CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

2.2 The infinite square well (Particle in a box)

Suppose

0, if 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎
𝑉(𝑥) =
∞, otherwise

The particle in this potential is completely free, except at

the two ends (𝑥 = 0, and 𝑥 = 𝑎), where an infinite force
prevents it from escaping.

Outside the wall, 𝜓(𝑥) = 0 (i.e., the probability of finding the particle there is zero |𝜓(𝑥)| = 0).
Inside: Let's solve the Schrödinger equation

𝜕Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) ℏ 𝜕 Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑖ℏ =− + 𝑉Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥

First, we seek stationary states Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓(𝑥)𝜙(𝑡) = 𝜓(𝑥)𝑒 ⁄ℏ

. We need to solve the TISE

ℏ 𝜕 𝜓
− + 𝑉(𝑥)𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
to find 𝜓(𝑥), inside the wall, where 𝑉(𝑥) = 0, the TISE becomes

ℏ 𝜕 𝜓
− + 𝑉(𝑥) 𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
ℏ 𝜕 𝜓
− = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜓 2𝑚𝐸
=− 𝜓
𝜕𝑥 ℏ
√
Let us introduce 𝑘 ≡ and write
ℏ

𝜕 𝜓
= −𝑘 𝜓 (𝐸 ≥ 0)
𝜕𝑥
This is classical simple harmonic oscillator equation for mass attached spring. We know at least
two functions will solve this equation;

𝜓(𝑥) = sin(𝑘𝑥) and 𝜓(𝑥) = cos(𝑘𝑥)

Of course, the general solution is a linear combination of sine and cosine functions; that is

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥) + 𝐵 cos(𝑘𝑥)

7
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are arbitrary constants that are generally obtained from boundary conditions.

Now, what are the boundary conditions for 𝜓(𝑥)? Usually, both wavefunction 𝜓(𝑥) and its
derivative are continuous. However, where the potential goes to infinity ( 𝑉 → ∞ ), only the
first of these conditions applies.

The continuity of wavefunction 𝜓(𝑥) requires that 𝜓(0) = 𝜓(𝑎) = 0 so as to join onto the
solution outside the wall.

Now, we can find out something about 𝐴 and 𝐵. By using 𝜓(0) = 0, the general solution

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥) + 𝐵 cos(𝑘𝑥)

𝜓(0) = 𝐴 sin(0) + 𝐵 cos(0) = 0

𝜓(0) = 0 + 𝐵(1) = 0

∴𝐵=0

So 𝐵 must go to zero, and hence

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥)

And similarly at the right side at 𝑎 and the wavefunction 𝜓(𝑎) = 0

𝜓(𝑎) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑎) = 0

so either 𝐴 = 0 (trivial solution [non – normalizable solution 𝜓(𝑥) = 0], discard) or else

sin(𝑘𝑎) = 0

which means that

𝑘𝑎 = 0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, ⋯ , ±𝑛𝜋

But 𝑘 = 0 also gives 𝜓(𝑥) = 0 → discard. Since negative solutions give nothing new, due to

sin(−𝜃) = − sin(𝜃)

and we can absorb the minus sign into 𝐴. Therefore, the distinct solutions are
𝑛𝜋
𝑘 = ; with 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯
𝑎
Curiously, the boundary condition at 𝑥 = 𝑎 does not determine the constant 𝐴, but rather the
√
constant 𝑘, and hence the possible values of energy 𝐸 due to relation 𝑘 ≡
ℏ

8
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

Then both relations of 𝑘 = and 𝑘 ≡ give by equating them

ℏ

𝑛𝜋 2𝑚𝐸
=
𝑎 ℏ
𝑛 𝜋 2𝑚𝐸
=
𝑎 ℏ
𝑛 𝜋 ℏ
𝐸 = with 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯
2𝑚𝑎
This is a discrete of allowed energies and quantum particle in the infinite square well cannot have
just any old energy. It has to be one of these special allowed values.

