CHAJYIBR6

Soil Water

DEPENDING upon its moliility, soil water may be classified broadly into
two groups:.fr11 water and held wae,r. Water 'which is free to move through
a s0il ·n1~ under the influe~ce of gravity is termed free wat~r, and that
~hich do~ not move freely under the influence of gravity is the held
water. Excluding _water' in the vapour phase, . held· water is further
divided into structural wallr, adsorbed water and capillary water, which are
" _in order of tenacity with ._which they are .held.

6. 1 Structlu'.al Water
This is the water ~hemically combined in the crystal structure of the
clay mineral &Qd which can be removed only by breaking the structure,
for example, by hig4 heat. ltr is· very ·small in quantity and can~ot be
removed . by drying the soil at 110°0. From the engineering point of
•
view, structural water is regarded ~s an integral part of the soil particle. ··
I · •• ' • '

6.2 . Adsorbed Water

• It has been -shown in · Chapter 5 that
a colloidal soil particle carries a net resi-
dual n~gative ~harge on its surface and
that ·- a water molecule is a perma~e.0:t
1
. dipole. Water molecules adjacent to the
electrically .~barged surfaces of soil parti-
. des are therefore strongly attracted and
held by the particles as shown ,·in Fig.
In
6.1 . . addition to water -molecules, soil
particles also attr_a ct a number of other . <E3C3<£::=>
exchangeable cations (such as those of E::::D E::3
.sodium, calcium, po~ssium and magne- + · -+ -+ -
sium, etc.) to form a diffuse double layer SOIL PARTICLE
(Sec. 5.2). The cations of the Jc,uble layer
also attract the di polar molecules of water·. Fm.6.1
Water in, the vicinity of soil particles Adsorbed Water
1s thus subjected to. an attractive force
r

' (After Lambe 1)

•. '
 108 SOIL ENGINEERING IN TIIEORY AND PRACTICE
1
which consists basically of two compo~cnts: (it attracti~n of the
dipola1 water to the elec~cal. charged soil; and (n) attra~tion_ of the
dipolar, w~ter to the cauons m the double layer, th~ ~ttons m turn
18
being attracted to the soil. TJ;ie wa.tcr very_near the ~il strongly held
by the electrical cha~es o? the sod, and an~here 10 ~e double layer
it is atttact,.d by an 1nduct1on t)J>C of force, stncethe entire double layer
is an electri al field.I Water .so attracted and held by the electro-chemi-
c~l forces on the surfaces of soil particles is called the adsorbed water.
Double layer water is all the water attracted to the soil and may there-
fore be caµed ·the ad59rbed water. Sometimes only ~e innermost' part
of the double layer water, whert the forces of attract~on are the strong-
est iss called the adsorbed water. 2 Due. to the electncal forces there is
so~e order or ori~ntation of the water molecules in the adsorbed laver.
This orientation of water molecule, is called water structure.
Adsorbed water has physical properties substantially different from
those of ordinary water, e~g., greater viscosity, greater surface tension
_a ncfa higher boiling point. Close to the soil particle, it ·exists in almost
a solidified state. The force ·required to pull t~e closest molecules off the
2
mine-ral surface may be as high as 10,000 atmospheres (1.033 x 10•
kg}cm2)~ Oven-drying o( soil at 105~110°C can reduce the adsorbed
water but cannot entire{), remove it. An oven-dry soil will ·again adsorb
. ---water, if exposed to humidity . while cooling. ·
The maximum amount of water held by forces of adsorp~ion depends
upon the chemical composition of the soil mineral, its specific surface
and 'i_ts environment. ! is rath_er difficult to precisely define the thickness
of the _adsorbed water layer. The more strongly-held water (innermost
part of the double layer) is thought to be only a few molecules thick
of the order of about 10 to I~ angstroms _(angstrom _ 10-10 metre):
T?e fo~ces of attraction in t~e soil-water system. decrease exponentially
with distance, fro~ ~1e par~cle surface and so also the orientation of
": water mo~ecu~es; urtil the o?te~ double layer water merges into ordinary
wat~r which 1s not under s1gn1ficant forces .of attraction from the soil
.part1~le. A9sorbe_d water is thought_to have an important influence on
some of the physical properties of fine..:grained soils.
Adsorbed water is som:ef · fj • d .
water/ content of an air-dri;;:~. re_ ene, to as hygroscopic_wat~r. The
content T~is is ;quite a var" bl il is_ ~efined as the hygroscopic ·water
depends upon the tempera::re ea~~~nht~ for the ~a~e soil, since its value
. . . . . relative hum1d1ty of the atmosphere.
6.3 Capillary Water . , .
V\' . .. . . \
ater held or mov· . - .. .
is called capillary .~;~~-1;.~he ~t.erstice~ of a s~il due to capillary forces
e rces wluch are responsible 'for the re-
 108 son. ENGINEERING IN TIIEORY AND PRACTICE

