element to change from
an unstable form into another form. Different elements have different half-lives,
ranging from fractions of a second to billions of years. Only elements with half-lives of
millions to billions of years are used to date rocks. For example, uranium-235 has a half-
life of 704 million years. Uranium-235 is an unstable element found 1n some igneous
rocks. Over time, uranium – 235 breaks down into lead-207.
✓ Using information from radioactive dating of rocks, scientists were able to estimate the
age of the Earth, which is about 4.5 billion years.

✓ Radiocarbon dating is the use of the decay of carbon-14, an isotope of carbon, to date
events in the past. Carbon-14 has a half-life of only 5 730 years, and thus, it can only be
used for dating events from 75 000 years ago up to the present. Geologists use
radiocarbon dating to determine the age of materials, such as wood and pollen trapped
in a sediment, which indicates the date of the sediment itself.

✓ Radioactive dating method works best with igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from materials that came from other rocks. For this
reason, it is the age of the original rock that is measured and not the sedimentary rock
itself. Geologists, however, can date any igneous rocks that might have intruded
through or formed between the rock layers. Then, using the absolute age of the igneous
rocks, geologists can estimate the ages of nearby sedimentary layers.

Geologic Time Scale

✓ The study of the Earth from the beginning of time to the present has been the
task of geologists who attempt to unfold the secrets of the events that have
shaped the planet. During the past 150 years, geologists have been doing an
analysis of the rocks in all continents of the world. They examine in detail the
rock correlation and fossil correlation in ancient rock layers, which allow them to
relate the events in the rocks to Earth’s history. From the information they
collected from fossil evidence and applying the principles of stratigraphy, they
have been able to arrange the sequence of events from the most outdated to
the near recent. The sequence of events that happened in the Earth’s history is
vividly presented in the geologic time scale.

✓ The geologic time scale breaks relative geologic time into various divisions of
known relative age. The geologic time scale is divided into a series of time
intervals that are unequal in length and not like the time intervals in a clock. The
time intervals are divided based on the significant events in the history of the
Earth, some of which include the mass extinction of a large percentage of the
Earth’s flora and fauna that happened between the Permian and Triassic periods,
and the first appearance of animals with hard parts between the Precambrian
 time and the Paleozoic era. The wide scope of geologic time in the history of the
Earth is separated into eons, eras, periods, and epochs.

✓ Eons are the largest intervals of geologic time with duration of hundreds of
millions of years. The geologic time scale is divided into four eons: Hadean eon,
Archeozoic eon, Proterozoic eon, and Phanerozoic eon. Eons are divided into
smaller time intervals known as eras. Eras are subdivided into periods. The
events that occurred in each period are distributed extensively but are not as
significant as those that occurred in the eras. Epochs are the smaller subdivisions
of the Cenozoic era. Only the most recent part of the geologic time scale (e.g.,
the Cenozoic era) is subdivided into epochs. This is because the events in the
earlier eras cannot be recorded due to ancient rocks being deeply buried below
the surface for a long period of time because of very intense pressure. Also,
overlying rocks are deformed, making it more difficult for scientists to clearly
interpret the events that happened in the earliest eras from these rocks.

✓ We now live in the Holocene epoch, Quaternary period, Cenozoic era of the
Phanerozoic eon.

Precambrian
✓ The Precambrian is an informal name given to the first three eons of the geologic time
scale, which include the Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic eons from the Earth’s,
formation 4.5 billion years ago to the beginning of the Phanerozoic eon, the Cambrian
period 542 million years ago, during which a diversity of life forms appeared. The
Precambrian period spans 4 billion years, or about 88 percent of the total lifespan of
Earth. The major events that took place during the Precambrian period include the
Moon’ 5 formations, the filling of ocean basins, the first evidence of life, the beginning
of plate tectonics and formation of the continents, and the oxygenation of the
atmosphere, among others.