Now, how do we fix the constant 𝐴? We normalize 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥) = 𝜓 (𝑥)

The stationary states of Schrödinger equation

Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓 (𝑥)𝜙(𝑡) = 𝜓 (𝑥)𝑒 ℏ

1= |Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)| 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜓 (𝑥)𝑒 ℏ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥)𝑒 ℏ 𝜓 (𝑥)𝑒 ℏ 𝑑𝑥

1= 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥)𝜓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

the integral is calculated as following

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥)

1 1
1= 𝜓 ∗ 𝜓 𝑑𝑥 = |𝐴| sin (𝑘𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = |𝐴| − cos(2𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 2

cos(2𝛽) = 1 − 2sin 𝛽 → sin 𝛽 = − cos(2𝛽)

𝑑𝑥 1
= |𝐴| − cos(2𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 2

Let 𝑢 = 2𝑘𝑥, 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑘𝑑𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥 = and therefore the term

𝑑𝑢
cos(2𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑢
2𝑘

Applying the integral inside the wall, in the range 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑎 ,

9
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑢 |𝐴| 1
1 = |𝐴| − cos(𝑢) = 𝑑𝑥 − cos(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
2 2 2𝑘 2 2𝑘

|𝐴| 1 𝑎 |𝐴| 1 𝑎
1= 𝑥− sin(𝑢) = 𝑥− sin(2𝑘𝑥)
2 2𝑘 0 2 2𝑘 0

|𝐴| 1
1= 𝑎− sin(2𝑘𝑎) − 0
2 2𝑘
𝑛𝜋
𝑘 =
𝑎
|𝐴| 1 𝑛𝜋
1= 𝑎− sin 2 𝑎 −0
2 2𝑘 𝑎
|𝐴| 𝑎
1= [𝑎 − 0 − 0] = |𝐴|
2 2

2 2
|𝐴| = → |𝐴| = ±
𝑎 𝑎

This only determines the magnitude of 𝐴. Global phase carries no significance in QM, and so we
can pick positive root. Therefore, inside the wall the solutions are

2 𝑛𝜋
𝜓 (𝑥) = sin 𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

These solutions look like the standing waves on a string of length 𝑎.

The 𝜓 (𝑥), which carries the lowest energy called the ground state; the others 𝜓 (𝑥), 𝜓 (𝑥),
whose energies increase in proportion to 𝑛 are called excited states.

10
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

The set of functions 𝜓 (𝑥) has the following properties:

1. They are alternately even and odd with respect to the center of wall : (𝜓 is even, 𝜓 is odd,
and 𝜓 is even, and so on.

2. As you go up in energy, each successive state has one more node: 𝜓 has none, 𝜓 has one
node, 𝜓 has two nodes, and so on.

3. They are mutually orthogonal, in sense that

𝜓 ∗ (𝑥)𝜓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 whenever 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛 (𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐡𝐨gonal)

Note that this argument does not work if 𝑚 = 𝑛. In that case normalization tells us that the
integral is 1.

𝜓 ∗ (𝑥)𝜓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 1 whenever 𝑚 = 𝑛 (𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥ization)

In fact, we can combine orthogonality and normalization into single statement

𝜓 ∗ (𝑥)𝜓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝛿 (𝐤𝐫𝐨𝐧𝐞𝐜𝐤𝐞𝐫 𝐝𝐞𝐥𝐭𝐚 )

0, if 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛
𝛿 =
1, if 𝑚 = 𝑛

We say that the functions 𝜓 (𝑥) are orthonormal.

