DR.

BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR
TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, LONERE

P. S. G. V. P. MANDAL’S
D. N. PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
SHAHADA, DIST- NANDURBAR

A
SEMINAR
ON

“HIGH VOLTAGE DC TRANSMISSION LINE”

SUBMITTED BY

Mrs. YAMINI KANHAIYALAL PATIL

(2051641293031)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

PROF. PANKAJ R. PATIL
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
YEAR 2022-23
 P. S. G. V. P. MANDAL’S
D. N. PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
SHAHADA, DIST. NANDURBAR

This is to certify that

Mrs. YAMINI KANHAIYALAL PATIL

(2051641293031)

Have been satisfactorily completed

Seminar entitled on
“HIGH VOLTAGE DC TRANSMISSION LINE”

As a part of syllabus of

DR. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR TECHNOLOGICAL

UNIVERSITY, LONERE

For the partial fulfillment of Bachelor of Technology in

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
In the Academic Year
2022-23

SEMINAR GUIDE H.O.D.

PROF. PANKAJ R. PATIL PROF. Smt. K.A. PATEL

PRINCIPAL
EXTERNAL PROF. Dr. N. J. PATIL
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is a privilege for us to have been associated with Prof. PANKAJ R. PATIL sir, our
guide, during this project work. We are thankful to him, for his constant inspiration and
valuable guidance, carefully reading and editing our work and always boosting our confidence
to complete work.

We express our gratitude to Prof. Dr. N. J. Patil, Principal and Prof. Smt. K. A. Patel,
Head Department of Electrical Engineering, for their constant encouragement, co-operation,
valuable guidance, and support. We express our sincere thanks to our academic and class
coordinators Prof. Pankaj R. Patil and all the faculty members of the Electrical Department
for their unfailing inspiration.

We take this opportunity to thank all our classmates for their company during the course
work and for the useful discussions, we had with them.

We would be failing in our duties if we do not make a mention of our family members
including our parents and our siblings for providing moral support, without which this work
would not have been completed.

This kind of work cannot be finished without any others help, even some of them have
not aware of their contribution and importance in producing this report. It is a great pleasure
for us to take this opportunity to express our gratefulness to all.

NAME: - YAMINI KANHAIYALAL PATIL

PRN NO: - 2051641293031
ROLL NO: - 52

ii
 INDEX

Chapter Name of Topic Page No

Certificate i

Acknowledgement ii

Index of Figures v

Abstract vi

Chapter-1 Introduction 1

Chapter-2 HVDC Technology 2

2.1 Need for DC transmission 3

2.2 Advantages of HVDC Over AC Transmission 4

2.3 Disadvantages 6

2.4 Rectifying and Inverting 7

2.4.1 Components 7

2.4.2 Rectifying & Inverting Systems 8

2.5 Configurations of HVDC System 9

2.5.1 Monopole an Earth Return 9

2.5.2 Bipolar 10

2.5.3 Back-to-Back 11

2.6 Systems with Transmission lines 12

2.7 Corona Discharge 12

iii
 2.8 Areas for Development In HVDC Converters 13

Chapter-3 HVDC Light Technology 15

3.1 HVDC Light Installation 17

3.1.1 HVDC Light Characteristics 17

3.1.2 Control of Active & Reactive Power 18

3.1.3 Robust Against Grid Alterations 18

3.2 The Cable System 18

3.3 Applications 19

3.3.1 Overhead Lines 19

3.3.2 Replacing Local Generation 19

3.3.3 Connecting Remote Power Grids 20

3.3.4 Asynchronous links 20

Chapter-4 Short Circuit Contribution of HVDC Light 21

4.1 Investigation of Short Circuit Currents 21

4.1.1 Studied Ac System 21

4.1.2 The Impact of Strength of AC Networks 22

4.1.3 The Impact of control Modes 24

4.1.4 The Impact of Operation Point 24

4.1.5 The Impact OF Fault types And Location 25

4.1.6 Line Current During Faults 26

Chapter-5 Conclusion 27

References 28

iv
 INDEX OF FIGURES

No Name of Figures Page No

2.1 Block diagram of a Monopole System with Earth Return 9

2.2 Block diagram of a Bipolar system also has Earth Return 10
3.1 HVDC Light Transmission System 17
4.1 SLD of Studied Ac System 22
4.2 Characteristic showing the impact of AC network strength 23

v
 ABSTRACT

The development of HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) transmission system dates
back to the 1930s when mercury arc rectifiers were invented. Since the 1960s, HVDC
transmission system is now a mature technology and has played a vital part in both long-
distance transmission and in the interconnection of systems. Transmitting power at high
voltage and in DC form instead of AC is a new technology proven to be economic and
simple in operation which is HVDC transmission. HVDC transmission systems, when
installed, often form the backbone of an electric power system. Theycombine high reliability
with a long useful life. An HVDC link avoids some of the disadvantages and limitations of
AC transmission. HVDC transmission refers to that the AC power generated at a power plant
is transformed into DC power before its transmission. At the inverter (receiving side), it is
then transformed back into its original AC power and then supplied to each household. Such
power transmission method makes it possible to transmit electric power in an economic
way.

