If you don’t SACRIFICE for

what you want,

what you want becomes the
SACRIFICE.
• Although thermodynamics principles have been existence since
the creation of the universe, thermodynamics did not emerge as
a science until the construction of the first successful atmospheric
steam engines in England by Thomas Savery in 1697 and
Thomas Newcomen in 1712. These engines were very slow and
inefficient, but they opened the way for the development of the
new science. The first and second laws of thermodynamics
emerged simultaneously in the 1850’s primarily out of the works
of William Rankine, Rodulf Claussius and Lord Kelvin (formerly
William Thomson). The term thermodynamics was first used in
publication by Lord Kelvin in 1849. The first thermodynamic
textbook was written by William Rankine, a professor at the
University of Glasgow.
• The term thermodynamics stems from the Greek
words therme (heat) and the dynamo (power),
which in most descriptive of the early efforts to
convert heat into power.
• Thermodynamics is a branch of physical
sciences that treats various phenomena of
energy and the related properties of matter,
especially of the laws of transformation of heat
into other forms of energy and vice-versa.
• Thermodynamic system or simply a system refers to the quantity
of matter or certain volume in space chosen for study.
• Surroundings is the mass or region outside the system
• Boundary is the real or imaginary surface that separates the
system from its surroundings, the boundary of a system can
either be fixed or movable.
• Closed system (also known as control mass) is a system in which
there is no transfer of matter across the boundary. Energy can
be transferred but no mass can either enter or leave a closed
system.
• Open system (also known as control volume) is a system in
which there is a flow of matter through the boundary. It usually
encloses the device that involves mass flow, such as: compressor
turbine, or nozzle. Both mass and energy are transferred.
• Isolated system is system in which neither mass nor energy cross
the boundaries and it is not influenced by the surroundings.
• State properties refer to the physical condition
of the working substance such as temperature
pressure, density, specific volume, specific
gravity or relative density.
• Transport properties refers to the measurement
of diffusion of the working medium resulting
from molecular activity, like, viscosities, thermal
conductivities, etc.
• Intensive properties are properties which are
size independent such as temperature, pressure
and density
• Extensive properties are properties which
depend on the size or extent of the system.
Mass, volume and total energy are examples of
extensive properties.
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Density
• Specific Volume
• Specific Gravity
• Temperature is an indication or degree of
hotness and coldness and therefore a measure
of intensity of heat. It is the measure of the
average kinetic energy of the molecules.
The temperature scales:
• Celsius or centigrade (Anders Celsius)
• Fahrenheit (Gabriel Fahrenheit)
• Kelvin (Lord Kelvin / William Thomson)
• Rankine (William Rankine)
• Absolute temperature is the temperature
measured from absolute zero.
• Absolute zero is the temperature at which the
molecules are believed to stop moving
• Relation between temperature scales
5 9
𝐶 = 𝐹 − 32 𝐹 = 𝐶 + 32
9 5
𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273 𝑅 = 𝐹 + 460
Where:
R = Rankine (absolute temp. scale; English)
K = Kelvin (absolute temp. scale; SI)
• Temperature Interval is the difference between
two temperature readings from the same scale,
and the change in temperature through which
the body is heated

• The temperature interval/change

5 9
∆𝑇𝑐 = ∆𝑇𝐹 ∆𝑇𝐹 = ∆𝑇𝑐
9 5
∆𝑇𝐾 = ∆𝑇𝑐 ∆𝑇𝑅 = ∆𝑇𝐹
Note: 1 C⁰ = 9/5F⁰ and degree is to be written after
the scale to indicate that it is temperature change
• Absolute pressure is the true pressure measured
above a perfect vacuum.
• Gage pressure is the pressure measured from the
level of atmospheric pressure by most pressure
recording instrument like pressure gage and open-
ended manometer.
• Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the
surrounding. It is obtained from barometric reading.
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
Note: Pgage = negative (-) when the pressure is vacuum.
The pressure in perfect vacuum is -101.325 Kpa
Critical pressure is the minimum pressure needed to
liquify gas at its critical temperature.
• Mass density is the mass per unit volume
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
Where: m = mass (kg, gm, lbm), V = volume (m3, cm3, ft3), 𝜌
= density (kg/m3, g/cm3, lbm/ft3)