4. They are complete, in the sense that any other function, 𝑓(𝑥), can be expressed as a linear
combination of them.

2 𝑛𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 𝜓 (𝑥) = 𝑐 sin 𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

Note that the coefficients 𝑐 for given function 𝑓(𝑥) may be evaluated using Fourier's trick: that
is to multiply both sides of above equation by 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥) and integrate

𝜓 ∗ (𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥)𝜓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥)𝜓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 𝛿 =𝑐

11
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

where we use Kronecker delta to kill every term in the sum expect the one for which 𝑛 = 𝑚
(𝛿 = 1). Thus the 𝑛th coefficient in the expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) is given by

𝑐 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

We conclude that the stationary states Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓(𝑥)𝑒 ⁄ℏ

for an infinite square well are:

2 𝑛𝜋 ℏ
Ψ (𝑥, 𝑡) = sin 𝑥 𝑒
𝑎 𝑎

and the most general solution is a linear combination of stationary states

2 𝑛𝜋 ℏ
Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑐 sin 𝑥 𝑒
𝑎 𝑎

How to find 𝑐 for a given initial function Ψ(𝑥, 0) = ∑ 𝑐 𝜓 (𝑥) ? The actual coefficients are

2 𝑛𝜋
𝑐 = sin 𝑥 Ψ(𝑥, 0)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

Example 2.2 A particle in the infinite square well has the initial wave function

𝐴𝑥(𝑎 − 𝑥) (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎)
𝜓(𝑥, 0) =
0 (0 < 𝑥 > 𝑎)

Find Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)? First, we need to find the constant 𝐴

[i. e. , normalize 𝜓(𝑥, 0)].

|𝜓(𝑥, 0)| 𝑑𝑥 = 1

|𝐴| 𝑥 (𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 1

|𝐴| 𝑥 (𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 1

|𝐴| 𝑥 (𝑎 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 1

|𝐴| (𝑎 𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 1

12
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑎
|𝐴| 𝑎 − 2𝑎 + =1
3 4 5 0

𝑎 2𝑎 5
|𝐴| − + =1
3 4 5

1 1 1
|𝐴| 𝑎 − + =1
3 2 5
10 − 15 + 6
|𝐴| 𝑎 =1
30
1
|𝐴| 𝑎 =1
30

𝑎 30
|𝐴| =1 → ∴𝐴=
30 𝑎

30
∴ 𝜓(𝑥, 0) = 𝑥(𝑎 − 𝑥)
𝑎

The nth coefficient is

2 𝑛𝜋
𝑐 = sin 𝑥 𝜓(𝑥, 0)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

2 𝑛𝜋 30
𝑐 = sin 𝑥 𝑥(𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

60 𝑛𝜋
𝑐 = sin 𝑥 𝑥(𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

2√15 𝑛𝜋
𝑐 = sin 𝑥 𝑥(𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

2√15 𝑛𝜋
𝑐 = sin 𝑥 (𝑥𝑎 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

2√15 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑐 = 𝑥 𝑎 sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

13
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

2√15 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

Let = 𝑘 , then the first term reads

𝑛𝜋
𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 sin(𝑘𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Integrate by parts

𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣𝑑𝑢

𝑢 = 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
( )
𝑑𝑣 = sin(𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑣 = −

−cos(𝑘𝑥) 𝑎 −cos(𝑘𝑥)
=𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥
𝑘 0 𝑘

cos(𝑘𝑥) 𝑎 cos(𝑘𝑥)
= −𝑥 +
𝑘 0 𝑘

cos(𝑘𝑎) sin(𝑘𝑥) 𝑎
= −𝑎 +
𝑘 𝑘 0

𝑛𝜋
sin(𝑘𝑥) = sin 𝑎 = sin(𝑛𝜋) = 0 , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯
𝑎
The second term

𝑛𝜋
𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 sin(𝑘𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Integration by parts is given by

𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣𝑑𝑢

𝑢 = 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥
( )
𝑑𝑣 = sin(𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = −

14
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

cos(𝑘𝑥) 𝑎 cos(𝑘𝑥)
= −𝑥 + 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑘 0 𝑘

cos(𝑘𝑥) 𝑎 2 cos(𝑘𝑎) 2
= −𝑥 + 𝑥 cos(𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑎 + 𝑥 cos(𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑘 0 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘

Integrate by parts the 2nd term of above expression

𝑥 cos(𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣𝑑𝑢

𝑢 = 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
( )
𝑑𝑣 = cos(𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑣 =

sin(𝑘𝑥) 𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥)
=𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥
𝑘 0 𝑘

cos(𝑘𝑎) 2 sin(𝑘𝑥)
∴ 𝑥 sin(𝑘𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −𝑎 + 0− 𝑑𝑥
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘

cos(𝑘𝑎) 2
𝑥 sin(𝑘𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −𝑎 − sin(𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑘 𝑘

cos(𝑘𝑎) 2 − cos(𝑘𝑥) 𝑎
= −𝑎 −
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 0

cos(𝑘𝑎) 2
= −𝑎 − [− cos(𝑘𝑎) + 1]
𝑘 𝑘
cos(𝑘𝑎) 2
= −𝑎 + [1 − cos(𝑘𝑎)]
𝑘 𝑘
Therefore, our previous equation

2√15 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

becomes

15
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

2√15 cos(𝑘𝑎) cos(𝑘𝑎) 2

𝑐 = 𝑎 −𝑎 +𝑎 + [1 − cos(𝑘𝑎)]
𝑎 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘

2√15 cos(𝑘𝑎) cos(𝑘𝑎) 2

𝑐 = −𝑎 +𝑎 + [1 − cos(𝑘𝑎)]
𝑎 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘

2√15 2
𝑐 = [1 − cos(𝑘𝑎)]
𝑎 𝑘
𝑛𝜋
=𝑘
𝑎

2√15 2 𝑛𝜋
𝑐 = 1 − cos 𝑎
𝑎 𝑛𝜋 𝑎
𝑎

4√15 𝑎
= [1 − cos(𝑛𝜋)]
𝑎 𝑛 𝜋

4√15
= [1 − cos(𝑛𝜋)] , 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4, ⋯
𝑛 𝜋
For even 𝑛 = 0,2,4, ⋯ cos(𝑛𝜋) = 1

4√15
𝑐 = [1 − 1] = 0
𝑛 𝜋
and for odd 𝑛 = 1,3,5, ⋯ cos(𝑛𝜋) = −1

4√15 4√15 8√15

𝑐 = [1 − (−1)] = ×2=
𝑛 𝜋 𝑛 𝜋 𝑛 𝜋
0 if 𝑛 is even
𝑐 = 8√15
if 𝑛 is odd
(𝑛𝜋)

So that now we can form our time dependent wavefunction

ℏ
Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑐 𝜓 𝑒

8√15 2 𝑛𝜋 ℏ
Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = sin 𝑥 𝑒
(𝑛𝜋) 𝑎 𝑎
, , ,⋯

16
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

30 2 1 𝑛𝜋 ℏ ⁄
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = sin 𝑥 𝑒
𝑎 𝜋 𝑛 𝑎
, , ,⋯

Loosely speaking, 𝐶 tells you the amount of 𝜓 that contains in Ψ . The |𝐶 | is not the
probability of finding particle in nth stationary state. It is the probability of getting particular value
𝐸 . In other words, the |𝐶 | tells you the probability that a measurement of the energy would
yield the value 𝐸 . Only the values 𝐸 can be obtained as results of the energy measurements.
The sum of all these probabilities will be, of course,1

|𝐶 | = 1

Further, the expectation value of the energy must be

〈𝐻〉 = |𝐶 | 𝐸

And the time independent Schrödinger equation 𝐻 𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓 says

𝐻𝜓 = 𝐸 𝜓

so
∗
〈𝐻〉 = Ψ∗ 𝐻Ψ𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 𝜓 𝐻 𝑐 𝜓 𝑑𝑥

〈𝐻〉 = 𝑐∗ 𝑐 𝐸 𝜓 ∗ 𝜓 𝑑𝑥 = |𝑐 | 𝐸

Then the probability of getting a particular energy is independent of time, and so the expectation
value of 𝐻. This is manifestation of conservation of energy in QM.

