RESEARCH “Individuals develop subjective meanings of
their experiences”
Lesson 1
What is Research
- Systematic investigation into and study of
materials and sources in order to establish
facts and reach new conclusions.
Why Study Research?
- To improve and develop new methods.
- To contribute knowledge and progress.
- To develop better understanding of
published works.
- To develop independent critical thinking
skills along with oral and written
communication skills.
Qualities of a Good Inquirer or Researcher
Care – distinct characteristics of a
researcher
Utility Competency – ability to troubleshoot
during unexpected scenario
Technical Competency – ability to use
available technologies
Effort – time and skill
Service – willingness of the researcher to
serve other, to do good
Patience – intra (within) and extra (outside)
group
Guts and Risk – considering options
Philosophical Worldviews in Research
POST-POSITIVIST – researchers subscribe to the
ides that everything should be quantified to
produce meaningful concrete results.
“We cannot be positive in our claims of
knowledge when studying behavior and
actions of humans”
CONSTRUCTIVIST – researchers believe that
experience expressed through words can paint a
better picture of a certain phenomenon.
TRANSFORMATIVE – researchers support the idea
that research should be conducted to increase
quality of life and produce better societies.
“Research inquiry should be intertwined
with politics and political change agenda”
PRAGMATIC – researchers promote the use of both
qualitative and quantitative data in expressing
research findings.
“We need to look to many possibilities for
collecting and analyzing data”
Research Process
Conceptualization Phase (concept making)
- Topic/Problem Identification
- Review of Literature
- Objective Formulation
Design Phase (planning)
- Research plan Formulation
Empirical phase (data collection)
Analytical Phase (data analysis/interpretation)
Dissemination Phase (communication & utilization)
Terminologies
Method
- What data will be gathered
- Historical (past)
- Descriptive (present)
- Experimental (Future)
Technique
- How data will be gathered
- E.g., Survey, Interview, Doodling
Approach
- How data will be processed
- Quantitative, Qualitative, or Mixed-Method
Research Approaches
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
 - Approach for exploring and understanding
the meaning individuals or ground ascribe
to a social or human problem.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- Approach for testing objectives theories by
examining relationship among variables.
MIXED APPROACH
- Inquiry involving collecting both
quantitative and qualitative data and
integrating the two forms of data.
Research Format:
Traditional – manuscripts are written in by-chapter.
International – manuscripts are written in
Introduction-Method-Result-Discussion (IMRAD)
format based on American Psychological Association
(APA, and 7th Ed. Standards).
Our Lady of Fatima University Research
Development and Innovation Center (OLFU-RDIC)
– promotes the use of APA style and content, use of
6,000-9,000 words range the whole manuscript and
the following sections/outline of the manuscript.
OLFU-RDIC Section/ Outline of the Manuscript
1.0 Introduction – Contextual
2.0 Literature Review – Contextual
3.0 Method – Procedural
4.0 Results – Substantial
5.0 Discussion – Substantial
6.0 Recommendation – Directional
QUALITAIVE
“All research ultimately has a qualitative
grounding” – Donald Campbell
- Aim is complete detailed description.
- Researcher may only know roughly in
advance what he/she is looking for
- The design emerges as the study unfolds
- Researcher is the data-gathering instrument.
Data is in form of words, picture, or object.
- Subjective – individual’s interpretation of
event is important.
Data are richer, time consuming and less
able to be generalized.
- Researchers tends to become subjectively
immersed in the subject matter.
QUANTITATIVE
“There’s no such as qualitative dat. Everything is
either 1 or 0” – Fred Kerlinger
- Aim is to classify features, count them
and construct statistical models.
- Researcher already knows what he/she is
searching for.
- All aspects of the study are carefully
designed before data is collected
- Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaire
or laboratory equipment to collect numerical
data.
- Data is in form of number and statistics
- Objective – seeks precise measurement and
analysis of target concepts.
- Data is core efficient, able to test hypothesis