• Weight Density (specific weight) is the weight per

unit volume
𝑊
𝛾=
𝑉
Where: W = weight (kN, gf, lbf), V = volume (m3, cm3, ft3),
𝛾 = density (kN/m3, gf/cm3, lbf/ft3)
• Specific volume is the volume per unit mass
𝑉 1
𝑣= =
𝑚 𝜌
Where: W = mass (kgr, gm, lbm), V = volume (m3,
cm3, ft3), 𝑣 = specific volume (m3/kg, cm3/g, ft3/lb)
• Specific gravity is also known as relative density.
It is the ratio of the density of a certain substance
to the density of standard substance (air for
gases and water for liquids) at the same
temperature.
𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝛾𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑀𝑊𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑆𝐺 = = = =
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑀𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑅𝑔𝑎𝑠
1.2𝑘𝑔 𝑙𝑏
Where: 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = 0.075 3 ,
𝑚3 𝑓𝑡
𝑘𝐽 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.287 = 53.34
𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑅
• Heat is a form of energy associated with the
kinetic random motion of large number of
molecules
Transmission of Heat
• Conduction – takes place from molecule to
molecule through a body or through bodies in
contact
• Convection – due to the motion of molecules of
the medium
• Radiation – takes place without any intervening
medium
 𝑸 𝒌𝑨∆𝑻
=
𝒕 𝒙
Q = heat transferred
k = thermal conductivity of the barrier
A = area
t = time
∆T = difference in temperature
x = thickness of barrier
 𝑸
= 𝒉𝑨∆𝑻
𝒕
Q = heat transferred
t = time
h = heat transfer coefficient
A = area
∆T = difference in temperature of object and fluid
 𝑸 𝟒 𝟒
= 𝜎ε𝑨 𝑻𝑹 − 𝑻𝒔
𝒕
Q = heat transferred
t = time
𝜎 = Stefan’s Constant (CONST 31)
ε = emissivity
(blackbody=1, gray body=0.7, white body=0)
A = area
TR = temperature of radiator (K)
TS = temperature of surrounding (K)
• Sensible heat is the heat needed to change the
temperature of the body without changing its
phase.
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑇

Where: QS = sensible heat, m = mass

ΔT = change in temperature, c = specific heat

Cwater = 1.0 cal/gm.C⁰ = 1.0 BTU/lb.F⁰

= 4.186 kJ/kg.K
• Latent heat is the heat needed by the body to
change its phase without changing its temperature.
• Latent heat of Fusion – solid to liquid
• Latent heat of Vaporization – liquid to gas
QL = ± mL
QL = heat needed, m = mass, L = latent heat
(fusion/vaporization), (+) = heat entering; substance
melts, (-) = heat leaving; substance freezes

Note: Latent heat of fusion of ice (Lf)

Lf = 144 BTU/lb = 334 kJ/kg = 80 Cal/gm
Latent heat of vaporization of boiling water (Lv)
Lv = 970 BTU/lb = 2257 KJ/kg = 540 Cal/gm
Absolute entropy is a measure of the energy that is
no longer available to perform useful work within
the current environment. It is the measure of
randomness or disorder of the system.
𝑄
𝑆=
𝑇𝐾
𝑆 = entropy (J/K)
𝑄 = heat (J)
𝑇𝐾 = temperature (K)
• Internal Energy (U) is the energy stored within
the body. It is the sum of the kinetic energies of
all its constituent particles plus the sum of all the
potential energies of interaction among these
particles.
• Enthalpy (H) is the heat energy transferred to a
substance at a constant pressure process. It
represents the total useful energy of a substance.
𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉
Where: H = enthalpy, U = internal energy,
P = absolute pressure, V = volume
• Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy cannot be created nor be destroyed, it can
only be transformed from one form to another.
Sum of energy entering = Sum of energy leaving
• Calorimetry is an experimental technique used to
measure the specific heat of a substance.
Calorimetry measurements are made using a
device called a calorimeter.

