Definition: ring

A ring is an ordered triple (ℝ, +, . )consisting of a non-empty set ℝ

and two binary operations + and · on ℝ such that

,i) (ℝ, +) is a commutative group

,ii) (ℝ, . ) is a semigroup

:the two operations are related by the distributive laws

a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c) (left distributive)

.a = (b · a) + (c · a) (right distributive) for all a, b, c ∈ ℝ . )b + c(

:Example

.The following are rings ( Z , +, . ), ( Z e , +, . ), (ℚ, +, . ), (ℝ, +, . ), (ℂ, +, . )

:Example
We considered the group ( Z n,+¿ n ¿) of integers modulo 𝑛 where

and the binary operation +¿ n ¿: Z n × Z n → Z nis the binary } ]𝑛 − 1[ , … , ]1[ , ]0[ { = Z n

operation define as 𝑛 ≥ 1: [𝑎] +¿ n ¿ [𝑏] = [𝑎 + 𝑏] ∀ [𝑎] , [𝑏] ∈ Z n. Now, we define a new
. Z n ∈ operation.𝑛 on Z nas follows: [𝑎]∙n [𝑏] = [ . 𝑏] ∀ [𝑎] ,[𝑏]

.Show that ∙n is well-defined and ( Z n, +¿ n ¿, ∙n) forms a commutative ring with identity

:Solution

Suppose that [𝑎] = [𝑏] and [𝑐] = [𝑑] for some 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ Z , then

𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) and 𝑐 ≡d (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) ⟹

⟹ a . c ≡ b . d (mod n)⟹ [a. c ]=[ b . d ]⟹[a].n [c ]=[b].n [d ]

is well-defined.n ⟹

, Z ∈ Also, .n is associative, because, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐

([a].n [b]). n [ c]=[a . b].n [c ]=[(a .b) . c ]=[a .(b . c)]=[a ]. n [b . c ]

¿ [a ].n ([b].n [c ])

.is associative.n ⟹

.Hence, ( Z n, .n ) is semi-group

.forms ring. Also, .𝑛 commutative with identity [1] ).n ,+¿ n ¿ , Z n( ⟹

:Theorem

.In any ring (ℝ, +, . ), if 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, then 𝑎 · 0 = 0 · 𝑎 = 0

: Proof
∀ a ∈ R , a . 0=a .(0+0)=a . 0+a . 0

𝑎. 0 = 0 (by using the cancellation law for the group (ℝ, +)). In the same manner we ⟹
.can prove 0. 𝑎 = 0

Definition: (zero divisors)

A ring (ℝ, +, . ) is said to have divisors of zero (zero divisors) if ∃ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≠ 0

.and 𝑏 ≠ 0 ⟹ 𝑎. 𝑏 = 0. The elements 𝑎, 𝑏 are said to be zero divisors

:Note

The ring (Z 6 ,+ 6 , . 6) has zero divisors •

.The ring (Z 7 ,+ 7 , . 7) has no zero divisors •

: Theorem

Let (ℝ, +, . ) be a ring with identity such that ℝ ≠ {0} = 0. Then the elements 0 and 1
.are distinct

:Proof

Suppose that 1 = 0, then a=a . 1=a . 0=0 ⇒a=0 ∀𝑎 ∈ ℝ

.i.e. ℝ = 0 contradiction (C!)

.Then, 1 ≠ 0

:Note

.Any ring with identity contains more than one element •

.The zero ring 0 has no identity •

:Example

:Suppose that ℝ = Z × Z and two operations defined as

(a , b)+(c ,d )=(a+ c , b+d )∀ a ,b ,c , d ∈ Z

(a , b) .(c , d)=(a . c , b . d) ∀ a ,b , c , d ∈ Z .