but may miss contextual detail.
- Researchers tend to remain objectively
separated from the subject matter.
Gantt Chart
- Plan things to do in the following weeks and
months ahead.
- Planning – provides direction and ensures
that you stay focused on the course towards
achieving your goals and objectives.
Lesson 2
Quantitative Research
- Statistical, mathematical, computation
methods
- Expressions are in numerical forms.
Objectivity of data (specific
expectation/standard)
- Aim to find the relationship between one
variable to another
(Significant – proven statistically)
Characteristics
 Clearly defined research question
 Generalize concepts more widely, predict
future results, or investigate casual
relationships
 Gathered using structured research
instruments
 Researchers uses tools, such as
questionnaires
 The results are based on larger sample sizes
that are representative of the population
 Data are in the form of numbers and
statistics, often arranges in tables, charts,
figures, or other non-textual forms
 Can usually be replicated or repeated, given
its high reliability
Quantitative Research Approach
NON-EXPERIMENTAL
Seeks to discover the answer to problem by
describing the data quantitatively or numerically.
The association or connection between
variables.
Determines the relationship of variables but
is incapable of establishing the cause and effect
Lacks manipulation
- Survey Research
o Provides a quantitative description of
trends, attitude, or behavior.
o Most used/Common method
o Form of Questionnaire or Interview
o Cross-sectional Study
 Collects data through observation,
survey, or interview at a specific point
in time.
o Longitudinal Study
 Collects data through observation,
survey, or interview of the same
 subject over a period up and can last up
to several years.
- Correlational Research
o Determine the relationship between two
variables among a single group of people
- Comparative Research
o Examines the differences between
variables.
o Comparisons are based on descriptive
data, showing that a difference exists but
does not imply causation
EXPERIMENTAL
Establishes causality and often used when an
intervention is being studied.
With manipulation of variables
- Quasi Experimental
o How the participants were requited for the
study
o No randomization in the sampling
procedure
- True Experimental
o Researcher has control over the
experiment
o Who, where, when, and how is the
experiment going to be conducted?
o Experiment Group (receives intervention)
& Control Group (unmanipulated) – must
have the similar qualities
o MR.C
 Manipulation
 Randomization
 Control
Lesson 3
Variables
- Defined as anything that has a quantity or
quality that varies
- They are anything that takes on different
values, typically numerical values.
TYPES
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
- This is the presumed cause.
- The independent variable is the variable that
is being manipulated by the researcher
- It is stable and unaffected by the other
variable that is being measured
- X variable
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
- This is the presumed effect
- Assumes the change brought by the other
variable (independent)
- Being measured by the researcher
- Y variable
EXTRANEOUS or ERRONEOUS VARIABLES
- Unwanted variables
- Confounding Variables
o Their presence influences the
outcome of the experiment in an
undesirable way
o Add error
- Major Goal in Quantitative Research
o Limit or control the influence of
extraneous variables
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
- Also called treatment group
- Receives the treatment whose effect the
researcher is interested in
CONTROL GROUP
- No treatment
- A standard treatment whose effect is already
known, or placebo (fake treatment)
Lesson 4
Research Title
Characteristics of a good title
 Contains a few words as possible: many
journals limit titles to 12 words
 Be easy to understand
 Describe the contents of the paper accurately
and specifically
 Avoid abbreviations, formulas, and jargon
 NOT include any verb
 NOT contain low-impact words
o Some notes on…
o Observations on…
o Investigations on…
 o Study of… - Attitudes of elderly Korean patients toward
o Effect of… death and dying: an application of Q-
 Not be flashy as in newspaper methodology
o Avoid statements like 5. Result of the Paper
“Agroforestry can stop - Preventive health behaviors influenced by
deforestation” self-perceptions of aging
 Report the subject of the research than the
results
Lesson 5