(-) Heat Lost = (+) Heat Gained

• Clausius Statement (Heat Pump)
Heat energy flows spontaneously from hot body to
cold body
• Kelvin-Planck Statement (Heat Engine)
No heat engine that cycle continuously can change
all its input energy to useful work
• Law of Conservation of Increased Entropy
If system undergoes spontaneous change, its
entropy will increase or at best, remain constant
• Law of Absolute Entropy or Nernst Law
The total entropy of pure substances approaches
zero as the absolute thermodynamic temperature
approaches zero.
• When any two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
with the third body, they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
Note: the third body is usually a thermometer.
• Ideal Gas is defined as one in which all collisions between atoms
or molecules are perfectly elastic and there are no intermolecular
force attractive forces. Ideal gases are gases whose
compressibility factor is equal or very near to 1.0
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹 ഥ 𝑻 𝑷𝑽 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻
P = pressure (in absolute) V = volume
ഥ
𝑹 𝑹ഥ
R = gas constant 𝑹= 𝒌=
𝑴𝑾 𝑵𝑨
MW = molecular weight (kg/mol, gm/mol & lb/lbmol)
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.3806 x 10-23 J/K
𝑅ത = 8.314 J/mol.K N = number of molecules
m = mass (in kg. gm& lb) n = no. of moles
NA = Avogadro’s constant = 6.023 x 1023 atoms/mol
• The value of universal gas constant:
𝐽 𝐵𝑇𝑈 𝐿 − 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑅ത = 8.314 = 1.9859 = 0.0821
𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾 𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜𝑙°𝑅 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾
 𝑪𝒑
𝑹 = 𝑪𝒑 − 𝑪𝒗 𝒌=
𝑪𝒗
𝑹 𝒌𝑹
𝑪𝒗 = 𝑪𝒑 =
𝒌−𝟏 𝒌−𝟏
• Where: Cp = specific heat at constant pressure, Cv = specific heat
at constant volume, k = specific gas ratio, R = gas constant

Note: k = 1.67 for monatomic gases

1.3 for triatomic gases
1.42 for diatomic
 𝑻𝟐
∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 ∆𝑻 = න 𝒎𝑪𝒗 𝒅𝑻
𝑻𝟏
𝑻𝟐
∆𝑯 = 𝒎𝑪𝑷 ∆𝑻 = න 𝒎𝑪𝑷 𝒅𝑻
𝑻𝟏
𝑻𝟐
∆𝑺 = 𝒎𝑪 𝑰𝒏
𝑻𝟏

Where: ΔU = the change in Internal Energy,

ΔH = the change in Enthalpy,
ΔS = the change in Entropy,
m = the mass,
C = the specific heat,
ΔT = the change in temperature
• Boyles Law
In a confined gas, if the absolute temperature is held constant, the
volume is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure.
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏
• Charles Law
In a confined gas, if the absolute pressure is held constant the volume
is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
• Gay-Lussac Law
In a confined gas, if the volume is held constant, the absolute
pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
• General Gas Law (combined Charles and Boyles Laws)
Each one of these law states how one quantity varies with another if
the third quantity remains unchanged, but if the three quantities
change simultaneously, it is necessary to combine these laws in order
to determine the final conditions of the gas.
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
• Avogadro’s Law
At equal volume, at the same temperature and pressure conditions,
the gases contain the same number of molecules.
𝒎𝟏 𝑴𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑴𝟏
= 𝒐𝒓 =
𝒎𝟐 𝑴𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝑴𝟐
Where: m1 & m2 = are masses, M1 & M2 = are molecular weights,
R1 & R2 = are gas constants
A process is any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium
state to another.
A path refers to the series of states through which a system passes during
a process.
Nonflow process is a process that takes place in a closed system.
Example: Compressor
Non flow work is the work in a non flow process
𝟐
𝑾𝒏 = න 𝑷𝒅𝑽
𝟏
Steady flow process is a process that takes place in an open system in
which the quantity of matter within the system is constant. Example: turbine
Steady flow work is the work in a steady flow process.
𝟐
𝑾𝑺 = − න 𝑽𝒅𝑷
𝟏
Where: P = pressure and V = volume
• Reversible and Irreversible Processes - is one in which both the
system an the surroundings are returned to their original states,
otherwise it is an irreversible process