w.hich co~ists basically of two components: 2 (i) attraction of the

d1pola1 wa~er to the electrical charged soil; and (ii) attraction of the
di1;>ola:r, ~~ter to ·the cations in the double layer, the cations in turn
bemg attract~d to the soil. T~e. 'Va.ter very near the soil is strongly held
?Y. the electncal cha~ges o? the sod, and an~here in the double layer
~t 1s attract;-d by an mduction type of force, smce the entire double layer
ts 1 a~ electn al field. 2 Water.so _
attracted and held by the electro-chemi-
cal forces on the surfaces of soil particles is called the adsorbed water.
Double layer wate:r is all the water attracted to the soil and may there-
fore be ca~led ·the ads<?rbed water. Sometim~ only the innermost' part
of ~e double layer water, whert the forces of attraction are the strong-
est,. is- called the adsorbed water. 2 Due_to the electrical forces there is
sorf}-e o~der o~ ori~ntation of the ·water molecules in the adsorbed laver.
T!i1s orientation ofwater molecule:; is called water structure.
Adsorbed _water has physical properties substantially different from
tho~e of. ordma17. water! e:g., greater viscosity, greater surface tension
and a higher botlmg pomt. Close to the soil particle, it ·exists in almost
a ~olidified state. The force ·required to pull t~e closest molecules off the
m!_n eral ·surface .may be as high as 10,000 atmospheres 2 (1.033 x IO'
kg/cm 2). Oven-drying o( soil at I05~l'I0°C can reduce the adsorbed
water but cannot entire{y remove it. An -oven-dry soil will ·again adsorb
· water, if exposed to humidity while cooling.
The maximum -amount of water held by forces of adsorp~ion depends
upon the chemical composition of the soil mineral, its specific surface
and its environment. It is rather difficult to precisely defin_e the thickness
of the adsorbed water · layer. The more strongly-held water (innermost
part of the double layer) is thought to be o,nly a few molecules thick,
of the order of about 10 to I~ angstroms (angstrom = 10- metre).
10

The forces of attraction in the soil-water system decrease exponentially

with distance from the particle surface and so also the orientation of _
water molecules; until the outer double layer water merges into ordinary
'"' water which is not under significant forces of attraction from the soil
particle. Adsorbed water is thought to have an important influence on
some· of the physical properties of fine-grained soils. ·
Adsorbed water is sometimes referred to as hygroscopic water. The
water content of an air-dried soil is defined as the hygroscopic water
content.' This is quite a variable qu~uitity for the same soil, since its value
depends upon the temperature and_relative humidity of the atmosphere.

6.3 Capillary Water

\\'ater held •or moving in -the interstices of a soil due to capipary forces
is called capiJlary ' water. The forces whifh are· responsible for the re-
 son. WATER 109

tention or moveQ1ent · of water in soil above a 'free water elevation are

._ jointlr termed capillary .forces. ·These forces depend upon various factors
such as surface tension of water, pressure in water in relation to atmos-
pheric pressure, and the size and conformation of soil 'pores. The pheno-
menon: of movement of wafer in the interstices of a soil due to capillary
forces .is termed capillary action or, capillarity.
(a) Capillary Action. Consider a
glass tube _o f narrow bore imm~rsed
in water as show~ in Fig. 6.2. Water
will rise in the tu be to a certain
heigh't he and form a cu'.plike meniscus
· at the top. If Ts is the surface tension
per unit length of .the n1eniscus, r
the radius of the tube, Yw the density
of water, and 1X the angle of conta~t
between the meniscus and the wall
of th~ tube, for equilibrium:
(21tr T,) COSOt = icr2hc Pw

or he = 2T,cosoc (6.1)
r Pw FIG~- 6.2 ,
•The angle of contact oc -is dependent
,/