HVDC Light is the newly developed HVDC transmission technology, which is based
on extruded DC cables and voltage source converters consisting of Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistors (IGBT’s) with high switching frequency. It is a high voltage, direct current
transmission Technology i.e., Transmission up to 330MW and for DC voltage in the ±
150kV range. Under stricter environmental and economical constraints due to the
deregulation, the HVDC Light provides the most promising solution to power transmission
and distribution. The new system results in many application opportunities and new
applications in turn bring up new issues of concern. One of the most concerned issues from
customers is the contribution of HVDC Light to short circuit currents. The main reason for
being interested in this issue is that the contribution of the HVDC Light to short circuit
currents may have some significant impact on the ratings for the circuit breakers in the
existing AC systems. This paper presents a comprehensive investigation on one of the
concerned issues, which is the contribution of HVDC Light to short circuit currents.

vi
 Chapter-1

Introduction

The development of HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) transmission system dates
back to the 1930s when mercury arc rectifiers were invented. In 1941, the first HVDC
transmission system contract for a commercial HVDC system was placed: 60MWwere to be
supplied to the city of Berlin through an underground cable of 115 km in length. It was only
in 1954 that the first HVDC (10MW) transmission system was commissioned in Gotland.
Since the 1960s, HVDC transmission system is now a mature technology and has played a
vital part in both long-distance transmission and in the interconnection of systems’
transmission systems, when installed, often form the backbone of an electric power system.
They combine high reliability with a long useful life. Their core component is the power
converter, which serves as the interface to the AC transmission system. The conversion from
AC to DC, and vice versa, is achieved by controllable electronic switches (valves) in a 3-
phase bridge configuration.

A new transmission and distribution technology, HVDC Light, makes it economically

feasible to connect small scale, renewable power generation plants to the main AC grid. Vice
versa, using the very same technology, remote locations as islands, mining districts and
drilling platforms can be supplied with power from the main grid, thereby eliminating the
need for inefficient, polluting local generation such as diesel units. The voltage, frequency,
active and reactive power can be controlled precisely and independently of each other. This
technology also relies ona new type of underground cable which can replace overhead lines
at no cost penalty. Equally important, HVDC Light has
control capabilities that are not present or possible even in the most sophisticated AC.

1
 Chapter-2

HVDC TECHNOLOGY

Electric power transmission was originally developed with direct current. A high-
voltage,
direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system uses direct current for the bulk
transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the more common alternating current
systems. For long-distance transmission, HVDC systems may be less expensive and suffer
lower electrical losses. For shorter distances, the higher cost of DC conversion equipment
compared to an AC system may be warranted where other benefits of direct current links are
useful.

High voltage is used for electric power transmission to reduce the energy lost in the
resistance of the wires. For a given quantity of power transmitted, higher voltage reduces the
transmission power loss. The power lost as heat in the wires is proportional to the square of
the current. So, if a given power is transmitted at higher voltage and lower current, power loss
in the wires is reduced. Power loss can also be reduced by reducing resistance, for example
by increasing the diameter of the conductor, but larger conductors are heavier and more
expensive.

High voltages cannot easily be used for lighting and motors, and so transmission-level
voltages must be reduced to values compatible with end-use equipment.
Transformers are used to change the voltage level in alternating current (AC) transmission
circuits. The competition between the direct current (DC) of Thomas Edison and the AC of
Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse was known as the War of Currents, with AC
becoming dominant. Practical manipulation of DC voltages became possible with the
development of high-power electronic devices such as mercury arc valves and, more
recently, semiconductor devices such as thyristors, insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs),
highpower MOSFETs and gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs)

2
 DC transmission now became practical when long distances were to be covered or where
cables were required. The development of HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current)transmission
system dates back to the 1930s when mercury arc rectifiers were invented. HVDC
transmission systems, when installed, often form the backbone of anelectric power system.
They combine high reliability with a long useful life. Their core component is the power
converter, which serves as the interface to the AC transmission system. The conversion from
AC to DC, and vice versa, is achieved by controllable electronic switches (valves) in a 3-
phase bridge configuration.

An HVDC link avoids some of the disadvantages and limitations of AC transmission and
has the following advantages:

• No technical limit to the length of a submarine cable connection.

• No requirement that the linked systems run in synchronism.

• No increase to the short circuit capacity imposed on AC switchgear.

• Immunity from impedance, phase angle, frequency or voltage fluctuations.

• Preserves independent management of frequency and generator control.

• Improves both the AC system’s stability and, therefore, improves the internalpower
carrying
• capacity, by modulation of power in response to frequency, power swing orline rating.

2.1 NEED FOR DC TRANSMISSION

The losses in DC transmission are lower. The level of losses is designed into a
transmission system and is regulated by the size of conductor selected. DC and ac conductors,
either as overhead transmission lines or submarine cables can have lower losses but at higher
expense since the larger cross-sectional area will generally result in lower losses but cost
more.

When converters are used for dc transmission in preference to ac transmission, it is

generally by economic choice driven by one of the following reasons:

3
 An overhead dc transmission line with its towers can be designed to be less costly per
unit of length than an equivalent ac. line designed to transmit the same level of electric power.
However, the dc converter stations at each end are more costly than the terminating stations
of an ac line and so there is a breakeven distance above which the total cost of dc transmission
is less than its ac transmission alternative. The dc transmission line can have a lower visual
profile than an equivalent ac line and so contributes to a lower environmental impact. There
are other environmental advantages to a dc transmission line through the electric and magnetic
fields being dc instead of ac.

If transmission is by submarine or underground cable, the breakeven distance is much

less than overhead transmission. It is not practical to consider ac cable systems exceeding 50
km but dc cable transmission systems are in service whose length is in the hundreds of
kilometers and even distances of 600 km or greater have been considered feasible.
Some ac electric power systems are not synchronized to neighboring networks even
though their physical distances between them is quite small. This occurs inJapan where half
the country is a 60 Hz network and the other is a 50 Hz system. It is physically impossible to
connect the two together by direct ac methods in order to exchange electric power between
them. However, if a dc converter station is located in each system with an interconnecting dc
link between them, it is possible to transfer the required power flow even though the ac
systems so connected remain asynchronous.