Research Problem
Sources of Research Topic
- A clear statement of an inquiry or gap that
1. OWN EXPERIENCE AND INTEREST needs to be addressed through a systematic
- Identify your own interest and formulate a approach
problem that reflects them - Blind Spot
- Familiarity in your territory and terminology o Conflicts
o Existing studies with contradicting
2. COLLEAGUES results
- Brainstorming with friends about problems - Blank Spot
they have encountered may help clarify o Qualitative
research ideas o There is not the same research
3. CRITICAL FRIENDS
o Gaps
- Experts are good sources of research
problems GUIDELINES
4. LITERATURE
- Previous studies and research finding in - Remember, SMART:
which gaps were identified o S – specific
o M – measurable
o A – attainable
3 T’s in selecting Research Topic o R – realistic
T – timely “napapanahon” o T – time bound
- FORMULATE a research problem that
T – trending “nauuso” reflects the significance of seeking solutions
and answers
T – trailblazing “nangingibabaw”
- DO NOT STATE your research
problem/questions that is answerable by yes
or no
Examples of Titles - Research can be stated in a declarative or
1. Interrogative Form interrogative manner.
- What is the motivation for using Facebook? - Make sure that the quantitative research
2. Combinatorial: Question and Title problem is answerable by an appropriate
- Who uses Facebook? An investigation into statistical method.
the relationship between the Big Five, - Formulate a research problem that is aligned
shyness, narcissism, loneliness, and with your research topic
Facebook usage
3. Combinatorial: Powerful Phrase and Title
- Too much face and not enough book: The Lesson 6
relationship between multiple indices of
Review of Related Literature
Facebook use and academic performance
4. Use of Novel Method - Summary of the state of existing knowledge
on a research problem or topic
 - Analysis and synthesis of articles related to
the research topic being studied.
- The processes involve:
o Searching relevant articles
o Reading and analyzing research
reports
o Writing the description of the
existing information on a topic in a
manner that is ethical based on
standards.
PURPOSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
- Allows researcher to identify a research
problem of interest
- Aid the researcher to improve his research
question or hypothesis
- Enables the researcher to discover what are
known and unknown about a certain topic
TYPES
- Research Literature (empirical references)
o Based on research findings
o Data supported by evidence
o E.g., journal articles, literature
reviews, abstracts of research
studies
- Non-research references
o These are literature which are not
based on research findings.
o Can provide insights and may
broaden understanding regarding
a topic
o E.g., literary, or artistic works,
opinion articles, brochures,
magazines, anecdotes.
SOURCES OF RESEARCH LITERATURE
- Primary Source
o These refer to description of
studies written by the researchers
themselves
o E.g., published journals, abstracts,
dissertations, thesis,
undergraduate, presentation (made
by researchers)
- Secondary Source
o Description/interpretation of
studies written by someone else,
other than the researchers who
conducted them
o E.g., literature review, abstract
prepared by a reviewer,
presentation of research done by
someone else
PROCESS OF LITERATURE REVIEW
Composed of several structured steps
1. Searching relevant articles
2. Reading and analyzing research reports
3. Writing the description of the existing
information on a topic in a manner that is
ethical and based on standards
STANDARDS STYLE IN REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE, CITATION OR REFERENCES
Citation
- Signpost
o It signals the location of a source
- An acknowledgement
o Reveals that you are indebted to
that source
- Provides evidence that scholarly writing is
done, and your position is well-researched.
- Appear in different formats
o Within the text (in-text citation)
o At the bottom of the page
(footnotes)
o At the end of the paper (endnotes)
PARAPHRASE
1. Read the text several times until you
understand it
2. Set the work aside to avoid copying
3. Re-write the passage in your own words
4. Record the bibliographic information with
your paraphrased version of the original
PROPERLY CITING SOURCES
- IMPLICIT
o Statement_ (authors, year)
- EXPLICIT
o Author_ Year _ Verb _ Statement
- INTRODUCTORY PHRASE WITH
o Verb _ Author _ Year _ Statement
APA DOCUMENTATION FORMAT