Hadean Eon
➢ The Hadean eon (4.5 to 4 billion years ago) is known as the rockless eon. Except for the
meteorites, no existing rocks on Earth today are from the Hadean eon. During this time,
the Earth was molten, and it would only solidify as it cooled. This happened about 800
million years into the Earth’s history. The Earth’s continental and oceanic crusts began
to solidify, marking the beginning of Earth’s geological history, which likely happened
prior to 3.8 billion years .
Archean Eon
➢ The Archean eon (1.5 billion years ago) preceded the Proterozoic eon. Its four eras are
the Eoarchean era (4 to 3.6 billion years ago); Paleoarchean era (3.6 to 3.2 billion years
ago); Mesoarchean era (3.2 to 2.8 billion years ago); and Neoarchean era (2.8 to 2.5
billion years ago). It was during the Archean eon that single-celled organisms, such as
blue green algae, archeans, and bacteria, first appeared. It is the beginning of free
oxygen in the atmosphere.

Proterozoic Eon
➢ The Proterozoic eon began 2.5 billion years ago and ended 542 million years ago. It is
subdivided into the following eras: Paleoproterozoic era (2.5 to 1.6 billion years ago);
Mesoproterozoic era (1.6 to 1 billion years ago); and Neoproterozoic ea (1 billion to 542
million years ago). During the Proterozoic eon, the first continents appeared. This was
also the time when continents merged into a single land mass called, Rodinia. Scientists
also found many fossils of bacteria and archaea, as well as eukaryotic cells, from this
time during the Mesoproterozoic era, which enabled eukaryotic organisms to
proliferate. The Proterozoic eon is marked by the appearance of multicellular animals
like sponges and the mass extinction of these organisms.

Phanerozoic Eon
➢ The Phanerozoic eon precedes the Precambrian eon. It began 542 million years ago and
is divided into the Paleozoic era (541 to 252 million years ago); the Mesozoic era (252 to
66 million years ago); and the Cenozoic era (66 million years ago to the present). The
first life forms with parts, such as shells, scales, and bones and teeth, appeared during
the Phanerozoic eon. The fossils of these life forms are great tools' in the study of the
history of the Phanerozoic eon.

Paleozoic Era
➢ The supercontinent Pangaea was formed during the Paleozoic era. Through the series of
collisions, North America, Europe, and Siberia were gradually joined forming the
continent, Laurasia. At the same time, the continent Gondwana, which included South
America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, India, and parts of China, was situated near the
South Pole. Gondwana collided with Laurasia during the end of the Paleozoic era
resulting in the formation of the supercontinent, Pangaea.

• Cambrian Period. The Paleozoic era is also the beginning of the Cambrian
period, during which shallow seas covered parts of the continents and a mild
 climate existed. Known as the “Age of Trilobites,” the Cambrian explosion of life
occurred, and all existing phyla developed. Many marine invertebrates like
shellfish, echinoderms, trilobites, brachiopods, mollusks, and delicate
coelenterates evolved. The first vertebrates were the earliest primitive fish.
During this period, the supercontinent Rodinia began to break into smaller
continents. The mass extinction of trilobites and nautiloids happened at the end
of the Cambrian period, which may have been caused by glaciation.

• Ordovician Period. Many volcanoes and mountains formed during the

Ordovician period. North America was flooded. Primitive plants appeared on
land. The first corals, primitive fishes, seaweed and fungi also appeared.
Graptolites, bryozoans, gastropods, bivalves, and echinoids were also dominant.
It was also the first time that global cooling and glaciation, and frequent volcanic
activities were observed. North America went under shallow seas. The period
ended in huge extinction due to glaciation.

• Silurian Period. During this period, the Caledonian mountains of Scandinavia

rose, and coral reefs were formed. The first jawed fishes and arthropods like
insects, centipedes, and millipedes appeared. The first vascular plants with
water conducting tissue appeared on land such as cooksonia, a primitive
terrestrial plant. Brachiopods, crinoids, and corals were also abundant. A rise in
sea level occurred worldwide.

• Devonian Period. The Acadian mountains of New York rose during this period,
and the erosion of mountain resulted in the deposition of much sediments in
seas. Known as the Age of Fishes, fishes and terrestrial plants became abundant
and diverse. The first tetrapods, amphibians, sharks, bony fish, and ammonoids
appeared during the latter part. Many coral reefs, brachiopods, and crinoids
existed. New insects like springtails appeared. A mass extinction event occurred
near the end of the Devonian period which was probably due to glaciation or
meteorite impact.