-CapiUary Rise
on the affinity or degree of wetting . _ ·
between the liquid and the material of the capillary tube. For pure wat~r
and clean glass the angle of contact equals zero. Hence ~q. 6.1 _becomes.
2Ts
he=-
rPw ·
If the tube is removed - from the free
water> no water will stay in the tube because
the surface tension at the. two ends of the Ts
vertical water column will balance each .
other leaving no resultant fo:r~e to opp~e
·ty However -jf the tube 1s of nonun1-
grav1 . , " k d" b .
form section, such as a nee tu e . a~
shown 1•n Fi'g • 6•3., some
-
water will be retain-f
ed because the downward - component
surface tension is, smaller than the up~ard Ts \

. component. \
_ With -respect to ~tmospherk _pressure at , . FIG. 6.3
the free water surfa~e, _there 1s pr~ssure _ Retention of Water in ·
deficiency · or reduction in pressure 1n the a Necked Tube
 110 SOIL ENGINEERING IN TIIEORY AND PRACTICE
I'
' .t

., water, col~mn lifted~·up in the capillary tube, the pressure reductioq at

any point wit}:lin the, water ~olumn being·equal ~o• the product of the
density of w~tt, and the height of .the point under consideration above
the free v~atcr surf~ce. Thus, while at points A, B and C in Fig. _6.2,
the pressure is 'atmoi:ipheric, the pressure at poi.nt D immediately below
' - the meniscus is given l:>y: ·
I.
P1 - ·Pa -- h, Pw (63)
- where: P'1 == absolute pres~ur~ · in water just below the meniscus
Pa ·= atmospheric pressure,
he = capillary
rise
Pw ·= density of water
The pressure redu~tion p" across the ·meniscu~ is the te.~sion or suctio__n in the
capillary water: · ·. . .
- . P" .-- Pa~ P1 = hc•Pw · (6.4)
)f the me~iscus is sphericalwith r~dius r and has a surface tension _Ts,
the pres~ure reduction p" can be proved to .:be ~iven by the relation:
· ,, . 2Ts '.(6.5)
p -·= - '
-r .
If' the meniscus is not of uniform cury~~u~e but ·has r1 ~nd ra as the radii
• of curvature in two .orthogonal princ~pal, planes,-p" is given by:
1
' 1 )"
,,' - '
p = Ts
. ' (
~-+-
.l ' ' . '
(6.6) .
; • , r1 '. .( 2 .
· , •\V_a ter wltjch is lifted up in th~. capillary tube· causes _a compressive ,
stress in .t he side · walls of the tube. If the tube is supported at its base,
the total compressive force acting on the ·side _. ,
walJs at any elevation below the · meniscus is
rcr 21ttc Pw, . '

Water can , also be , held by surface tension

round _the ·. poi~t of contact . of two . spheres
,.
/ · . . TENSIOh · (or
soil particles) as represented in ' Fig.· 6.4.;
Capillary water in this form is known as..coniacf
FIG. 6.4 moisture or contac! capillary wate~. 3 Be~ause of ~he
. , Contact Capillary Water teJ,1sion· in the contact ·c'a pillary water,· the -two
spheres
.
tend , to press against each
. . other. .· ,

(h) Soil. Suction. Similar to: a-·~apillary tube~ water· held in ~oil due to
capillary action is ~l~ays in a _sta~e of reduced ,pressure. · The pressurf.
deficiency, pressur~ reduction or th~ nee;ative· presiure in the pore wattr, i.e.,
pressure . below at1no~pheric by; w~i~h is retained in - soi] mass a
is aJso called -th~ captllmy _pressure or cnpillaD, \potentittl :-1
 SOIL WATER 111