American Psychological Association

Lesson 7  Develop a topic based on previously written
material but ensure that you also write
Plagiarism
something new and original
- The wrongful use of idea or language of  Although you can rely on experts’ opinion
another author and representing them as if regarding a certain topic, ensure that you are
they are your original work contributing by improving upon those
- Using exact words or ideas without citing opinions
the rightful owner of the source is a form of  Do not fail to give credit where and when it
academic dishonesty is due
- Is stealing  Follow a certain documentation format like
the APA
TYPES
Penalties
1. PLAGIARISM OF WORDS
- The use of another author’s exact words - Failing the course
without citing. - Receiving zero
- Suspension
2. PLAGIARISM OF STRUCTURE - Expulsion
- The author cited the source, but he just - Losing earned degree
paraphrased another’s words by
changing sentence construction or word
choice.

3. PLAGIARISM OF IDEAS
- Presenting another’s ideas as if they are
your own without giving the owner
credit.
- Incorrect citation of the original owner
of the idea
4. PLAGIARISM OF AUTHORSHIP
- Turning in a replication of another’s
work
- Submitting a paper from the internet or
friend and presenting it as your own
- The worst type
5. PLAGIARISM OF SELF
- Use of one’s previous work for a
separate assignment or requirement.
- Although the ideas and words are owned
by the author, receiving two credits for a
single output is considered cheating
- Not allowed unless permission is
obtained
Lesson 8
Conceptual Framework
- Graphical representation of concepts under
study and the existing relationships that
exists between or among these concepts.
- Based on existing theory
- The framework is referred to Theoretical
framework
o Study that has its roots in a
specified conceptual model
- Conceptual models – provide a perspective
regarding interrelated phenomena but are
more loosely structured than theories. It
broadly presents an understanding of the
phenomenon of interest and reflects the
assumptions and philosophical views of the
model designer. Serve as springboards for
generating research hypothesis.

PUSH AND PULL FACTORS

Prevention
- Contradicting variables

Lesson 9
Research Hypothesis
- A statement of the researcher’s prediction
about relationships between or among the
variables under investigation
- Predictions of expected outcomes; they
state the relationships researchers expect to
find as a result of the study
- Most quantitative studies are designed to test
hypotheses through statistical analysis.
o Decision Rule: whether to accept or not
the null hypothesis.
 Inferential Statistics: Computed P-
value or sig.2-tailed value
 Level of significance or Alpha level:
default (0.5, 0.1, – margin of error);
assumed expectation
 Alpha level and P-value are being
computed
 If P-value is higher than margin of
error, it will be accepted and vice
versa
Types
According to number of variables
SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS
- A hypothesis which expresses prediction
between one independent (cause) variable
and one dependent (effect) variable
- States a relationship between a single
independent variable, and a single dependent
variable
- *E.g., Unemployment leads to higher
incidence of crime.
COMPLEX HYPOTHESIS
- A prediction of a relationship between more
than one independent variable and/or more
than one dependent variables (also known
as multivariate hypothesis because of the
presence of several variables
- E.g., Illiteracy and unemployment leads to
higher incidence of crime.
According to predicted result
NULL HYPOTHESIS
- No relationship exists between the
dependent and independent variable.
- Symbolized by Ho.
- E.g., The number of books owned by a
student does not affect his academic
performance.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
- Also known as Affirmative Hypothesis.
- Represented by Ha.
- Explicates that a relationship exists
between the dependent and independent
variable
- E.g., Exposure to music affects the level of
anxiety
NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
- States that a relationship or differences
exists between the variables but the direction
of that relationship or difference is not
explicated.
- No specification of the relationship or
difference
- E.g., Health affects the level of stress among
SHS students
DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
- States that a relationship exists between the
variable, and it also explicates the direction
of that relationship.
- E.g., The health of the students decreases as
their level of stress increases.
 POPULATION

- Entire aggregation of the case where a

researcher is interested
Lesson 10
- Often, it is not feasible to include all
Definition of Terms the members of the population in
research
- Concepts or variables need to be defined
based on how they will be used in the study.

CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION SAMPLING

- What a concept means in abstract or - Process of selecting the sample or a
theoretical terms; may be taken from the
portion of the population
dictionary

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
SAMPLE
- Links a concept to the concrete world by
telling you how to observe and/or measure - Subset of the population elements
the concept; this definition made by the
researchers based on how the terms will be
used in a particular field of study.
REPRESENTATIVENESS

- How well the sample represents the

population
- An important characteristic of a sample
must be considered

REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE

- One whose key characteristics closely

approximate those of the population

SAMPLING ERROR
 - Result to overrepresentation or
underrepresentation of some segment
of the population
- Occurs if the selection of the sample
does not take place in the way it was
planned
- Smaller sample size = bigger chance
of sampling error
- The appropriate sample size also
depends in the heterogeneity
(Heterogenous group – bigger size) and
homogeneity (Homogenous group –
smaller size)
o A homogenous mixture is
that  mixture in which the
components mix with each other,
and its composition is uniform
throughout the solution.
o A heterogenous mixture is that
mixture in which the composition
is not uniform throughout, and
different components are observed.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
- There is a form of bias in the selection
of sample
- There is no assurance that each element
in the population has the same equal
chance of being selected
- There is no assurance that each that
each unit in the population is properly
represented
- The findings are limited to the sample
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
- There is random selection of sample
- There is greater representation in each
unit in the population
- Each element in the population has the
same equal chance of being selected as
a sample
- The findings can be generalized to the
population
TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Convenience Sampling
- Selection of samples based on the
convenience of the researcher
- Involves the most conveniently
available people to participate
- Sometimes called Accidental Sampling
Snowball Sampling
- “Referral System”
- “Chain System”
- Initial sample members are asked to
refer other people who meet the criteria
required by the researcher
- People who share the same traits or
experiences know each other
- Useful for participants who are hard to
find
Purposive Sampling
- The selection of the sample is based on
the selective judgment of the researcher
- Judgmental Sampling
- Sets a criterion that is relevant to the
topic under study
Quota Sampling
- Researcher identifies population
sections or strata and decide how many
participants are required from each
section
- Allow better representation from each
unit in the population
- Has requirements/criterion
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Simple Random Sampling
- Each member of the population has the
same equal chance of being selected as
a sample
- Based on chance
- Two methods:
- Fishbowl – write each name on a card
and choose cards through a pure chance
selection.
- Number Generated – known as
sampling frame; give a number to
member and then use randomized or
unordered number in electing name
from the list.
Systematic Random Sampling
- Uses the Kth interval formula
- k=N/n
o k = sampling interval
o n = desired sample
o N = Population
- Sampling interval is the standard
distance between elements chosen for
the sample
Stratified Random Sampling
- Population is divided into subgroups or
strata
- Just like quota sampling, stratification
is based on variables related to the
study
- After stratification, appropriate number
of elements are selected from each
stratum at random
- No requirements/criterion
Cluster Sampling
- Useful when the population is large
and widely dispersed
- Sampling is done in several stages
- Is also called multi-stage sampling
- The resulting design is described in
terms of the number of stages
SAMPLE SIZE IN QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
In a quantitative study, the sample size
is an important aspect that must be carefully
considered. There are existing procedures that
can be used to estimate the appropriate sample
size, but statistical knowledge is required to
understand this procedure. There are no fixed
rules nor simple formulas that can tell us how
large a sample should be when conducting
quantitative studies, but there are
recommendations:
1. The larger the sample size, the better.
Smaller sample size tends to produce less
accurate estimates.
2. If the sample is homogenous, a small
sample size may be adequate. Homogeneity
means that the population elements were all
identical with respect to key attributes.
3. If there is reason to expect that the
independent and dependent variables will be
strongly related, then a relatively small sample
should be adequate to demonstrate the
relationship statistically.
4. For studies that will take a long time to
finish (longitudinal studies) researchers
should factor in anticipated of subjects over
time. Therefore, a larger sample size is
necessary. So, in case there will be a high
attrition or dropouts from the study, the
sample size will still be adequate.
IMPLEMENTING A SAMPLING PLAN IN
QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
Steps in Sampling Quantitative Studies
(Polit and Beck, 2007) The steps to be
undertaken in drawing a sample vary somewhat
from one sampling design to the next, but a
general outline of procedures can be described.
1. Identify the population.
2. Specify the eligibility criteria.
3. Specify the sampling plan.