2.3 The Harmonic Oscillator

In classical harmonic oscillator a mass 𝑚 attached to a spring of force constant 𝑘. The motion is
governed by Hooke's law 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 and from the Newton second’ law 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 , we
have

𝑑 𝑥
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡

17
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

𝑑 𝑥 −𝑘𝑥
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
Ignoring friction, the solution is given by

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡) + 𝐵 cos(𝜔𝑡) , 𝜔 ≡

where 𝜔 is the angular frequency of oscillation. The

potential energy is

1 1
𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝜔 𝑥
2 2
The graph is parabola (see figure).

Now, the quantum problem is to solve time independent Schrödinger equation

ℏ 𝑑 𝜓
− + 𝑉𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥

with this potential 𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑚𝜔 𝑥

ℏ 𝑑 𝜓 1
− + 𝑚𝜔 𝑥 𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
There are two methods to solve this differential equation. (1) Algebraic method using so called
ladder operators (this technique is quicker and simpler), and (2) Analytic method. We start with
the first one

2.3.1 Algebraic method

Rewrite the time independent Schrödinger equation (TISE)

ℏ 𝑑 𝜓 1
− + 𝑚𝜔 𝑥 𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
ℏ 𝑑 1
− + 𝑚𝜔 𝑥 𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

𝜕 𝜕 𝑝
𝑝 = −𝑖ℏ → =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑖ℏ
ℏ 𝑝 1
− − + 𝑚𝜔 𝑥 𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝑖ℏ 2

18
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

1 1
𝑝 + 𝑚𝜔 𝑥 𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 2
1
[𝑝 + (𝑚𝜔𝑥) ]𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚

𝐻 𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓

The basic idea here is to factor the Hamiltonian

1
𝐻= [𝑝 + (𝑚𝜔𝑥) ]
2𝑚
If these were numbers, it would be easy to find the solution by remembering that

𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑖𝑢 + 𝑣)(−𝑖𝑢 + 𝑣)

= 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑢𝑣 − 𝑖𝑣𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑣

Note that two operators commute if 𝐴, 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 − 𝐵 𝐴 = 0 is true. However, we cannot do this

here since 𝑝 and 𝑥 are operators, and operators do not in general commute; that is to say that
𝑥𝑝 is not the same as 𝑝𝑥. However, this gives motivation to examine the quantities. Let’s

1
𝑎 ≡ (−𝑖𝑝 + 𝑚𝜔𝑥)
√2ℏ𝑚𝜔
1
𝑎 ≡ (+𝑖𝑝 + 𝑚𝜔𝑥)
√2ℏ𝑚𝜔

The factor in the front is to make the final looks nicer. We can write 𝑎 and 𝑎 together as

1
𝑎± ≡ (∓𝑖𝑝 + 𝑚𝜔𝑥)
√2ℏ𝑚𝜔

First, we calculate 𝑎 𝑎 to see what we will get

1
𝑎 𝑎 = (𝑖𝑝 + 𝑚𝜔𝑥)(−𝑖𝑝 + 𝑚𝜔𝑥)
2ℏ𝑚𝜔
1
𝑎 𝑎 = [(𝑖𝑝)(−𝑖𝑝) + (𝑖𝑝)(𝑚𝜔𝑥) + (𝑚𝜔𝑥)(−𝑖𝑝) + (𝑚𝜔𝑥)(𝑚𝜔𝑥)]
2ℏ𝑚𝜔
1
𝑎 𝑎 = (𝑝 + (𝑚𝜔𝑥) + 𝑖𝑝𝑚𝜔𝑥 − 𝑚𝜔𝑥𝑖𝑝)
2ℏ𝑚𝜔
1
𝑎 𝑎 = [𝑝 + (𝑚𝜔𝑥) − 𝑖𝑚𝜔(𝑥𝑝 − 𝑝𝑥)]
2ℏ𝑚𝜔

19
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

1 𝑖𝑚𝜔
𝑎 𝑎 = [𝑝 + (𝑚𝜔𝑥) ] − (𝑥𝑝 − 𝑝𝑥)
2ℏ𝑚𝜔 2ℏ𝑚𝜔
1 𝑖
𝑎 𝑎 = [𝑝 + (𝑚𝜔𝑥) ] − (𝑥𝑝 − 𝑝𝑥)
2ℏ𝑚𝜔 2ℏ
The term (𝑥𝑝 − 𝑝𝑥) is called a commutator generally written with square brackets as [𝑥, 𝑝].