.Show that (ℝ, +, . ) has zero divisors

:Solution

.is the identity element of ℝ )1,1(

. Z ∈ Since, (𝑎, 𝑏). (1,1) = (𝑎. 1, 𝑏. 1) = (𝑎, 𝑏) ∀𝑎, 𝑏

.Note that the ring ℝ has zero divisors, since (1,0). (0,2) = (0,0)

Definition: (integral domain)

An integral domain is a commutative ring with identity which does not have divisors
.of zero

:Examples

is an integral domain since ) . ,+ , Z (

is a commutative ring Z )1(

has identity Z )2(

.without zero divisors Z )3(

Definition: (subring)

Let (ℝ, +, . ) be a ring and 𝜙 ≠ 𝑆 ⊆ ℝ. If (𝑆, +, . ) is itself a ring, then

.is said to be a subring of (ℝ, +, . ). Shortly, 𝑆 subring of ℝ ) . ,+ ,𝑆(

:𝑆 subring of ℝ if and only if

;𝑆 ≠ 𝜙 :1

;is a subgroup of (ℝ, +), i.e., ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 ⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 (closed under differences) )+ ,𝑆( :2

is a sub-semi group of (ℝ, . ), i.e., ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 ⇒ 𝑎. 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 (closed under ) . ,𝑆( :3

.multiplication)
:Example

Let 𝑆 = {𝑎 + 𝑏√ 3: 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ Z }. Show that 𝑆 is a subring of the ring (ℝ, +, . )

:Solution

∅ ≠ i) 𝑆

,ii) ∀ 𝑎 + 𝑏√ 3, 𝑐 + 𝑑√ 3 ∈ 𝑆, we have (𝑎 + 𝑏√ 3) − (𝑐 + 𝑑√ 3) = (𝑎 −c) + (𝑏 + 𝑑 , ) √ 3 ∈ 𝑆

. Z ∈ since (𝑎 − 𝑐), (𝑏 + 𝑑)

iii) ∀ 𝑎 + 𝑏√ 3, 𝑐 + 𝑑√ 3∈ 𝑆, we have

. Z ∈ 𝑆, since (𝑎𝑐 + 3𝑏𝑑), (𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑, ) ∈ √ 3 ) , 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑( + ) 𝑎𝑐 + 3 𝑏( = )√ 3𝑐 + 𝑑( .)√ 3𝑎 + 𝑏(

.Hence, 𝑆 is a subring of ℝ

Definition: (characteristic)

Let ℝ be a ring. If there exists a positive integer 𝑛 such that na=0 for all 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, then the
.least positive integer 𝑟 with this property is called the characteristic of ℝ (char ℝ = 𝑟)

If no such positive integer exists

,)that is,𝑎 = 0 for all 𝑎 ∈ ℝ implies 𝑛 = 0(

.we say ℝ has characteristic 0 (char ℝ = 0)

:Example

.The ring ( Z 4, +4 ,, .4 ,) has (char Z 4, = 4) :1

.The ring ( Z , +, . ) has (char Z = 0) :2

:Corollary

.Suppose that ℝ be an integral domain. Then, char ℝ = 0 or prime number

Proof: (The proof by contradiction)

Let 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 ℝ = 𝑛 is not 0 or prime. i.e. 𝑛 = 𝑚. 𝑟: 1 < 𝑚, 𝑟 < 𝑛

𝑛. 1 = (𝑚. 𝑟). 1 = (𝑚. 𝑟). (1.1) = (𝑚. 1). (𝑟. 1) = 0. (ℝ without zero divisors)

𝑚. 1 = 0 or 𝑟. 1 = 0 (C!). (since 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 ℝ = 0) ∴

.either 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 ℝ = 0 or 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 ℝ = 𝑝 (prime number) ∴

:Definition

Suppose that 𝐼 be an ideal of the ring ℝ. We define the cosets of 𝐼 in ℝ as

.𝑎 + 𝐼 = {𝑎 + 𝑖: 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼} where 𝑎 ∈ ℝ

:The quotient set of ℝ by 𝐼 is denoted it ℝ /𝐼 and defined as

.𝑅/𝐼 = {𝑎 + 𝐼: 𝑎 ∈ ℝ }

The set ℝ /𝐼 forms a ring with the operations

𝐼 + )𝑎 + 𝑏( = )𝑏 + 𝐼( + )𝑎 + 𝐼(

𝐼 + )𝑎. 𝑏( = )𝑏 + 𝐼( .)𝑎 + 𝐼(

Definition: (Ideals)

A subring (𝐼, +, . ) of the ring (ℝ, +, . ) is an ideal of (ℝ, +, . ) if and only if

.𝑟 ∈ ℝ and ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐼 ⇒ 𝑟 · 𝑎 ∈ 𝐼 and 𝑎 · 𝑟 ∈ 𝐼∀