• Mississippian Period. The Appalachian Mountains of North America were

formed during this period. Ice covered large areas of the Earth, and swamps
covered the lowlands. The first winged insects appeared.

• Pennsylvanian Period. The first reptiles, ferns, mayflies, and cockroaches

appeared during this period.
 • Permian Period. The Ural mountains of Russia rose at this time. Known as the
Age of Amphibians, amphibians and reptiles dominated this period.
Gymnosperms were the dominant plants. The Continents merged into a single
super-continent, Pangaea. Phytoplankton and plants supplied oxygen to the
Earth’s atmosphere which was close to the present level. The first stoneflies,
true bugs, beetles, and caddisflies appeared. The Permian period ended with the
largest mass extinction. Trilobites went extinct, together with all animal families,
almost all marine species, and many trees perhaps caused by glaciation or
volcanism.

Mesozoic Era
➢ The Mesozoic era spans about 186 million years. The three periods of the Mesozoic era
are the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods. The breakup of the supercontinent
Pangaea also occurred during this era. About 165 million years ago, a rift developed
between what is now North America and Western Africa, resulting in the formation of
the Atlantic Ocean.

➢ Mesozoic means “middle animals.” During this era, dinosaurs lived. It was not until the
Jurassic period that the dinosaurs became very diverse. Except for birds, dinosaurs
became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period. Terrestrial vegetation also greatly
changed. Ferns, cycads, ginkgophytes, bennettitaleans, and other unusual plants lived in
the early part of this era. Modern gymnosperms, such as conifers, first appeared in their
current recognizable forms in the early Triassic period. By the middle of the Cretaceous
period, the earliest angiosperms had appeared and began to diversify, largely taking
over from the other plant groups. The following important events occurred during the
Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods.

• Triassic Period. The Palisades of New Jersey and the Caucasus Mountains of
Russia were formed during this period. The first dinosaurs, mammals, and
crocodyliformes appeared. Mollusks were the dominant invertebrate. Many
reptiles like turtles and ichthyosaurs came to existence. The true flies also
appeared. The Triassic period ended with an extinction event, called the end-
Triassic extinction event, which may have been caused by volcanic eruptions that
led to global warming and ocean acidification. This resulted in the decimation of
about 76 percent of marine and terrestrial life, thus paving the way for the
beginning of the Jurassic period and the 135-million-year dominance of the
dinosaurs.
 • Jurassic Period. The Rocky Mountains rose during this period and the volcanoes
of Western North America were active. Many dinosaurs, including the giant
lizard hipped dinosaurs roamed the Earth. Many ferns, cycads, ginkoes, rushes,
conifers, mollusks, and flying reptiles appeared. The first birds, such as the
Archeopteryx, appeared. The first flowering plants also evolved at this time.
There were minor extinctions that occurred during 190 to 160 million years ago.

• Cretaceous Period. Raging tectonic and volcanic activities occurred during the
Upper Cretaceous Period. Continents then looked like the present-day
continents. The primitive marsupials developed. A minor extinction occurred
about 82 million years ago that could have been caused by an asteroid impact or
volcanic activity, and ended with the large extinction of dinosaurs, pterosaurs,
ammonites, and species of marine invertebrates. The dinosaurs dominated the
Lower Cretaceous Period. The first crocodilians and feathered dinosaurs
appeared. The earliest known butterflies appeared about 130 million years ago
as well as the earliest-known snakes, ants, and bees. Minor extinctions of these
species occurred 144 and 120 million years ago.

Cenozoic Era
➢ The Cenozoic era is the most recent of the three major subdivisions of the Phanerozoic
eon. It spans only about 65 million years, from the end of the Cretaceous period and the
extinction of non-avian dinosaurs to the present. The Cenozoic era is sometimes called
the “Age of Mammals” because they were the largest land animals during that time.
However, the history of mammals began long before the Cenozoic era. Also, the
diversity of life during the Cenozoic era is far wider than mammals. This era could have
been called the “Age of Flowering Plants,” or the "Age of Insects” just as accurately.

