Republic of the Philippines

SOUTHERN LEYTE STATE UNIVERSITY

Hinunangan Campus
Hinunangan, Southern Leyte

SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE

ANSC-1201 INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE

Topic 4: Genetics and Livestock Improvement

ANIMAL BREEDING
Application of the principles of animal genetics with the goal of improvement of animals. It also
referred to as the study of genetic differences among animals, it aims to improve the quality,
efficiency, quality, and aesthetic value of farm animals and their products.

Objectives of animal breeding:

General: to improve the performance of the animal by changing the genetic composition of the
population, and by changing the environment or the sum total of all the factors affecting the
individual.
Specific objectives:
 To improve the production output
 To improve the efficiency of production
 To improve the quality of the product

Genes and Their Role in Animal Productivity

 Gene – smallest unit of inheritance, found as segments of DNA on a chromosome
 DNA – found in the nucleus of the cell, and forms the backbone of chromosome; spiral or
double helix structure composed of nucleotides (3 parts: deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and
N base). The N bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (S).
 Chromosomes – slender, thread-like strands that contain the units of inheritance (genes);
occur in pairs (homologous) of similar size and shape in body cells, and have genes that
code for similar information.
 Genes on the same locus controlling a trait in the same way are called “homozygous”, and if
they contrast in controlling the trait, they are called “heterozygous genes”.
 Alleles – are genes occupying corresponding loci on homologous chromosomes that affect
the same trait but in a different way.

Functions of Genes:
 Act as backbone of the chromosome, as part of DNA molecule.
 To replicate when new cells are produced.
 Carry genetic code for the formation of polypeptide chain of a protein.
 To synthesize specific proteins and enzymes (structural genes).
 To regulate the activity of the structural genes and the amount of protein synthesized
(regulator genes).
 Control several structural genes in an off-on manner (operator genes).
 Genes may modify the phenotypic expression of other genes Note: Regulator gene may
produce repressors.
Different species of animals have different pairs of homologous chromosomes. Within a species, the
number of pairs is constant regardless of breed.
Common Name Scientific Name Chromosome Number (2n)
Water buffalo Bubalis bubalis 50 (river type)
48(swamp type)
Cattle Bos taurus, 60
Bos indicus
Horse Equus caballus 64

Goat Capra hircus 60

Sheep Ovis aries 54

Pig Sus scrofa 38

rabbit Oryctilagus cuniculus 44

Chicken Gallus gallus 78

Pekin duck Anas platyrynchos 80

Mallard duck Anas bochas 80

Muscovy duck Cairina moschata 80

Geese Anser cygnoides 80

Guinea fowl Numida meleagris 78

Ostrich Struthio camelus 80

Pigeon Columbia livia 80

Quail Coturnix coturnix 78

Turkey Meleagris gallopavo 82

Each body cell contains one pair of sex chromosome. All chromosomes other than sex
chromosomes are called “autosomes”.

In mammals, female has XX and male has XY; in poultry, female has ZW and male has An individual
receives one member of each pair from the male parent & the other from the female parent.

Role of Genotype and Environment on Phenotypic Expression of Genes:

 Genotype – the genetic make-up of individuals; fixed at conception and expressed until
death (except for possible mutation). It reflects the action of genes in different combinations
within the individual.
 Environment – causes variations other than heredity (e.g. disease, nutrition, others). It
affects the phenotypic expression of quantitative traits (e.g. production and reproduction
performance).

Note: Genotype and environment interaction is a source of phenotypic variation.

  Phenotype – expression of genotype; visible or measurable traits; differences in individuals
which are measured by means of senses (e.g. litter size, color). The phenotype may not
disclose fully the genotype. Often, environment greatly masks the phenotype. The time
when heredity and environment exert their influences is shown in the following figure:

Genetic potential is determined at the time of conception, but the degree to which the potential
is reached during the animal’s life is determined by environment.

Gene Action:
Non-additive gene action

1. Dominance and recessive - A gene is dominant when it covers the expression of its allele
(gene occupying the same loci but have different effects).
Example: Coat color in Angus cattle

B – for black is dominant over b – for red.