:Note

Let (ℝ, +, . ) be a ring and 𝜙 ≠ 𝐼 ⊆ ℝ. Then 𝐼 is an ideal of ℝ if and only if

,𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼 ⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼∀ )1(

.𝑟 ∈ ℝ and ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐼 ⇒ 𝑟. 𝑎 ∈ 𝐼 and 𝑎. 𝑟 ∈ 𝐼∀ )2(

:Example

.forms an ideal of the ring (ℤ, +, . ) ) . ,+ , ℤ𝑒(

:Solution

𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ ℤ𝑒 ⇒ 𝑛 = 2𝑟 and 𝑚 = 2𝑠 ∃ 𝑟, 𝑠 ∈ ℤ∀ )1(

. 𝑛 − 𝑚 = 2𝑟 − 2𝑠 = 2 (𝑟 − 𝑠) ∈ ℤ

𝑛 ∈ ℤ𝑒 and ∀𝑟 ∈ ℤ∀ )2(

. 𝑟𝑛 = (2𝑚) ∃𝑚 ∈ ℤ, = 2 (𝑟𝑚) ∈ ℤ𝑒

. By the same way 𝑛𝑟 ∈ ℤ

:Example

.Find all ideals of the ring(ℤ12, +12, .12)

:Solution

Note that the group (ℤ12, +12) is cyclic and ℤ12 = (1) and all subgroup of the cyclic group is
,also cyclic. Then

}0{ = )0(

12 ℤ = )1(

}2,4,6,8,10,0{ = )2(

}3,6,9,0{ = )3(

}4,8,0{ = )4(

12 ℤ =}5,10,3,8,1,5,11,4,9,2,7,0 { = )5(

}6,0{ = )6(

12 ℤ =}7,2,9,4,11,6,1,8,3,10,5,0 { = )7(

)4( = }8,4,0{ = )8(

)3( = }9,6,3,0{ = )9(

)2( = }10,8,6,4,2,0{ = )10(

.12ℤ =}11,10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1,0 { = )11(

.Hence, the all subgroups of ℤ12 are (0), ℤ12, (2), (3), (4), (6)

: Theorem

.If I i is an arbitrary indexed collection of ideals of the ring ℝ, then ∩ I i is an ideal of ℝ

:Proof

.0 ∈ I i ∀𝑖 ⟹ 0 ∈∩ I i ⟹∩ I i ≠ 0 )i(
I i ∩∈ 𝑥, 𝑦∀ )ii(

.∩ I i ∈ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ I i ∀𝑖 ⟹ 𝑥 − 𝑦 ∈ I i ∀𝑖 (since I iideal) ⟹ 𝑥 − 𝑦 ⟹

𝑥 ∈∩ i , ∀𝑟 ∈ ℝ∀ )iii(

. i ∩∈ 𝑥 ∈ I i∀𝑖 ⟹ 𝑟𝑥 ∈ I i ∀𝑖 (since I iideal) ⟹ 𝑟𝑥

By the same way we can prove 𝑥 𝑟 ∈∩ 𝐼

𝑥 ∈∩ I i , ∀𝑟 ∈ ℝ∀

. I i ∩∈ 𝑥 ∈ I i∀𝑖 ⟹x r ∈ I i ∀(since I iideal) ⟹ x r

.Hence, ∩ 𝐼𝑖 is an ideal of ℝ

principal ideal

:Definition

.A principal ideal ring is a commutative ring with 1 in which every ideal is principal

:Example

.The ring (ℤ, +, . ) is principal ideal ring

maximal ideal

:Definition

An ideal (𝐼, +, . ) of the ring (ℝ, +, . ) is a maximal ideal provided 𝐼 ≠ ℝ and whenever

.is an ideal of (ℝ, +, . ) with 𝐼 ⊂ 𝐽 ⊆ ℝ, then 𝐽 = ℝ ) . ,+ ,𝐽(

:Theorem

.In (ℤ, +, . ) and 𝑛 > 1. Then ((𝑛), +, . ) is maximal if and only if 𝑛 is a prime number