2.2 ADVANTAGES OF HVDC OVER AC TRANSMISSION

The advantage of HVDC is the ability to transmit large amounts of power over long
distances with lower capital costs and with lower losses than AC. Depending on voltage level
and construction details, losses are quoted as about 3% per 1,000 km. High-voltage direct
current transmission allows efficient use of energy sources remote from load centers.
In a number of applications HVDC is more effective than AC transmission.
Examples include:
• Undersea cables, where high capacitance causes additional AC losses. (e.g., 250 km
Baltic Cable between Sweden and Germany the 600 km Nor Ned cable between
Norway and the Netherlands, and 290 km Bass link between the Australian mainland
and Tasmania)

4
 • Endpoint-to-endpoint long-haul bulk power transmission without intermediate 'taps',
for example, in remote areas
• Increasing the capacity of an existing power grid in situations where additionalwires
are difficult or expensive to install
• Power transmission and stabilization between unsynchronized AC distribution
systems
• Connecting a remote generating plant to the distribution grid, for example Nelson
River Bippolo
• Stabilizing a predominantly AC power-grid, without increasing prospective short
circuit current
• Reducing line cost. HVDC needs fewer conductors as there is no need to support
multiple phases. Also, thinner conductors can be used since HVDC does not suffer
from the skin effect
• Facilitate power transmission between different countries that use AC at differing
voltages and/or frequencies
• Synchronize AC produced by renewable energy source

Long undersea / underground high voltage cables have a high electrical capacitance,
since the conductors are surrounded by a relatively thin layer of insulation and a metal sheath
while the extensive length of the cable multiplies the area between the conductors. The
geometry is that of a long co-axial capacitor. Where alternating current is used for cable
transmission, this capacitance appears in parallel with load.Additional current must flow in
the cable to charge the cable capacitance, which generates additional losses in the
conductors of the cable. Additionally, there isa dielectric loss component in the material
of the cable insulation, which consumes power.
When, however, direct current is used, the cable capacitance is charged only when the cable
is first energized or when the voltage is changed; there is no steady-state additional current
required. For a long AC undersea cable, the entire current- carrying capacity of the conductor
could be used to supply the charging current alone.

The cable capacitance issue limits the length and power carrying capacity of AC
cables. DC cables have no such limitation, and are essentially bound by only Ohm's Law.

5
Although some DC leakage current continues to flow through the dielectric insulators, this is
very small compared to the cable rating and much less than withAC transmission cables.
HVDC can carry more power per conductor because, for a given power rating, the constant
voltage in a DC line is the same as the peak voltage in an AC line. The power delivered in an
AC system is defined by the root mean square (RMS) of an AC voltage, but RMS is only
about 71% of the peak voltage. The peak voltage of AC determines the actual insulation
thickness and conductor spacing.Because DC operates at a constant maximum voltage, this
allows existing transmission line corridors with equally sized conductors and insulation to
carry morepower into an area of high-power consumption than AC, which can lower costs.

Because, HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC distribution

systems, it can help increase system stability, by preventing cascading failures from
propagating from one part of a wider power transmission grid to another. Changes in load that
would cause portions of an AC network to become unsynchronized and separate would not
similarly affect a DC link, and the power flow through the DC linkwould tend to stabilize the
AC network. The magnitude and direction of power flow through a DC link can be directly
commanded, and changed as needed to support theAC networks at either end of the DC link.
This has caused many power system operators to contemplate wider use of HVDC technology
for its stability benefits alone.

2.3 DISADVANTAGES

The disadvantages of HVDC are in conversion, switching, control, availability and

maintenance...HVDC is less reliable and has lower availability than AC systems, mainly due
to the extra conversion equipment. Single pole systems have availability of about 98.5%, with
about a third of the downtime unscheduled due to faults. Fault redundant bipolar systems
provide high availability for 50% of the link capacity, but availability of the full capacity is
about 97% to 98%.

The required static inverters are expensive and have limited overload capacity.

At smaller transmission distances the losses in the static inverters may be bigger than
in an AC transmission line. The cost of the inverters may not be offset by reductions in line

6
construction cost and lower line loss. With two exceptions, all former mercury rectifiers
worldwide have been dismantled or replaced by thyristor units. Pole 1 of the HVDC
scheme between the North and South Islandsof New Zealand still uses mercury arc rectifiers,
as does Pole 1 of the Vancouver Island link in Canada. Both are currently being replaced – in
New Zealand by a new thyristor pole and in Canada by a three-phase AC link. In contrast to
AC systems, realizing multi-terminal systems is complex, as is expanding existing schemes
to multi-terminal systems.

Controlling power flow in a multi-terminal DC system requires good communication

between all the terminals; power flow must be actively regulated by the inverter control
system instead of the inherent impedance and phase angle properties of the transmission line.
Multi-terminal lines are rare. Another example is the Sardinia- mainland Italy link which was
modified in 1989 to also provide power to the island of Corsica.

High voltage DC circuit breakers are difficult to build because some mechanism must
be included in the circuit breaker to force current to zero, otherwise arcing and contact
wear would be too great to allow reliable switching. Operating a HVDC scheme requires
many spare parts to be kept, often exclusively for one system as HVDC systems are less
standardized than AC systems and technology changes faster.

2.4 RECTIFYING AND INVERTING

2.4.1 Components

Most of the HVDC systems in operation today are based on Line-Commutated

Converters. Early static systems used mercury arc rectifiers, which were unreliable. Two
HVDC systems using mercury arc rectifiers are still in service (As of 2008). The thyristor
valve was first used in HVDC systems in the 1960s. The thyristor is a solid-state
semiconductor device similar to the diode, but with an extra control terminal that is used to
switch the device on at a particular instant during the AC cycle. The insulated-gate bipolar
transistor (IGBT) is now also used, forming a Voltage Sourced Converter, and offers
simpler control, reduced harmonics and reduced valve cost.
Because the voltages in HVDC systems, up to 800 kV in some cases, exceed

7
the breakdown voltages of the semiconductor devices, HVDC converters are built using large
numbers of semiconductors in series. The low-voltage control circuits used to switch the
thyristors on and off need to be isolated from the high voltages present on the transmission
lines.
This is usually done optically. In a hybrid control system, the low -voltage control electronics
sends light pulses along optical fibers to the high-side control electronics.Another system,
called direct light triggering, dispenses with the high-side electronics, instead using light
pulses from the control electronics to switch light- triggered thyristors. A complete
switching element is commonly referred to as a valve, irrespective of its construction.