➢ The Cenozoic era (65.5 million years ago to present) is divided into three periods: the
Paleogene period (65.5 to 23.03 million years ago), Neogene period (23. 03 to 2.6
million years ago), and the Quaternary period (2.6 million years ago to present). During
the Cenozoic era, mammals dominated the land. Angiosperms, the flowering plants with
covered seeds, also became dominant. Birds and mammals fed on the seeds. It was also
during this time when grasses emerged, fostering the proliferation of herbivorous
mammals. The ocean during this era was teeming with fish such as tuna, swordfish, and
barracuda. Mammals such as seals, whales, and walruses were also present.

➢ Small mammals coexisted with dinosaurs for about 100 million years. After the large
asteroid collided with Earth 65 million years ago, the dinosaurs were replaced by the
 mammals as the most dominant group. Mammals, being warm blooded, have more
active lives and were able to adapt to diverse environments, even in cold regions.

• Paleogene Period. The Paleogene is subdivided into three epochs: the Paleocene epoch
(65.5 to 55.8 million years ago); the Eocene epoch (55.8 to 33.9 million years ago); and
the Oligocene epoch (33.9 to 23.03 million years ago). It began with the mass extinction
event at the end of the Cretaceous K-Pg boundary (Cretaceous- PaIeogene), which
resulted in the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, and many other flora and fauna. It
ended with the Paleocene-Eocence thermal maximum (~02 million years), which was
characterized by changes in climate and carbon cycling.

o The Eocene epoch is a major division of the geologic time scale. It is marked by a
brief period when the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the
atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common
carbon isotope 12C. It ended with the major extinction event called the Great
Break in Continuity.

o The Oligocene epoch comes from the Greek words oligos meaning "few" and
kainos “new,” which refer to the sparse extant forms of the mollusks during this
epoch. It is marked by the continuous drifting of the continents to their present-
day positions, including Antarctica, which was covered with ice caps and became
even more isolated. The angiosperm continuously expanded during this time.
The first felid, the Proailurus, spread to Europe. The marine habitat was
populated by bivalves, as well as baleen whales and toothed whales. The
Pinnipeds, which were ancestors of modern- day seals, appeared during this
epoch.

• Neogene Period. The Neogene period is subdivided into two epochs: The Miocene
Epoch (23.03 to 5.332 million years ago) and the Pliocene epoch (5.332 to 2.588 million
years ago)

o The Miocene epoch was characterized by a warmer climate, compared to the

preceding Oligocene epoch. It was also during this epoch that the kelp forests
and grasslands first appeared. About 95 percent of the modern seed plants
were already present.

o The Pliocene epoch was marked by a cooler and more arid climate compared
to the Miocene epoch. Ice accumulated at the poles, resulting in the extinction
of species living there. The increased aridity resulted in the proliferation of
grasslands, which favored grazing animals, whose primary diet consisted of
 grass. Also, the Australopithecus was thought to have evolved during this
epoch. Another noteworthy event during this epoch was the collision of the
tectonic plates of India and Asia, which resulted in the formation of the
Himalayas.

• Quaternary Period. The Quaternary period is subdivided into the Pleistocene epoch (2.
6 to 11.7 million years ago) and the Holocene epoch (11. 7 million years ago to the
present).

o The Pleistocene epoch was characterized by global cooling, also known as the
ice age. The temperate zones of the world were covered by glaciers. Many
species of plants, birds, and mammals present today were already in existence
during the Pleistocene. The mammoths, mastodons, saber-toothed cats, and
many large animals roamed the Earth, but went extinct before the epoch
ended. Close to the end of the Pleistocene, Homo sapiens spread out
worldwide. Although it was hypothesized that humans caused the extinction of
many animals of this time, there was no clear evidence to support this.

o The Holocene epoch is Earth at present. It is characterized by a warm period.

Another informal term for the Holocene is Anthropocene or the “Age of Man”.
Although humans have existed before the Holocene, it is during this epoch
when the recorded history of man existed. It is also during this time that
humans developed technological advancements that enabled them to
understand all the more the world around them.