4. Recruit the sample.

INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
In statistics, before the main analysis,
the data are assuming to meet all the
requirements that a data should have, or a data
should undergo first some preliminary checking
to test if a certain statistical technique is
appropriate for the analysis
HYPOTHESIS
NULL HYPOTHESIS “HO”
- A type of hypothesis which states that
there is no statistical
significance/relationship or effect
existed between two or more groups.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS “Ha”
- Also known as the research hypothesis,
it is the proposed hypothesis or
expected outcome of the research.
LINEAR RELATIONSHIP
- Statistical term used to describe the
relationship between two sets of data.
NONPARAMETRIC STATISTICS
- Type of statistics that should be use
when the data violated the requirements
for a parametric test (i.e., if the data are
not
*Normally Distributed; or if the
measurements of the data are on an
ordinal scale etc.)
PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
- When the data are in interval level and
are *Normally Distributed, parametric
statistics is a type of statistics that
should be use.
- Always superior to Nonparametric
counterpart for decidedly Normal
population.
P value
- When performing a hypothesis test, a p
(probability) value helps to determine
the significance of the results. In
decision making, a p-value that has a
value which is less than 0.05 (a)
indicates significance.
RELATIONSHIP
NEGATIVE RELATIONSHIP
- Also called as inverse relationship.
Aside from the test statistic having a
negative value, the correlation between
two variables is said to have a
negative/inverse relationship as the
amount of one variable increases, the
level of another variable goes down.
POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP
- Or a direct relationship whereas the
amount of one variable increases, the
amount of a second variable also
increases.
SAMPLE
- Is a relatively small subset of people,
objects, groups, or events that is
selected from the population
TEST STATISTIC
- It is considered as numerical summary
of a data – set that reduces the data to
one value that can be used to perform a
hypothesis test.
VARIABLES
- In research, it is a logical set of
attributes, factors that can be controlled
or change in experiment/research
TYPES OF VARIABLES
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
 - It is the variable that the researchers
have control over, can be choose and
manipulated. Usually, it is what the
researcher think will affect the
dependent variable
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
- Represented as “Y”, it is the response
variable or the presumed effect in a
study which can be measured in interval
or nominal scale.
DIFFERENTIAL STATISTICS
- It is the statistical procedures that the
researcher uses
- To describe the population, they are
studying
INFFERENTIAL STATISTICS
- It is the statistics that is concerned with
making predictions or inference
- About a population from observations
and analysis using a sample and can
generalize it to the larger population
that the sample represents
MEASUREMENT SCALES
To accurately represent the concept of
interest, measurement of the variables is
essential and is instrumental in the selection of
the appropriate statistical method of analysis.
Based on the types of attributes or
characteristics the data represent, it can be
classified into one of two categories: nonmetric
and metric.
METRIC MEASUREMENT SCALES
- Data that are metrically are used when
subjects differ in amount or degree on a
particular attribute. Metric data reflects
relative quantity or degree and are
appropriate for attributes involving
amount or magnitude, i.e., Level of
satisfaction
INTERVAL SCALES
- Distances between data elements can be
determined at the interval level of
measurement. In other words, the
interval is the same. Oftentimes in