2.4.2 Rectifying & Inverting Systems

Rectification and inversion use essentially the same machinery. Many substations
(Converter Stations) are set up in such a way that they can act as both rectifiers andinverters.
At the AC end a set of transformers, often three physically separated single-phase
transformers, isolate the station from the AC supply, to provide a earth, and to ensure the
correct eventual DC voltage. The output of these transformers is then connected to a bridge
rectifier formed by a number of valves. The basic configuration uses six valves, connecting
each of the three phases to each of the two DC rails. However, with a phase change only every
sixty degrees, considerable harmonics remain on the DC rails.

An enhancement of this configuration uses 12 valves (often known as a twelve-pulse

system). The AC is split into two separate three phase supplies before transformation. One
of the sets of supplies is then configured to have a star secondary, the other a delta secondary,
establishing a thirty-degree phase differencebetween the two sets of three phases. With twelve
valves connecting each of the two sets of three phases to the two DC rails, there is a phase
change every 30 degrees, and harmonics are considerably reduced.

In addition to the conversion transformers and valve-sets, various passive resistive and
reactive components help filter harmonics out of the DC rails.

8
2.5 CONFIGURATIONS OF HVDC SYSTEM:

2.5.1 Monopole and Earth Return

In a common configuration, called monopole, one of the terminals of the rectifier is

connected to earth ground. The other terminal, at a potential high above or below ground, is
connected to a transmission line. The earthed terminal may be connected to the corresponding
connection at the inverting station by means of a second conductor.
If no metallic conductor is installed, current flows in the earth between the earth electrodes at
the two stations.

Figure No 2.1: Block diagram of a monopole system with earth return

Therefore, it is a type of single wire earth return. The issues surrounding earth-returncurrent
include:
• Electrochemical corrosion of long buried metal objects such as pipelines.

• Underwater earth-return electrodes in seawater may produce chlorine or otherwise

affect water chemistry.
• An unbalanced current path may result in a net magnetic field, which can affect
magnetic navigational compasses for ships passing over an underwater cable.

These effects can be eliminated with installation of a metallic return conductor between the
two ends of the monopolar transmission line. Since one terminal of the converters is connected
to earth, the return conductor need not be insulated for the full transmission voltage which
makes it less costly than the high-voltage conductor.

9
 Use of a metallic return conductor is decided based on economic, technical and
environmental factors. Modern monopolar systems for pure overhead lines carry typically
1,500 MW. If underground or underwater cables are used, the typical value is 600 MW. Most
monopolar systems are designed for future bipolar expansion. Transmission line towers may
be designed to carry two conductors, even if only oneis used initially for the monopole
transmission system. The second conductor is either unused or used as electrode line or
connected in parallel with the other (as in case of Baltic-Cable).

2.5.2 Bipolar

In bipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential with

respect to ground, in opposite polarity. Since these conductors must be insulated for the full
voltage, transmission line cost is higher than a monopole with a return conductor.

Figure No 2.2: Block diagram of a bipolar system that also has an earth return.

However, there are a number of advantages to bipolar transmission which can make it the
attractive option.
• Under normal load, negligible earth-current flows, as in the case of monopolar
transmission with a metallic earth-return. This reduces earth return loss and
environmental effects.

• When a fault develops in a line, with earth return electrodes installed at each end of
the line, approximately half the rated power can continue to flow usingthe earth as a

10
 return path, operating in monopolar mode.

• Since for a given total power rating each conductor of a bipolar line carries only half
the current of monopolar lines, the cost of the second conductor is reduced compared
to a monopolar line of the same rating.

• In very adverse terrain, the second conductor may be carried on an independent set of
transmission towers, so that some power may continue to be transmitted even if one
line is damaged.
A bipolar system may also be installed with a metallic earth return conductor. Bipolar systems
may carry as much as 3,200 MW at voltages of +/-600 kV. Submarinecable installations
initially commissioned as a monopole may be upgraded withadditional cables and operated
as a bipolar.

2.5.3 Back-to-Back

A back-to-back station (or B2B for short) is a plant in which both static inverters and
rectifiers are in the same area, usually in the same building.
The length of the direct current line is kept as short as possible. HVDC back-to-backstations
are used for:

• Coupling of electricity mains of different frequency (as in Japan; and the GCC
interconnection between UAE [50 Hz] and Saudi Arabia [60 Hz] under construction
in ±2009–2011).
• Coupling two networks of the same nominal frequency but no fixed phase relationship
(as until 1995/96 in NetEnrich, Darrah, Vienna, and the Vyborg HVDC scheme).
• Different frequency and phase number (for example, as a replacement for traction
current converter plants).

The DC voltage in the intermediate circuit can be selected freely at HVDC back-to-
back stations because of the short conductor length. The DC voltage is as low as possible, in
order to build a small valve hall and to avoid series connections of valves. For this
reason, at HVDC back-to-back stations valves with the highest available current rating are
use

11
2.6 SYSTEMS WITH TRANSMISSION LINES

The most common configuration of an HVDC link is two inverter/rectifier stations

connected by an overhead power line. This is also a configuration commonly used in
connecting unsynchronized grids, in long-haul power transmission, and in undersea cables.
Multi-terminal HVDC links, connecting more than two points, are rare. The configuration of
multiple terminals can be series, parallel, or hybrid (a mixture of series and parallel). Parallel
configuration tends to be used for large capacity stations, and series for lower capacity
stations. An example is the 2,000 MW Quebec - New England Transmission system opened
in 1992, which is currently the largest multi-terminal HVDC system in the world.