:Proof

.Let (𝑛) maximal and 𝑛 is not prime, i.e. 𝑛 = 𝑟. 𝑠, 1 < 𝑟, 𝑠 < 𝑛 )⇒(

.𝑛 ∈ (𝑠) ⇒ (𝑛) ⊂ (𝑠) ⊂ ℤ ∴

.𝑛 prime ∴

.Let 𝑛 is prime and (𝑛) is not maximal )⇐(

.ℤ or (𝑛) ⊂ 𝐽 ⊂ ℤ, ∃ ideal 𝐽 in ℤ = )𝑛( ∴

. ∗ Now, if (𝑛) = ℤ ⇒ 1 ∈ (𝑛) ⇒ 1 = 𝑟. 𝑛 ∃ 𝑟 ∈ ℤ ⇒ 𝑛 ∈ ℤ

.If (𝑛) ⊂ 𝐽 ⊂ ℤ, ∃ ideal 𝐽 in ℤ then 𝐽 = (𝑚) ∃ 𝑚 ∈ ℤ

ℤ ⇒ 𝑛 ⊂ (𝑚) ⇒ 𝑛 = 𝑟. 𝑚 ∃ 𝑟 ∈ ℤ. But 𝑛 is prime ⇒ 𝑟 = 1 (since 𝑚 ≠ 1) ⊂ )𝑚( ⊂ )𝑛( ∴

.𝑛 = 𝑚. C! or 𝑟 = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑚 = 1 ⇒

.is maximal ideal )𝑛( ∴

:Theorem

Let (𝐼, +, . ) be a proper ideal of the ring (ℝ, +, . ). Then (𝐼, +, . ) is a maximal ideal if and
.only if the quotient ring (ℝ /𝐼, +, . ) is a field

:Proof

.Let 𝐼 is a maximal ideal in ℝ )⇒(

Since ℝ is a commutative ring with identity 1, then also 𝑅/𝐼 is commutative with

.identity 1 + 𝐼

Now, ∀ 𝑎 + 𝐼 ∈ ℝ /𝐼 − {0 + 𝐼}, we have

𝑎 + 𝐼 ≠ 𝐼 ⇒ 𝑎 ∉ 𝐼 and 𝐼 maximal

.ℝ ⇒ 1 = 𝑖 + 𝑟. 𝑎 ∃ 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼 and 𝑟 ∈ ℝ = )𝐼, 𝑎( ⇒

.𝐼 = (𝑖 + 𝑟𝑎) + 𝐼 = (𝑖 + 𝐼) + (𝑟 + 𝐼). (𝑎 + 𝐼) = (𝑟 + 𝐼). (𝑎 + 𝐼) + 1 ∴

.𝑎 + 𝐼 ∈ (ℝ /𝐼) ∗ ⇒ (ℝ /𝐼) ∗ = ℝ /𝐼 − {0 + 𝐼} ∴

.ℝ /𝐼 is a field ∴

.Let ℝ /𝐼 is a field and suppose that 𝐽 ideal in ℝ such that 𝐼 ⊂ 𝐽 ⊆ ℝ )⇐(

𝑎 ∈ 𝐽 and 𝑎 ∉ 𝐼 ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝐼 ≠ 𝐼 ∃ ∴

.𝑎 + 𝐼 ∈ (ℝ /𝐼) ∗ (since ℝ /𝐼 is a field) ⇒

1 + 𝐼 ∃ 𝑟 ∈ ℝ = )𝑟 + 𝑖( .)𝑎 + 𝐼( ∴

𝑎. 𝑟 + 𝐼 = 1 + 𝐼 ⇒ 1 − 𝑎. 𝑟 ∈ 𝐼 ⊂ 𝐽 ⇒

.𝐽 ⇒ 𝐽 = ℝ ⇒ 𝐼 maximal in ℝ ∈ 1 ∴

Fields
: Definition

A ring (F, +, . )is said to be a field if (F – {0}, . ) forms a commutative group with
¿
R =R−{0 }. identity. i.e. a commutative ring with identity with the property

Theorem :

If F is a field and a , b ∈ F with a . b=0, then either

a=0∨b=0. i.e. the field has no divisors of zero.

the proof :

Suppose that a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0 with a . b=0

existsa ≠ 0 ⇒ a ∈ F−{0 }=F ¿ ⇒ a−1

!C .∴ a−1 ( a .b)=a−1 . 0⇒( a−1 .a) . b=0⇒ 1.b=0 ⇒b=0

Then,a . b=0 ⇔eithera=0∨b=0 ,

Hence, the field has no divisors of zero.