f' = -- ht Pw = - 1
Ts (~ + ~-) (6.7)
r1 r2
· where,: p" = pres~ure ·deficiency in pore water, or capillary pressure
The negative sign indicates that the pressure is below atmospheric.
T_he pressur~ deficiency in held water ,is ·called soil suction or suctitln pressure. 5
Croney and Colem:an 6 .define the term soil suctiol) to indicate the pressure
deficiency (below atmospheric ·pressure) measured in a small sample of
the soil free from exterq.al .stress, . and the term negative pressLirc iri the
pore watf;r ·.(negative po-re water-pressure) is used by them to !indicate the
p~essure.' deficiency ~easured in sit.u or in the laboratory with the ,soil
•subject to the stress regime assoeiatec\ .with the particular loading .condi-
tions .·under consideration. Thus the soil . suction is the negative• pore .
water -pressure in ' an unconfirJ,ed sample in .which the pore air pressure
remains constant at atmosph.eric pressure. According . tQ , the latter .
definition, the nega~ive pore water pressure p", and ·the soil suction s are
related . hy the equation :6 . · , .. . · • ·, -
· f' ·s + ·«a . (6.8)
w~ere: · a = total applied· pressure to which the soil is subjected
ex = frattion ~f a which is ~ffective· in changing· the suction
, (or 't:..p" === ex 6.a, · at ·constant .water·· content) ·
. For incompressible soils where tp.e ~ppJi~lpressure-will, b~ resisted by
soil structure, ot · is zero and .p":·equals s. For saturated ,c9mpressible soils
' .,.:where all the applied ' pressur~ is taken up by·waJ:er, ex equals unity. For
inttrmediate soils ex will range from O to 1,.for example, 7 i for silty clay
t may be about ·o.5 and 0.15 for a sandy day. · ,
Soil suction is measured by the height he .in centimetres to .lvhich a
a
water column could be drawn by suction in soil x;nass fr~c ,from e~ternal
~tress. The common logarithm of this height (cm) or pressure · (g/cm2)
is known as the pF value. 8 Thus a pF value. of 2 represents 'a soil si1ction
of 100 cm of water or a suction pressure of 100 g/cm 2. - . · . ·

- Some of. the factors gover~1ing· the \ oil su~tion-water content reiation- .
1

ship are water content pr~s·ent~ w,hether the soi~ is be_€oming wetter <>r
drier, particle size,, structure and _bu~k density of soil, angle of contact,
temperature a,nd ~isso!ved ~~Its. Corr~esponding: t<:> e~ch value of water
con_tent there e;xists a suction J>,re~sure in a: ,soil'. 9 The· lower . the water ·
,con'teht, the ·greater is t!1e soil 'suction~ This is expl~inl!d by _the fact that .
-~~th decrease in water .cont~_nt,} -va~er' rcce~es)ntp. the smaller porc_s and-
. the·· cutva6,ire of the ·air-water interfac~ inc~eas,es {radius of curvature
· d_ecreases) ·.resulting in increase hi the soil suction. Also frfr the same ·
wa'ter content, ,soil suction is ·'greater, if.the soil is becoming drier r.1:tl{e1;
than. b~con1irig wetter. \Vith increase pf water content, soil suction