2.7 CORONA DISCHARGE

Corona discharge is the creation of ions in air by the presence of a strong electric field.
Electrons are torn from neutral air, and either the positive ions or the electrons are attracted
to the conductor, while the charged particles drift. This effect can cause considerable power
loss, create audible and radio-frequency interference, generate toxic compounds such as
oxides of nitrogen and ozone, and bring forth arcing.

Both AC and DC transmission lines can generate coronas, in the former case in the form
of oscillating particles, in the latter a constant wind. Due to the space charge formed
around the conductors, an HVDC system may have about half the loss per unit length of a
high voltage AC system carrying the same amount of power. Withmonopolar transmission
the choice of polarity of the energized conductor leads to a degree of control over the corona
discharge.
In particular, the polarity of the ions emitted can be controlled, which may have an
environmental impact on particulate condensation. (Particles of different polarities have a
different mean-free path.) Negative coronas generate considerably more ozone than positive
coronas, and generate it further downwind of the power line, creating the potential for health
effects. The use of a positive voltage will reduce the ozone impacts of monopole HVDC
power lines.

12
2.8 AREAS FOR DEVELOPMENT IN HVDC CONVERTERS

The thyristor as the key component of a converter bridge continues to be developed so that
its voltage and current rating is increasing.
Gate-turn-off thyristors (GTOs) and insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are
required for the voltage source converter (VSC) converter bridge configuration. It is the VSC
converter bridge which is being applied in new developments. Its special properties include
the ability to independently control real and reactive power at the connection bus to the ac
system. Reactive power can be either capacitive or inductive and can be controlled to quickly
change from one to the other.

A voltage source converter as in inverter does not require an active ac voltage source
to commutate into as does the conventional line commutated converter. The VSC inverter can
generate an ac three phase voltage and supply electricity to a load as the only source of
power. It does require harmonic filtering, harmonic cancellation or pulse width modulation
to provide an acceptable ac voltage wave shape. Two applications are now available for the
voltage source converter. The first is for

low voltage dc converters applied to dc distribution systems. The first application of a

dc distribution system in 1997 was developed in Sweden and known as “HVDC Light”. Other
applications for a dc distribution system may be:
1. In a dc feeder to remote or isolated loads, particularly if underwater orunderground
cable is necessary.
2. For a collector system of a wind farm where cable delivery and optimum and
individual speed control of the wind turbines is desired for peak turbine efficiency.
The second immediate application for the VSC converter bridges is in back-to-back
configuration. The back-to-back VSC link is the ultimate transmission and power flow
controller. It can control and reverse power flow easily, and control reactive power
independently on each side. With a suitable control system, it can control power to
enhance and preserve ac system synchronism, and act as a rapid phase angle power
flow regulator with 360-degree range of control.
There is considerable flexibility in the configuration of the VSC converter bridges.
Another option is to use multilevel converter bridges to provide harmonic cancellation.

13
Additionally, both two level and multilevel converter bridges can utilize pulse width
modulation to eliminate low order harmonics. With pulse width modulation, high pass filters
may still be required since PWM adds to the higher order harmonics. As VSC converter bridge
technology develops for higher dc voltage applications, it will be possible to eliminate
converter transformers. This is possible with the low voltage applications in use today. It is
expected the exciting developments in power electronics will continue to provide exciting
new configurations and applications for HVDC converters.

14
 Chapter-3

HVDC LIGHT TECHNOLOGY

A new transmission and distribution technology, HVDC Light, makes it economically

feasible to connect small-scale, renewable power generation plants to the main AC grid. Vice
versa, using the very same technology, remote locations as islands, mining districts and
drilling platforms can be supplied with power from the main grid, thereby eliminating the
need for inefficient, polluting local generation such as dieselunits. The voltage, frequency,
active and reactive power can be controlled precisely and independently of each other. This
technology also relies on a new type of underground cable which can replace overhead lines
at no cost penalty. Equally important, HVDC Light has control capabilities that are not present
or possible even in the most sophisticated AC systems.
As its name implies, HVDC Light is a dc transmission technology. However, it is
different from the classic HVDC technology used in a large number of transmission schemes.
Classic HVDC technology is mostly used for large point-to-point transmissions, often over
vast distances across land or under water. It requires fast communications channels between
the two stations, and there must be large rotating units - generators or synchronous
condensers - present in the AC networks atboth ends of the transmission.
HVDC Light consists of only two elements: a converter station and a pair of ground
cables. The converters are voltage source converters, VSC’s. The outputs from the VSC’s are
determined by the control system, which does not require any communications links between
the different converter stations. Also, they don’t need to rely on the AC network’s ability to
keep the voltage and frequency stable. These features make it possible to connect the
converters to the points bests suited for the ac system as a whole.
The converter station is designed for a power range of 1-100 MW and for a dc voltage
in the 10-100 kV range. One such station occupies an area of less than 250 sq. meters(2 700
sq. ft), and consists of us a few elements: two containers for the converters and the control
system, three small AC air-core reactors, a simple harmonics filter and some cooling fans.