• Cyclic Process - a process which gives the same states/conditions

after the system undergoes a series of processes

• Quasi-static Process - process in which system depart from

equilibrium state only infinitesimally at every instant.
• Isometric or Isochoric or Isovolumic Process
Isometric process is an internally reversible constant volume process of a
working substance.
• Isobaric Process or Isopiestic Process
Isobaric process is an internally reversible constant pressure process of a
working substance
• Isothermal Process
Isothermal Process is an internally reversible constant temperature
process of a working substance.
• Adiabatic Process
Isothermal Process is one in which no heat or other energy is transferred
to or from the system.
➢ Isentropic Process is an adiabatic process in which there is no change in
the system entropy.
➢ Throttling Process is an adiabatic process in which there is no change in
the system enthalpy but for which there is a significant pressure drop.
• Polytropic Process
Polytropic process is an internally reversible process during which PVn =
C, where: n is a constant
• P, V and T relation (V = C)
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
= (Gay-Lussac Law)
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
• PV and TS diagram

• Nonflow work
𝟐
𝑾𝒏 = න 𝑷𝒅𝑽 𝑾𝒏 = 𝟎
𝟏
• Steady flow work
𝟐
𝑾𝑺 = − න 𝑽𝒅𝑷 = 𝑽 𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐
𝟏
• Change in internal energy
∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 ∆𝑻
• Change in enthalpy
∆𝑯 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑 ∆𝑻
• Heat transferred
𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑾𝒏 𝑾𝒏 = 𝟎 𝑸 = ∆𝑼
• Change in Entropy
𝒅𝑸 𝑻𝟐
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎: 𝒅𝑺 = ∆𝑺 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 𝑰𝒏
𝑻 𝑻𝟏
• P, V and T relation (P = C)
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
= (Charles Law)
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
• PV and TS diagram

• Nonflow work
𝟐
𝑾𝒏 = න 𝑷𝒅𝑽 𝑾 𝒏 = 𝑷 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏
𝟏
• Steady flow work
𝟐
𝑾𝑺 = − න 𝑽𝒅𝑷 = 𝟎
𝟏
• Change in internal energy
∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 ∆𝑻
• Change in enthalpy
∆𝑯 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑 ∆𝑻
• Heat transferred
𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑾𝒏 𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑷∆𝑽 𝑸 = ∆𝑯
• Change in Entropy
𝒅𝑸 𝑻𝟐
𝒅𝑺 = ∆𝑺 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑 𝑰𝒏
𝑻 𝑻𝟏
• P, V and T relation (T = C)
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 (Boyle’s Law)
• PV and TS diagram

• Nonflow work
𝟐
𝑪
𝑾𝒏 = න 𝑷𝒅𝑽 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝑷 =
𝟏 𝑽
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑾𝒏 = 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑰𝒏 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻 𝑰𝒏
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏
• Steady flow work
𝟐
𝑪
𝑾𝑺 = − න 𝑽𝒅𝑷 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝑽 =
𝟏 𝑷
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑾𝒔 = 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑰𝒏 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻 𝑰𝒏 = 𝑾𝒏
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏
• Change in internal energy
∆𝑼 = 𝟎
• Change in enthalpy
∆𝑯 = 𝟎
• Heat transferred
𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑾𝒏 𝑸 = 𝑾𝒏
• Change in Entropy
𝒅𝑸 𝑽𝟐
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎: 𝒅𝑺 = ∆𝑺 = 𝒎𝑹 𝑰𝒏
𝑻 𝑽𝟏
• P, V and T relation (S = C or PV k = C)
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝒌𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝒌𝟐 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 − 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝒌−𝟏
𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟐
= 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟏
𝒌−𝟏
𝑻𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝒌
= (𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆)
𝑻𝟐 𝑷𝟐
• PV and TS diagram