psychology things are measured by a
Likert scale in which one rates a
statement (often by how much they
agree with the statement).
- Arbitrary zero (the starting point) (can
be negative/positive) (temperature)
RATIO SCALES
- Possess the advantage of all other
measurement scales for it is the only
measurement that can be analyzed with
the widest range of statistical methods
which makes it as the highest form of
measurement precision. It has all the
components of an interval scale but
here, the zero point is meaningful and
means the absence of whatever it is
measuring. Common examples are age,
height, weight, test, and heart rate.
- Absolute Zero
NONMETRIC MEASUREMENT SCALES
- Describes differences in type or kind by
indicating the presence or absence of a
characteristics or property.
NOMINAL SCALES
- Nominal level (or categorical) data
refers to data that can only be put into
groups. It only represents categories or
classes and do not imply amounts of an
attributes or characteristics. Commonly
used examples of nominally scaled data
include many demographic attributes
(e.g., gender, religion, occupation).
ORDINAL SCALES
- In the case of ordinal scales, variables
can be ordered or ranked in relation to
the amount of the attribute possessed,
Ordinal scales provide no measure of
the actual amount or magnitude in
 absolute terms, only the order of the
values.
- The researcher knows the order, but not
the amount of differences between the
values
SAMPLING
- Method
- From one population you will get
representatives on the in the way of
your sampling technique
POPULATION
- Entire aggregation
SAMPLE
- Representative
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
- Equal chances
SIMPLE – Fish-bowl method
STRATIFIED – group/target number of
requirements
SYSTEMATIC – kth interval (n/N)
CLUSTER – multistage sampling, the
population is too big (levels)
NON-PROBABILITY
- Not Equal – biased
PURPOSIVE – Set of criteria
QOUTA – group/target number of
requirements/requirements
SNOWBALL – referral, chain system
CONVENIENCE –
proximity/accessibility
MEASUREMENT OF SCALES
METRIC
- Specific values
INTERVAL – Arbitrary zero – possible
negative values (temperature, Likert
scale)
RATIO – Absolute zero – NO negative
values (test scores, salary)
NONMETRIC
- Categories/ranking
ORDINAL – ranking, orders (birth
order, academic awards)
NOMINAL – categories
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
- What to use as statistical analysis based
on the group, measurement of scale,
etc.
CORRELATION
- Measuring 2 Continuous Variables if
there is a relationship in the two
variables.
o Continuous Variable – both
variables are measurable
o Example:
ALLOWANCE MOTIVATION
Pearson’s Product Moment
Correlation
(PEARSON’S R)
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

- INDEPENDENT T-TEST - Comparing the P VALUE and

o Comparing two groups SIGNIFICANT VALUE
o If P value is lower than (<)
Example: significant value = reject Ho
Measuring the Motivation of: o If the P value is higher than (>)
significant value = accept Ho
1. Modular Students
2. Online Class students (OCR) Example:

P value – 0.001
- ONE-WAY ANOVA
o Comparing 3 or more groups Significance – 0.05

Example: o Reject Null Hypothesis (Ho) –

there is a significance
Comparing the 4 Strands in
SHS: STEM, HUMMS, GAS, ABM
P value – 0.73

Significance – 0.05
- PRE-TEST & POST-TEST
o 1 group – experimentation and o Accept Null Hypothesis (Ho) –
want to know if the group will there is no significance
improve

Example: Study about effects of

diet – if the weight will decrease?

o The other test already has

experiment and the other test
have none
o PAIRED T-TEST –
INTERVENTION (experiment,
pre-test, post-test)

MANUSCRIPT

RESEARCH LOCALE

- Geographic

RESEARCH DESIGN

- Approach/comparative or correlation

RESEARCH ETHICS

- Ethical, citations, consent, etc.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

- Tools