The converters are using a set of six valves, two for each phase, equipped with high
power transistors, IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor). The valves are controlled by a
computerized control system by pulse width modulation, PWM. Since the IGBTs can be

15
switched on or off at will, the output voltages and currents on the AC side can be controlled
precisely.
The control system automatically adjusts the voltage, frequency and flow of active and
reactive power according to the needs of the AC system. The PWM technology has been tried
and tested for two decades in switched power supplies for electronic equipment as computers.
Due to the new, high power IGBTs, the PWM technology can now be used for high power
applications as electric power transmission. HVDC Light can be used with regular overhead
transmission lines, but it reaches its full potential when used with a new kind of dc cable. The
new HVDC Light cable is an extruded, single-pole cable. The easiest way of laying this cable
is by plowing. Handling the cable is easy, despite its large power-carrying capacity. It has a
specificweight of just over 1 kg/m. Contrary to the case with AC transmission; distance is not
the factor that determines the line voltage. The only limit is the cost of the line losses, which
may be lowered by choosing a cable with a conductor with a larger cross section. Thus, the
cost of a pair of dc cables is linear with distance. A dc cable connection could be more cost
efficient than even a medium distance AC overhead line, or local generating units such as diesel
generators. The converter stations can be used in different grid configurations. A single station
can connect a dc load or generating unit, such as a photo-voltaic power plant, with an AC grid.
Two converter stations and a pair of cables make a point-to point dc transmission with AC
connections at each end. Three or more converter stations make up a dc grid that can be
connected to one or more points in the AC grid or to different AC grids. The dc grids can be
radial with multi-drop converters, meshed or a combination of both. In other words, they can
be configured, changed and expanded in much the same way AC grids are.

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3.1 HVDC LIGHT INSTALLATION

HVDC light system mainly consists of transformers, converter units, phase reactors and
filters. The transformers are used to step-up/step-down voltages and the converters units
converts AC to DC and vice versa. HVDC cables are used to carry currents and the filters are
used for filtering unwanted signals.

Figure No 3.1: HVDC Light transmission System

3.1.1 HVDC LIGHT CHARACTERISCTICS

An HVDC Light converter is easy to control. The performance during steady state and
transient operation makes it very attractive for the system planner as well as for theproject
developer. The benefits are technical, economic, environmental as well as operational.
The most advantageous are the following:

• Independent control of active and reactive power

• Feeding of power into passive networks (i.e.

network without any generation)
• Power quality control

17
• Modular compact design, factory pre-tested

• Short delivery times

• Re-locatable/Leasable

• Unmanned operation

• Robust against grid alterations

3.1.2 Control of Active & Reactive Power

The control makes it possible to create any phase angle or amplitude, which can be
done almost instantly. This offers the possibility to control both active and reactive power
independently. As a consequence, no reactive power compensation equipmentis needed at the
station, only an AC-filter is installed. While the transmitted active power is kept constant the
reactive power controller can automatically control the voltage in the AC-network. Reactive
power generation and consumption of an HVDC Light converter can be used for
compensating the needs of the connected network within the rating of a converter. As the
rating of the converters is based on maximum currents and voltages the reactive power
capabilities of a converter canbe traded against the active power capability.
3.1.3 Robust Against Grid Alterations

The fact that a Light converter can feed power into a passive network makes it very
robust and can easily accommodate alterations in the AC-grid to where it is connected. This
is a very valuable property in a deregulated electricity market where AC-network conditions
in the future will change more frequently than in a regulated market.

3.2 THE CABLE SYSTEM

The HVDC Light extruded cable is the outcome of a comprehensive development

program, where space charge accumulation, resistivity and electrical breakdown strength were
identified as the most important material properties when selecting the insulation system. The
selected material gives cables with high mechanical strength, high flexibility and low weight.
Extruded HVDC Light cables systems in bipolar configuration have both technical and

18
environmental advantages. The cables are small yet robust and can be installed by plowing,
making the installation fast andeconomical.

3.3 APPLICATIONS

3.3.1 Overhead Lines

In general, it is getting increasingly difficult to build overhead lines. Overhead lines

change the landscape, and the construction of new lines is often met by public resentment and
political resistance. People are often concerned about the possible health hazards of living
close to overhead lines. In addition, a right-of-way for a high voltage line occupants valuable
land. The process of obtaining permissions for building new overhead lines is also becoming
time-consuming and expensive. Laying an underground cable is a much easier process than
building an overhead line. A cable doesn’t change the landscape and it doesn’t need a wide
right-of-way.
Cables are rarely met with any public opposition, and the electromagnetic field froma
dc cable pair is very low, and also a static field. Usually, the process of obtaining the rights
for laying an underground cable is much easier, quicker and cheaper than for an overhead
line. A pair of HVDC Light cables can be plowed into the ground. Despite their large power
capacity, they can be put in place with the same equipment as ordinary, AC high voltage
distribution cables. Thus, HVDC Light is ideally suited for feeding power into growing
metropolitan areas from a suburban substation.

3.3.2 Replacing Local Generation

Remote locations often need local generation if they are situated far away from an AC
grid. The distance to the grid makes it technically or economically unfeasible to connect the
area to the main grid. Such remote locations may be islands, mining areas, gas and oil fields
or drilling platforms. Sometimes the local generators use gas turbines, but diesel generators
are much more common. An HVDC Light cable connection could be a better choice than
building a local power plant based on fossil fuels. The environmental gains would be
substantial, since the power supplied viathe dc cables will be transmitted from efficient

19
power plants in the main AC grid. Also, the pollution and noise produced when the diesel fuel
is transported will be completely eliminated by an HVDC line, as the need for frequent
maintenance of thediesels. Since the cost of building an HVDC Light line is a linear function
of the distance, a break-even might be reached for as short distances as 50-60 kilometers.