• Nonflow work
𝟐
𝑪
𝑾𝒏 = න 𝑷𝒅𝑽 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝑷 = 𝒌
𝟏 𝑽
𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒎𝑹(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )
𝑾𝒏 = =
𝟏−𝒌 𝟏−𝒌
• Steady flow work
𝟐
𝑪
𝑾𝑺 = − න 𝑽𝒅𝑷 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝑽 = 𝒌
𝟏 𝑷
𝒌(𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 ) 𝒌𝒎𝑹 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏
𝑾𝒔 = =
𝟏−𝒌 𝟏−𝒌
𝑾𝒔 = 𝒌 𝑾 𝒏
• Change in internal energy
∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 ∆𝑻 = −𝑾𝒏
• Change in enthalpy
∆𝑯 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑 ∆𝑻
• Heat transferred
𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑾𝒏 𝑸=𝟎 ∆𝑼 = −𝑾𝒏
• Change in Entropy
∆𝑺 = 𝟎
• P, V and T relation (PVn = C)
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝒏𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝒏𝟐 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 − 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝒏−𝟏
𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟐
= 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟏
𝒏−𝟏
𝑻𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝒏
= (𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆)
𝑻𝟐 𝑷𝟐
• PV and TS diagram

• Nonflow work
𝟐
𝑪
𝑾𝒏 = න 𝑷𝒅𝑽 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝑷 = 𝒏
𝟏 𝑽
𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒎𝑹(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )
𝑾𝒏 = =
𝟏−𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
• Steady flow work
𝟐
𝑪
𝑾𝑺 = − න 𝑽𝒅𝑷 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝑽 = 𝒏
𝟏 𝑷
𝒏(𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 ) 𝒏𝒎𝑹 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏
𝑾𝒔 = =
𝟏−𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
𝑾𝒔 = 𝒏 𝑾 𝒏
• Change in internal energy
∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 ∆𝑻 = −𝑾𝒏
• Change in enthalpy
∆𝑯 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑 ∆𝑻
• Heat transferred
𝒌−𝒏
𝑸 = 𝒎𝑪𝒏 ∆𝑻 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝑪𝒏 = 𝑪𝒗
𝟏−𝒏
• Change in Entropy
𝒅𝑸 𝑻𝟐
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎: 𝒅𝑺 = ∆𝑺 = 𝒎 𝑪𝒏 𝑰𝒏
𝑻 𝑻𝟏
The general equation of any process is:
𝑷𝑽𝒏 = 𝑪

• n = 0 (isobaric process)
• n = 1 (isothermal process)
• n = k ( isentropic process)
• n = ∞ (isometric process)
Carnot Cycle is the most efficient thermodynamic cycle. It consists of
two isothermal and two isentropic processes.
• Process 1 -2: isothermal expansion
• Process 2 – 3: isentropic expansion
• Process 3 – 4: isothermal compression
• Process 4 – 1: isentropic compression
Analysis of Carnot Cycle:
• Heat added (QA)
𝑸𝑨 = 𝑻𝒉 (𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 )
• Heat rejected (QR)
𝑸𝑹 = 𝑻𝑳 𝑺𝟑 − 𝑺𝟒 𝑸𝑹 = −𝑻𝑳 (𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 )
• Net work or work done
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑸𝑨 − 𝑸𝑹 𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑻𝑯 − 𝑻𝑳 (𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 )
Where: TH = higher temperature, TL = lower temperature
• Cycle Efficiency
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝑻𝑯 − 𝑻𝑳
𝒆= 𝒆=
𝑸𝑨 𝑻𝑯
Remember Carnot Cycle efficiency can be increased by increasing
higher temperature and lowering the lower temperature.
Refrigeration is the process of transferring heat from a low-
temperature area to a high-temperature area. Since heat flows
spontaneously only from high to low temperature areas according to
the second law of thermodynamics, refrigeration needs an external
energy source to force the heat transfer to occur. This energy source
is a pump or compressor that does work in compressing the
refrigerant. It is necessary to perform this work on the refrigerant in
order to get it to discharge energy to the high-temperature area.
Coefficient of Performance
𝑸𝑨 𝑻𝑳 𝟏
𝑪𝑶𝑷 = = = −𝟏
𝑸𝑹 − 𝑸𝑨 𝑻𝑯 − 𝑻𝑳 𝒆
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑸𝑹 − 𝑸𝑨
SUCCESS occurs

when your DREAMS

get bigger than your
.
EXCUSES