Example:

Show that( F ,+ ,.)forms field, where F={a+b √ 3: a , b ∈Q }and +¿ and . are the ordinary
operations.

solution:-

Clearly (F ,+ ,.)Is a commutative ring with identity.

¿
We need to show that F =F−{0 }.

Leta+ b √3 ≠ 0=0+0 √ 3 ⇒eithera ≠ 0orb ≠ 0.

1
∗( a−b √ 3 ) a−b √ 3
1 ( a+b √ 3 ) = 2
( a+ b √ 3 ) =
−1
= a −3 b
2
( a+b √ 3 ) ( a−b √ 3 )

a 2 a
()
Now, ifb ≠ 0 ,thena −3 b =0 ⇒ 3= b ⇒ √3= b , a , b ∈Q .
2 2

2 2 1 b 2 1 b
()
If ,a ≠ 0thena −3 b =0 ⇒ 3 = a ⇒ = a , a ,b ∈ Q.
√3
a b
Then, a2 −3 b2 ≠ 0and ( a+ b √ 3 ) = √3 ∈ F .
−1
2 2
− 2 2
a −3 b a −3 b

Hence,( F ,+, .) forms a field andQ ⊂F ⊂ R .

subfield

Definition :

A subfield of the field (F, +, . )is meant any subring (F', +, . )of (F, +, . ) which is itself a field
.

( F ' ,+ , .)is a subfield of the field(F ,+ ,.)if the conditions hold

1. F ' ≠ ϕ
2. ∀ a , b ∈ F ' ⟹ a−b ∈ F '
3. ∀ a , b ∈ F ' ; b≠ 0 ⟹ a . b −1 ∈ F ′.

Examples:

( a )( Q ,+, . )is a subfield of ( R ,+, . ) .

( b )( R ,+, . )is a subfield of( C ,+ ,. ) .

( c ) ( Q,+ ,. )is a subfield of ( F= { a+b √ 5: a , b ∈Q } ,+, . ) .

Theorem:

Let the integral domain (R, +, . )be a subring of the field (F, +, . ). If the set F ' is defined by

F ' ={a· b −1 :a , b ∈ R : b ≠ 0 }.

Proof :

F ' is a subfield of F.

( i ) 1=1.1 −1 ∈ F ' ⇒ F ' ≠ ϕ .

( ii ) ∀ x , y ∈ F ' ⟹ x=a . b −1 ; b≠ 0∧ y=c . d −1 ; d ≠ 0∃ a , b , c ,d ∈ R

x− y =a . b −1−c . d −1 =( ad−bc ) . ( bd ) −1 ∈ F' , ( ad−bc ) ∈ R ,

( bd ) −1 ∈ R−{0 } ¿ c ≠0 ∃ a , b , c , d ∈ R .

. ( c .d )
−1 −1 −1 −1
x . y =a. b
−1 −1
¿a.b .c .d

¿ ( ad ) . ( bc ) −1 ∈ F'

Hence, F ' is a subfield of the field F.

Definition: (Prime Field)

A field P is called a prime field.

If it has no proper subfield i.e. F is a subfield of P, then F = P.

is a field multiplicative identity is 1→ Prime Field{0,1}{0,1 }→{0 }, {1 }.

Theorem:

The ring¿is a field if and only if n is prime number.

Proof:

(⇒)Suppose that¿is a field,

then¿is an integral domain⇔ nis prime number.

(⇐)Suppose that n is prime number

Let [a]∈ Z n −{0 }

then0< a<n . ⇒ ∃r , s ∈ Z :r . a+ s . n=1

⇒ [ ra+ sn ] =[ 1 ]

⇒ [ ra ] +¿n [ sn ] =[ 1 ] ¿

⇒ [ r ] . n [ a ]= [ 1 ]

⇒[ a]∈ Z ¿n ∀ [a]∈ Z n −{[0 ]}.

¿
Hence, Z n=Z n −{[0 ]}⇒ ¿

Theorem :

Any prime field( F ,+ ,. ) is isomorphic either to ( Q ,+, . ) ,the field of rational

numbers,or to one of the fields( Z p ,+ p , . p ) ,where p is a prime number.