3.3.3 Connecting Remote Power Grids

Renewable power sources are often built from scratch, beginning on a small scale and
gradually expanded. Wind turbine farm is the typical case, but this is also true for photovoltaic
power generation. These power sources are usually located where the conditions are
particularly favorable, often far away from the main AC network. At the beginning, such a
slowly expanding energy resource cannot supply a remote community with enough power.
An HVDC Light link could be an ideal solution in such cases. First, the link could supply the
community with power from the main AC grid, eliminating the need for local generation. The
HVDC Light link could also supply the wind turbine farm with reactive power for the
generators, and keeping the power frequency stable.
When the power output from the wind generators grows as more units are added, they
may supply the community with a substantial share of its power needs. When the output
exceeds the needs of the community, the power flow on the HVDC Light link is reversed
automatically, and the surplus power is transmitted to the main AC grid.

3.3.4 Asynchronous Links

Two AC grids, adjacent to each other but running asynchronously with respect to each
other, cannot exchange any power between each other. If there is a surplus of generating
capacity in one of the grids it cannot be utilized in the other grid. Each of the networks must
have its own capacity of peak power generation, usually in the form of older, inefficient fuel
fossil plants, or diesel or gas turbine units. Thus, peak power generation is often a source of
substantial pollution, and their fuel economy isfrequently bad. A DC link, connecting two
such networks, can be used for combining the generation capacities of both networks. Cheap
surplus power from one network can replace peak power generation in the other. This will
result in both reduced pollution levels and increased fuel economy. The power exchange
between the networks is also very easy to measure accurately.

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 Chapter-4

SHORT CIRCUIT CONTRIBUTION OF HVDC LIGHT

The HVDC Light transmission system mainly consists of two cables and two converter
stations. Each converter station is composed of a voltage source converter (VSC) built up with
IGBTs, phase reactors, ac filters and transformer. By using pulse width modulation (PWM),
the amplitude and phase angle (even the frequency) of the converter AC output voltage can be
adjusted simultaneously.
Since the AC side voltage holds two degrees of control freedom, independent active and
reactive power control can be realized. Regarding the active power control, the feedback
control loop can be formulized such that either tracks the predetermined active power order, or
tracks the given DC voltage reference. This gives two different control modes, i.e., active
power control mode (Patrol) and DC voltage control mode (Duc ctrl). If one station is selected
to control the power, namely, in Patrol mode, the other station should set to control the DC
voltage, namely, in Duc ctrl mode.
Regarding the reactive power control, the feedback control loop can be formulized such
that it either tracks the predetermined reactive power order, or tracks the given AC voltage
reference. This also gives two control modes, i.e., reactive power control mode (CTRL) and
AC voltage control mode (Auk ctrl). The two control modes can be chosen freely as desired in
each station.
Under the normal operation condition, the VSC can be seen as a voltage source. However,
under abnormal operation conditions, for instance, during an ac short- circuit fault, the VSC
may be seen as a current source, as the current capacity of theVSC is limited and controllable.

4.1 INVESTIGATION OF SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENTS

4.1.1 Studied AC System

The studied AC system has a mixture structure in radial and mesh connection. It includes high,
medium and low voltage buses. The AC transmission lines are modeledwith p-link. The loads
are constant current loads. Three types of faults, namely, the close-in fault; the near-by fault
and the distant fault, are applied at bus A, B and C, respectively. A 3-ph close-in fault results

21
in a voltage reduction of almost 100%, whereas a 3-ph near-by fault and distant fault result in
voltage reduction on CCP bus of about 80% and 20%, respectively. In the following
discussion, the short circuit ratio (SCR) is defined as the short circuit capacity of the AC system
observed at CCP divided with the power rating of the converter.

Figure No 4.1: SLD of studied AC system

4.1.2 The Impact of Strength of AC Networks

The possible maximum relative short circuit current increment (∆Imax) is determined
by the short circuit ratio (SCR). Supposing that the ∆Imax is defined as (1), it is foundthat the
∆Imax is inversely in proportional to the SCR as the solid curve shown in Figure 6.

22
 Figure No 4.2: Characteristic showing the impact of AC network strength.

1. where, Isc is the short-circuit current of the original AC system alone at a 3-ph fault
and I SC_HVDC_L, is the short-circuit current of the AC system with converter station
connected and in operation at the same fault. It should be noticed that the solid
2. curve in Figure 6 is valid if there is no tap-changer, or the tap-change is at the

3. position corresponding to the nominal winding ratio. If there is a tap changer

4. in transformer, the AC network will observe a different current although the maximum
current of the
5. converter is a fixed value. Therefore, the maximum possible short circuit current
increment is in the boundary defined by the two dashed curves. AC networks with SCR
equal to 1.85, 3.14 and 12 have been simulated and the results are also
6. shown in figure 6 with black dots.

7. Different control modes and different operation points may change the short circuit
current contribution from the VSC. However, it will not be higher than the ∆Imax. For
instance, the
8. short circuit current contribution from the VSC will not exceed 12% if the SCR is
10

9. and voltage tap-change range is ± 20%.

23
4.1.3 The Impact of Control Modes

The current is mainly limited by the impedances of transmission lines and transformers when
a short circuit occurs. Since the impedance of lines and transformers is dominated by the
inductive impedance, the short circuit current is mainly consisted of reactive current.
Because of that, the choice of different control modes in respect of the active powercontrol
does not give any impact to the short circuit current. Therefore, the following discussion will
focus on the choice between the control modes CTRL and Auk ctrl.
It is important to notice that the change of short circuit current and the variation of bus voltages
usually go hand in hand. The increase of short circuit current, namely, the increase of short
circuit capacity, will improve the voltage stability and minimize the reduction of bus voltage
due to faults. Inversely, the reduction of short circuit current may lead to voltage instability and
voltage collapse during faults, in particular in weak AC systems. With Auk ctrl control mode,
the reactive current generation will be automatically increased when the AC voltage decreases.
Therefore, the Uacctrl control mode provides the possibility of improving the voltagestability
and minimizing the reduction of bus voltage due to faults. On contrast, with CTRL control
mode it has the potential risk of getting voltage instability or voltage collapse during faults if
the AC system is weak and no control protection action is taken. One way to avoid this potential
risk is that the control is automatically switched to Auk ctrl if the AC voltage is detected out
of the specified range (Minmax, for instance, 0.9~1.1 per-unit). The other way is that the
maximum value for the current order should be decreased with the AC voltage decreasing
during faults. If the current from the VSC is reduced, its contribution to the short circuit current
will also be reduced. Therefore, with CTRL control mode the contribution of VSC to the short
circuit current is almost neglectable independent of operation points, or load level. It will then
be only interesting to discuss the Auk ctrl control mode in respect of different operation points.