Genotype (3) Phenotype (2)
BB Black
Bb Black
bb Red

2. Lack of dominance - Two alleles are not dominant to each other, and each expresses itself in
the phenotype.
Example: Coat color in Shorthorn cattle
R – gene for red, W – gene for white

Genotype Phenotype
RR Red
WW White
RW Roan

3. Partial dominance - Genes are not completely dominant to their alleles.

Example: Comprest gene in Hereford cattle

Genotype Phenotype
CC Dwarf
Cc Comprest (midway between Dwarf & Normal)
Cc Normal

4. Overdominance - Heterozygote is superior in phenotype to the homozygote.

Example
: Sickle-cell anemia in African blacks
AA – normal hemoglobin
SS – sickle-cell (they die of anemia)
AS – heterozygote (highly resistant to anemia than either AA or SS)
 5. Epistasis - .Phenotypic expression due to the interaction of two or more pairs of genes that
are not alleles.
Example: Color in Collie dog
at – gene for tricolor At – gene for white
M – gene for merle m – gene for nonmerle

B. Genotype Phenotype
at atmm Black, tan and white (tricolor)
at atMm Blue merle
at atMM White merle

Thus, gene M influences the way the tricolor gene a t expresses itself phenotypically
even though the M and at genes are not alleles.

Additive gene action

The effect of each gene that contributes to the phenotype of an individual for a certain trait
adds to the phenotypic effect of another gene that contributes something to the same
phenotype.

Example: Skin color in humans

Genotype Phenotype
Aabb White Each contributing gene
Aabb or aaBb Light A or B makes the skin
Aabb, aaBB, or AaBb Medium color darker
AABb or AaBB Dark
AABB Black
B. The Mechanics of
Inheritance

 Gametogenesis – a process involving the production of gametes, the sperm cells

(spermatogenesis) and the egg cells (oogenesis).

 Fertilization – the union of male and female gametes to form a zygote.

The Mendelian (Qualitative) Inheritance

 It involves 2 basic parts: the segregation of genes in the gametes, & the recombination of
genes in the zygote.

1. Law of Segregation & Recombination of Genes

1.1. Two genes paired in body cells segregate each other in the gametes & recombine in
the zygote.

1.2. Dealing with any trait in a population that is controlled by 2 alleles (or one pair of
genes), A & a, 3 genotypes are possible: AA, Aa & aa, which can be united in 6
possible ways;

Parents Progeny
AA x AA AA
AA x aa Aa
aa x aa aa
Aa x AA ½ Aa, ½ AA
 Aa x aa ½ Aa, ½ aa
Aa x Aa ¼AA, ½ Aa, ¼ aa

Mating between any two homozygous will produce only one kind of genotype.

Mating of heterozygote with homozygote will produce progeny one-half of which is

heterozygous & one-half is homozygous.

Mating of 2 heterozygotes will produce genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 in the progeny. An

individual heterozygous for one pair of genes (Aa) is called “monohybrid”.

1. Law of Independent Assortment or Random Assortment

2.1.Two or more pairs of genes & the traits they control will show up in the succeeding
generations in the same proportion as if they were acting alone.

Example: Angus (dominant black BB) x Hereford (recessive red bb, dominant white
face HH) cross.

Angus (BBhh) x Hereford (bbHH)

(solid, black) (white-face, red)

Bh bH

BbHh
(white-faced black)
The offsprings, heterozygous for 2 sets of alleles are called “dihybrids”.
 The traits involved have been the kind where phenotypes were rather easily distinguished one
from another (qualitative). Cows were either black or red or white, spotted or not, had horns or not.
Hogs have white belt or not, have droopy ears or erect. These traits are controlled by either only
one or few pairs of genes. The interaction between the genes involved varying degrees of
dominance and epistasis.

The Non-Mendelian (Quantitative) Inheritance

Quantitative traits are controlled by many pairs of genes (polygenic), each having only a
small effect. The relationship among alleles is usually of “codominance” or “lack of dominance”.
These polygenes increase the magnitude of value of the trait and are called additive genes which
cause “additive gene action”, in contrast to “dominance” and “epistasis” which cause “nonadditive
gene action”. It should be noted that polygenes segregate independently and have specific
effects, just as do genes with dominant and epistatic effects.
The variation observed among large groups of animals is continuous, and differences
among separate phenotypes may be so small that they cannot be distinguished by casual
observation.
Examples: Weight gain in beef cattle, milk production in dairy cows, rate of speed in racehorses.