Proof:

char F=
{¿ p , where0p is prime
then the set Z . 1⊆ F forms an integral domain in F .
Z . 1≃ Z p ifchar F¿ p ⇒ F ≃ Z por Z . 1≃ Z ifc har F ¿ 0 ⇒ F ≃Q .

Examples:
 1) Q is a prime field.
2) Z p is a prime field, where p is prime number.

Definition: (Polynomial)

Let ( R , + , . ) be any ring , a function

∞

, f ( x )=∑ ai x i=a0 x 0+ a1 x 1 +…+ an x n +… , where a 0 , a1 , … , an , … ∈ R

i=0

, and the powers 0 , 1 , 2 ,…,n,… are non-negative integers

.then f (x ) is called a Polynomial over a ring R

:Example

. Z is a polynomial over a ring ( 1 ) f ( x )=3+7 x 1−20 x 4

1 2 5
. Q is a polynomial over a ring (2)g( x)= 2 +17 x −28 x

(Polynomial of Degreen) :Definition

, Let f(x ) be a polynomial over a ring R

, then if ∃ a non-negative integer n such that

) then f(x)is called a polynomial of degree n ,¿

. and is denoted by dag f ( x )=¿ n

-:Example

. f (x ) ¿ 4 +¿17 x 1−2 x3is a polynomial over a ring Z of degree 3 )1(

Definition: (Root of Polynomial)

Let (R,+,.)be a commutative ring with identity and

f(x) be a non zero polynomial of

.¿ 0a ring ( R[x] , + , .) , let a∈ R . Then , is called root of polynomial f(x) if f(a)

: ExampleS :- Find the roots of the following polynomial

f(x)= x 2−4 ∈ Z [x] :1

-: Solution(1)

? to find the roots of (f(x)= x 2−4 ∈ Z [x])

2 2
∴ x −4=0 ⇒ x =4

]x[ Z ⇒ x=± 2 ∈

are the roots of the polynomial f ( x)= x2−4 ∈ Z [x]∴ x=±2

ℤ5[x] f ( x)= x2 + 4 ∈ :2

-: Solution(2)

? ¿ { 0 , 1, 2 , 3 , 4 } >¿to find the roots of ℤ5[x]¿

f(x)= x 2+ 4 ∈ ℤ5[x] ∴

≠ 0f(0)=(0)2 + ¿5 ¿ 4 = 4 ⇒

0 = f(1)=(1)2 +¿5 ¿4 ⇒

≠ 0f(2)=(2)2 +¿ 5 ¿4 = 3 ⇒

≠ 0f(3)=(3)2 +¿ 5 ¿4 = 3 ⇒

0 = f(4)=(4)2 +¿ 5 ¿4 ⇒

. the roots of polynomial f ( x )=x 2 +4 ∈ Z 5 [ x ] which are 1 , 4⇒

Definition: (Irreducible Polynomial)

Let (R , +, . ) be an integral domain and let f(x) be a non zero polynomial

in (R[x] , + , . ). Then , f(x) is called irreducible polynomial or Prime polynomial

. if f(x) has no proper divisors

. Not, Then f(x) is a reducible polynomial in F[x] if f(x) has a roots in a field F

:Example

. Show that : f(x)=3 x 2+2 ∈ Z 3 [x ]is irreducible

,Solution : - Z 3 is a field and f(x)∈ Z 3 [x ] ,then by(Not)

?> }3= { 0 , 1 , 2,to show f(x) has no roots in ℤ , ).i.e( <

f(x)=3 x 2+2 ∈ ℤ3[x]

f(0)=3( 0)2 +¿3 ¿2 = 2≠ 0 is not root of f(x) ⇒

f(1)=3(1)2 +¿ 3 ¿2 =2 is not root of f(x) ⇒

f(2)=3(2)2 + ¿3 ¿2 = 2≠ 0 is not root of f(x) ⇒

.f(x) is not root ⇒

. Therefore , f(x)=3 x 2+2 ∈ Z 3 [x ] is a Irreducible polynomial, since f(x) has no roots

:Example

. f(x)= x 2−2is irreducible polynomial in ( Z [x],+, .) -1

: Solution

x −2=Since, f(x)
2

⇒ (X− √2)( X + √ 2)=0

± √ 2 ∉ Z .=⇒ x

f(x) is irreducible polynomial in Z [x] ∴