1 𝑖
𝑎 𝑎 = [𝑝 + (𝑚𝜔𝑥) ] − [𝑥, 𝑝]
2ℏ𝑚𝜔 2ℏ
The commutator of 𝑥 and 𝑝 is a measure of how badly they fail to commute. The commutator
of any two operators is written generally as 𝐴, 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 − 𝐵 𝐴

Now, we need to calculate commutator [𝑥, 𝑝]. To deal with operators, one uses test function
𝑓(𝑥) , which is any given function, and at the end throw it away since we will be left an equation
involving the operator alone

[𝑥, 𝑝]𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑝 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑝𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

𝜕
𝑝 = −𝑖ℏ
𝜕𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑥 −𝑖ℏ 𝑓(𝑥) − −𝑖ℏ 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑥 −𝑖ℏ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑖ℏ [𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
= −𝑖ℏ 𝑥 + 𝑖ℏ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑖ℏ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∴ [𝑥, 𝑝] 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑖ℏ 𝑓(𝑥)

Now, drop the test function 𝑓(𝑥), which has served its purpose,

∴ [𝑥, 𝑝] = 𝑖ℏ

Therefore, the commutator [𝑥, 𝑝] is a canonical commutation relation. We call 𝑎 as a raising

operator, and 𝑎 as lowering operator. We cannot measure 𝑥 and 𝑝 simultaneously. Therefore,
put this value back in our expression

1 𝑖
𝑎 𝑎 = [𝑝 + (𝑚𝜔𝑥) ] − [𝑥, 𝑝]
2ℏ𝑚𝜔 2ℏ
1 𝑖
𝑎 𝑎 = [𝑝 + (𝑚𝜔𝑥) ] − 𝑖ℏ
2ℏ𝑚𝜔 2ℏ

20
CH 2: Time-independent Schrödinger equation

1 1
∴𝑎 𝑎 = [𝑝 + (𝑚𝜔𝑥) ] +
2ℏ𝑚𝜔 2

Since [𝑝 + (𝑚𝜔𝑥) ] = 𝐻, then

1 1
𝑎 𝑎 = 𝐻+
ℏ𝜔 2
1
𝑎 𝑎 ℏ𝜔 = 𝐻 + ℏ𝜔
2
1
∴ 𝐻 = ℏ𝜔 𝑎 𝑎 −
2

This means that the Hamiltonian does not factor perfectly – since there is extra − on the right
hand side. The same argument, with 𝑎 on the left

1 1
𝑎 𝑎 = 𝐻−
ℏ𝜔 2
1
𝐻 = ℏ𝜔 𝑎 𝑎 +
2

Recall that the ordering of 𝑎 and 𝑎 is important here. Rearrange both the above equations to
find the Hamiltonian from

1 1
𝐻 = ℏ𝜔 𝑎 𝑎 − and 𝐻 = ℏ𝜔 𝑎 𝑎 +
2 2

In particular

1 1 1 1
[𝑎 , 𝑎 ] = 𝑎 𝑎 − 𝑎 𝑎 = 𝐻+ − 𝐻+
ℏ𝜔 2 ℏ𝜔 2
[𝑎 , 𝑎 ] = 1

In term of 𝑎± , one can write the Hamiltonian from

1 1
𝐻 = ℏ𝜔 𝑎 𝑎 + and 𝐻 = ℏ𝜔 𝑎 𝑎 −
2 2
1
∴ 𝐻 = ℏ𝜔 𝑎± 𝑎∓ ±
2

21