The phenotypic ratio of a cross among hybrids for n number of genes can be represented by
the coefficient of the binomial expanded to the nth power (p + q)n, where p and q are
probabilities of the two alternative outcomes of the event (e.g. dominant or recessive) and n is
the number of offspring. as follows:

Number of pairs Size of F2 needed for Number of Chance of obtaining

phenotypic
of alleles all combinations classes either extreme
1 4 (1:2:1) 3 ¼
1
2 6 (1:4:6:4:1) 5 1/16
6
3 4 (1:6:15:20:15:6:1) 7 1/64
4 256 9 1/256
5 1024 11 1/1024
6 4096 13 1/4096

C. Genes in Population
Genetic composition of animal population

The Hardy-Weinberg Law:

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.0
“After one generation of random mating in a population where the frequencies of two
alleles are p and q, the genes will segregate to produce p2, 2pq, and q2 whose sum is equal to 1.0
provided that no migration, mutation, or selection occur”.

C. Genotypes Phenotypes Proportions

RR Red p2 = 0.72 =0.49 = 49%
Rr Roan 2pq =2(0.7)(0.3) =0.42 =42%
Rr White q2 = 0.32 = 0.09 = 9%
1.0 = 100%

How is gene frequency determined?

 In a flock of 150 chickens, 95 are black (BB), 50 are blue (Bb), and 5 are
Example: white
(bb). Each black chicken carries 2 genes for black (2 x 95 = 190), and each
blue
chicken carries one gene for black (1 x 50 = 50). Total number of genes is 2x
number of birds (2 x 150 = 300).
Example: Random mating in Shorthorn cattle with regard to the red (RR), roan (Rr), and
white (rr) colors where frequency of red gene is 0.7

Frequency of B = 190 + 50 = 240/300 = 0.8

Frequency of b = 1.0 – 0.8 = 0.2 or 20%

Factors affecting changes in gene frequencies

Selection = either natural or artificial; choosing some individuals to leave more offsprings than
others.

Mutation = a chemical change in a gene resulting to the formation of an allele. The gene no
longer expresses its phenotype.

Migration = movement of a population sample from one location to another. It introduces new
genes into a population.

The amount of change in gene frequency depends on the proportion of immigrants in the
population & the difference in gene frequency between immigrants & natives.

Chance or Genetic Drift = a change in gene frequency due to random fluctuations caused by
chance in mating patterns or sampling errors.

Selection Methods

A process in which certain individuals in a population are preferred to others for the production of
the next generation. Individuals possessing superior genotypes or genetic potentials for maximum
efficiency of production are used as parents to improve the herd.

Kinds of Selection

Natural selection – that due to natural forces. In nature; the main force responsible for
selection is the survival of the fittest in a particular environment.
Artificial selection – that due to the efforts of man. Thereby, man determines to a great extent
which animals will be used to produce the next generation.

Breeding Methods

Breeding – mating of animals to produce its kind; or simply defined as procreation.

Outbreeding – the mating of animals of different species or breed but are further related to each
other; synonymous to crossbreeding.
Breeding System

Livestock improvement can be affected through utilization of any of the following breeding
schemes:

Inbreeding – This is the mating of individuals that are more closely related than the average of
the breed or population. The primary effect is to fix hereditary qualities and bring about
homozygosity or purity for certain characters. There are two types of inbreeding, namely:

1.1.Close breeding – The mating of closely related individuals such as brother to sister, sire
to daughter, or son to dam.

1.2.Line breeding – The mating of animals related to a lesser degree, like between cousins,
half-brother to half-sister, grandparents to grandchildren.

Inbreeding also brings about abnormalities as recessive genes are purified.

Crossbreeding – A system of mating animals of different breeds, varieties, strains, or species of
animals, completely unrelated to each other to obtain hybrid vigor or heterosis for traits of
great economic importance such as growth rate, or milk production. The hybrid vigor
attained is due to the presence of many dominant genes in heterozygous condition.

The creation of inbred lines from the same or different breeds and the subsequent mating of the
selected lines. This is one of wide application in producing the commercial strains of broilers or
egg-type chickens.
Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis.
Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis.
Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis.
Inbreed A Inbred B Inbred C Inbred D

AB CD

ABCD
(Commercial Hybrid)

When mated among themselves, the hybrids produce a wide range of variation in their
progeny, hence their offspring are not good for breeding purposes.

ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

Reproductive Cycle and Rate of Genetic Improvement

Puberty & Sexual Maturity

 Puberty is the age at which sperm or egg cells start to be produced; sexual maturity is the
age when production of sperm and egg cells is at maximum.
 Spermatogenesis is stimulated by FSH from anterior pituitary; the LH stimulates the
production of testosterone by the interstitial cells (sometimes called ICSH).
 Oogenesis is stimulated by FSH, then estrogen is produced by the ovary which induces
estrous cycle & ovulation.
Varying age of puberty & sexual maturity can affect the rate of genetic improvement:
 SPECIES PUBERTY ESTROUS DURATION OF SPERM PRODUCTION
(months) CYCLE (days) HEAT (hr) Vol. (ml) Million/ml
Cattle 8-12 21 12-18 2-10 300-2000
Sheep 5-8 16-17 24-36 0.7-2 2000-5000
Goat 4-8 19-20 34-39 0.6-1 2000-3500
Swine 4-8 20-21 48-72 150-500 25-300
Horse 12-24 19-23 90-170 30-300 30-800
Chicken 4-5 0.2-1.5 0.5-60

Ovulation & Fertilization

Ovulation is the process of release of ovum from ovary. The interval for “spontaneous
ovulation” (in cow, ewe, mare, sow) depends on estrous cycle and duration of heat, but
the “non-spontaneous” (in rabbit) is dependent on copulation. Thus, rate of genetic
improvement can also be affected by estrous cycle & ovulation type.

Multiple ovulation (in swine & sheep), or by superovulation technique (administration of

gonadotropins containing FSH during proestrus) can increase rate of improvement.

Fertilization is the union of male & female gametes to form a zygote or new individual. Only
one sperm is required to fertilize each ovum. Many sperms may enter the zona
pellucida but only one penetrates the vitelline membrane to unite with the nucleus of
the ovum. This membrane creates a
“fertilization block” to prevent entrance of other sperms. However, in delayed
copulation leading to fertilization of aged ova, “polyspermy” can occur which can lead to
“polyploidy” (3n chromosomes) which cause embryonic death losses & consequently
slows the rate of genetic progress.

Pregnancy/Gestation

Pregnancy – Is the time in which the female carries her developing young within the uterus
(also called gestation) until delivery.
The fertilized ovum gets its food from the yolk and uterine secretions (uterine milk)
until implantation occurs in the uterus.
Implantation varies (e.g. 10-18 days after fertilization in the ewe, 12-24 days in the cow
and 30-60 days in the mare).
Delayed implantation also occurs in some wild animals, like the weasel (mating occurs
in summer, implantation occurs in late winter).

Parturition

It is the act of giving birth.

Delayed parturition (3-4 weeks late) has been observed to be controlled by recessive genes
in the fetus, and can delay the rate of genetic improvement; induced parturition can
increase it.
Twinning or multiple births (in sheep or swine) can increase rate of improvement, but “free
martin” in cattle (heifer born twin with a bull calf, where development of the
reproductive system of female is affected by the production of twin’s male hormone) can
reduce such rate.

Artificial Insemination
Commercially used in the US in 1938, primarily in dairy cows.
Popular in turkey (because of difficulties in natural mating), in swine (using fresh semen),
and in dairy cattle; less in beef cattle, sheep and horses.
 Advantages
 More rapid genetic improvement through use of superior sires
 Reduction of cost & risk of maintaining a sire for small herd or flock
 Reduced risk of spreading certain reproductive diseases

Semen collection
 “Artificial vagina & a dummy” (or electro-ejaculator) in cattle.
 “Gloved hand technique & a dummy” in pigs.
 “Stroking & milking technique” in poultry.

Semen evaluation
 Concentration or density
 Motility
 Morphology (structure)

Semen storage
 Fresh semen stored at 400F or under CO2 at room temperature.
 Frozen semen stored in plastic straw, chilled slowly to 00C, then rapidly frozen in
liquid N vapor.
 Use of extenders (glycerol, egg yolk, milk, chemical buffers).

Semen deposition
 Frozen semen is thawed in 32-350C water bath for 30 seconds.
 Deposited beyond cervix or body of uterus by means of insemination syringe or
gun.