4.1.4 The Impact of Operation Points

As it has been discussed, the maximum possible short circuit increment (∆Imax) due to HVDC
Light is determined by the SCR. It will occur if the VSC is operating at zero active power,
namely, it is operating as an SVC or STATCOM. Figure 7 shows the characteristic of short
circuit current contribution versus the load level. The two dashed curves are the result by taking

24
into account the transformer winding ratio variation due to the tap-changer.AC networks with
SCR equal to 3.14 has been simulated. For different load levels the observed short circuit
currents, during a 3- phase close fault, are marked with black dots in Figure 7. It should be
noted that theshort circuit current would be also reduced if the current order is also limited with
the Uac ctrl. The black dot with a circle in Fig. 4 shows the result when the current order is
limited to 35% of the rated current during the AC fault.

4.1.5 The Impact of Fault Type and Location

If the fault current is evaluated in per unit with the base value equal to the 3-phase fault current
at the corresponding fault location and without HVDC Light connected, it turns out that the
impact of the fault location seems to be insignificant. Under the same load and operation
condition, the 1-ph fault current is usually smaller than the 3-ph fault current. This is because
the average voltage reduction is smaller for 1- phase fault, thereby the required reactive power
generation is smaller during a 1- phase fault. In addition, the VSC only generates balanced 3-
phase currents, even if the AC bus voltage is unbalanced due to 1-phase faults. As an example,

25
Figure 8 shows 1-phase and 3-phase fault currents at different locations (bus B and bus C in
Figure 5) under the same operation condition (SCR=3.14, P=-0.8 and Auk ctrl). Currents in
plot (a) and (b) have one base value, and currents in plot (c) and (d) haveanother base value.
Plot (b) shows that the peak value is slightly higher than 1, which means the short circuit current
with HVDC Light is slightly higher than that without the HVDC Light for the same fault. It
should be noticed that when a close-in short-circuit fault occurs the connected converter station
will only feed the fault current. This implies that the current during the fault in the rest AC lines
will be the same as the original AC network alone. In other words, the close-in fault isolates
the HVDC Light terminal from the AC network. If it is the circuit breakers in the AC network
to be mainly concerned, this type of fault will be less significant. This is why that the
performed studies do not focus on this type of faults.

4.1.6 Line Current during Faults

It is seen that the contribution from the HVDC Light makes the difference between the current
of health lines and faulted lines larger, which may have a positive impactin distinguishing the
faulted
and health line. When a short circuit occur in the AC network, the sudden AC bus voltage
variation may result in over current to the converter due to the measurement and control delay.
As soon
as the over current in the converter is detected, the protection will trigger a temporary blocking
of converter. It is obvious that the transient and steady state current contribution from the
HVDC Light is different. Nevertheless, it should be noted that usually the circuit breakers
do not react to the over current spontaneously, and it often has a delay time of about 60
~100 Ms. Therefore, it isthe steady state current during the fault that should be cons

26
 Chapter-5

CONCLUSION

From detailed analysis it is seen that HVDC system is used for long distance transmission
and its more reliable and best method for power transmission when compared to ac power
transmission.
A comprehensive investigation on the issue regarding the contribution of HVDC Light to
short circuit current has also been performed. The study’s led to the following conclusions; The
HVDC Light, in contrast to the conventional HVDC which does not contribute any short circuit
current, may contribute some short circuit current. The possible maximum short circuit current
contribution is determined by the SCR. It is inversely in proportional to the SCR and it occurs
when the transmission system is operating at zero active power. Hence, it is comparable to the
STATCOM as long as the maximum short circuit current contribution is concerned. The amount
of contribution depends on control modes, operation points and control strategies. With the
reactive power control mode, the short circuit current contribution will be limited due to the
current order limit decreasing with the voltage.
With the AC voltage control mode, the short circuit current contribution will be increased
with the decreasing of active power, if the current order limit is not changed. If the current order
limit is decreasing with voltage, the short circuit current contribution will be small even if the
load level is low. The contribution to the short circuit current is irrelevant to the fault location if
the fault current is evaluated in per unit with the base value equal to the 3-phase fault current at
the corresponding fault location and without HVDC Light connected. Under the same load and
operation condition, the 1-phase fault current is usually smaller than the 3- phase fault current.
Finally, it should be noticed that in associated with higher short- circuit current the voltage
stability and performance is likely to be improved. If the HVDC Light contributes a higher short-
circuit current, the voltage dip due to distant fault is possibly reduced and thereby the connected
electricity consumers may sufferless from disturbances.

27
 REFERENCES

1.) DC Transmission based on voltage source converters, Gunnar Asplund, KjellEriksson

and Kjell Svesson,1997.

2.) The ABCs of HVDC transmission technologies, IEEE Power and Energy Magazine,2006.

3.) A Course in Electrical Power, J.B. Gupta.

4.) On the Short Circuit Current Contribution of HVDC Light, IEEE, Y. Jiang-Hafner,
M. Hyttinen, and B. Paralarva.

5.) www.wikipedia.org

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