 Poultry semen does not stand freezing & thawing, so it is used within 2 hours after
collection. Extended boar semen can be used up to 72 hours.

SPECIES SEMEN VOL. Millions of Potential Number of

(ml) Sperm/ml Matings/Ejaculate
Cattle 2-10 300-2000 100-600
Sheep 0.7-2 2000-5000 40-100
Goat 0.6-1 2000-3500 15-40
Swine 150-500 25-300 15-20
Horse 30-300 30-800 8-12
Chicken 0.2-1.5 0.5-60 8-12
Turkey 0.2-0.8 0.7 30

MOET and Embryo Transfer- Based Technologies

Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer involves the use of gonadotrophic hormones to
stimulate ovulation of large number of ova and then transplanting fertilized ova to recipient
females for pregnancy and parturition (Bondoc, 2008).

MOET and ET-based Technologies Applications to animal improvement

Pre-pubertal and juvenile MOET  Reduce average age at breeding females
Superovulation , in vitro fertilization and
embryo  May increase selection intensity and
transfer lower generation interval
 Use of innumerable, otherwise unused,
follicles in the ovary for producing
young

Recovery of oocyte from a live donor
Embryo splitting and cloning
Predetermining the sex of offspring
Induced twinning
Chimeras
 Produce multiple offspring from valuable
cows with various infertility problems
and
from cows that do not produce embryos
by regular ET procedures
 Aid research on cloned embyos to
improve animal performance in traits
controlled by multiple genes.
 May recover oocytes of known genetic
merit
 Multiply genetically superior individuals
 Accelerate genetic progress especially of
breeding values of animals supplying the
embryos are estimated more accurately
 Monitor traits that cannot be measured in
the individual to he selected
 Increase accuracy of selection and
selection intensity
 Reduce number of embryos reared to
term.
 Save time and cost of embryo splitting.
 Reduce cost of producing calves
 Produce new types of animals adaptable

for harsh environments

 Establish embryo and gene banks. Expand
the local breeder base from outstanding
sires and dams even after their death.

1. Advantages/Benefits
1.1. More offspring from outstanding females
1.2. Opportunity for genetic testing of males suspected as carriers of undesirable traits
1.3. World movement of embryos (rather than animals) made easier, less costly, & less
disease risk.
1.4. Increased diversity of germplasm available from many sources.
1.5. Long-time storage provided by cryopreservation (freezing).

2. Costly procedure
2.1. Administer hormones to superovulate the donor (PMS & chorionic gonadotropin).
2.2. Administer hormones to synchronize recipients (prostaglandin F2 or Lutalyze, and
progestins).
2.3. Specialized skill to harvest, sort, store, and implant embryos.

Cloning

The splitting of embryos for the production of identical twins or triplets, made possible
through advances in microsurgery & micromanipulation.

Advantages
 Quickly increases a herd of flock productivity.
 Use of identical animals reduces the numbers needed in experimentation.

Cloning, like ET, does not produce offspring of the same genotype as the donor animal.
DNA barcoding
 Use of DNA sequence analysis of a uniform target gene to enable species identification.
 New method for identifying and classifying species of organims using the cytochrome c
oxidase subunit I (COI) in the mitochodrial genome.
 Used as standard barcode marker for animals especiallt birds, fishes, amphibians, and
lepidoterans, with a species discrimination rate of more than 95%.
 Focuses on the delineation between species rather than their relationships.
 Maybe used in introgression studies to assess the effectivenss of local animal dispersal
programs
 Promote proper labelling of breeding animals including breed srtificates required for
imported and threatened breeds/strains of livestoc and poultry animals
 Prevent and control smuggling, illegal trade, and poaching of threatened breeds/strains and
their relatives.

Assessment

1. What is animal breeding and why do we breed animals?

2. What are the different functions of genes?
3. How do you understand genotype and environment on phenotype expression og genes?
4. Discuss Non-Mendelian and Mendelian Inheritance.
5. What are the advantages of animal breeding?

Prepared by: Noted by: Approved by:

JOHN PAUL R. GAPASIN MARY ANN JULLY REGIS MARY BETH T. SALUDSOD, EdD
Instructor Program Chair, BSA Asst Director, ARI