'/
I
 112 SOIL ENGI,NEERING IN TIIEORYAND PRACTICE

dec~eases and reduces to zero at full saturation by submergence, but on ·

drymg the ·soil, it goes on increasing and in an oven-dry soil it may
ex~eed a pressure of a million grams·per square centimetre. The f_iner the
soil and greatet the clay content, the greater is the water held at a fixed
suction. This is because fine soils have inore surface area and mdre number
of small channels for retaining· water. Also because of the greater number
of the points of contact between the ·soil particles, held w~ter wedges are,
smaller in size and have smaller radii of curvature. The effect of structuft
and ,bulk density of soil on soil suction-water content relationship ·is
yet fully investigated,10 and therefore, for obtaining ~eld moisture
distribution, tests should be carried out on undisturbed samples. It may
. be said that for a given volurne if density is increased by increasing the
am~qnt of ·soil solids, the points of contact will increase which, in tu~,
w~ll increa~~ the water holding capacity. On the other hand if a giveii-
sotl mass with some water content is compressed, the pores-may ~come
completely filled with water with increase in the radii of curvature of the
air-water 'interfaces which may decrease the soil suction , to zero. The
angle -of contact between the water menisci and soil particles depends
on the mineralogical composition of soil•. If lhe soil particles are not
completely' wetted by water, i.e. angle of contact ,is greater than zero,
soil will have less attraction for water and less sucti<>ll pressure. Increase
" of temperature slightly decreases the surface tension at the air-water
interface and hence the suction of soil water will also be decreased.
Dissolved salts may 'increase the soil suction by increasing. the surface
tension of water. The effects of temperature and dissolved salts on soil
suction . are relatively 1.ainor.
A good range of equipment6 h~ bee~ deve~oped ~t the ~oad Research
. Laboratory, England, for ~easunng soil ~uctio? and _negative p~re wate~
, pressure. Some of the method~ of measunng $011 s~ction an? their range
. of suction in pF units are: tens1ometer (0 to 3.0), dire~t suc~on (0,to 3._0), _
suction plate (0 to 3.0), centrifuge (3.0 to 4.5), freezing _point depression
· (3.0 to 4.0), vacuum desiccator, (5.0 to 7.0) and sorption balance (5.0
to 7.0). ,
Em irical relationll between the suction of remoulded soil and ~ater
conte!t for a range of plasticity indices has als? ~een •esta?lished
t the Road · Research Laboratory, England, and is ;given m F~. 6.5.
~he suction of remoulded soils can be ·obtained directly from Fig. _6.5~
However this relationship has bee~ established from experimental d~ta_
• for soils ' whose plasticity ch~racteristics _satisfy . closely the following
relation:
]p = ().838WL - }4.2 (6.9)
For soils which do not satisfv Ea. 6.9, an as~umption is made that at any ,.
 SOIL WATER 113

give~ plasticity index soils with a . . . _. , • .·

suction. F9r soils deV1"attn··. ·ri· n ~qual conS1Stency .index .. · have the same
. .th . . g tom Eq 6 9 . . d (Eq
~, . ~~efore, ~tst ·calculated. ?h, ·. -~ · .' ·-~ODSJStency l~ ex ; • 3:26) ·
~~~tic1ty index is then· derived ~Uqwd lmut.corres~ndm~ to the rv~n
limit alld the known · ..! • • ro~ Eq • 6.9, and, with this new liqwd
·P1as"'c1ty mdex a d · ·
• ·
:content. is. calculat~ fro .· Eq . .
. at .
n
~ons · d
.. 1:9tency .ID ex a .new
·.• _ . .Ol . 3~6, which u tt-rmed the ueffecuve"
.
.w_ater
:_ ~ 00 .·· ·· effective water content which, is then. used iD
·~ :this
-~-~ - 6.•5. . a.uuwtng the suction of soil. u. r

, Fi&. ti5*
The Relation between-·5w:uon, and :Ettcctive' Water Content at
· Various Plafflcity Indices (AfterW.P.M. Black11 )

(c),-Mov"!"7" of Capillary Wa!"°. Soil ~uction an? gravity are .the two ..
forces causing movement of s011 wate~. m the liquid phase. If the wa1.er
content of an oven-dry soil is slowly increased, the first water added thick
ens· the adsorbed water fijms. Further water collects as ·contact capillary
•water around the points of contact of particles. ·with further increase of
water, the radii of air-water interfaces increase and water pegins filling the
intric~te ne_twork of soil pores which car~e regarded as necked capil-
laries (Fig. 6.3.) There is a limit to t)?.e m~.jmum quantity of water which
::',,_ can be held against gravity. Beyond this ,/\!nit, water drains asfre, water.
· ,, Free water percolating through the groU~-:;~~:.nay collect and fully saturate
the ·soil to a. certain· level which, is known ·as ground water table.
When _ wat~r ~table is preseJ!t in soil; water is lifted· up due to capil-
,

•Fig. 6.5 is ~produced from Ref.· 11 with ·kind permissioh o( the Director, Road RcsP.arch
Laboratory, Harmondswotth, Middlesex, England. , , , .
 114 . SOILENGI~~ IIN'IlfEORY ANDPRACTICE

· lary ,~?tion or s9il suction as explai.~ed above. The depth of soil which
· ~ontJ~u~s capillary water ·it ca:Iled the capillary fringe which can be divided
into ·three zones: zone of capillary saturation; zone of partial capillary
saturation 3;nd the zone of contact capillary watet. Even in the so~called
· zone of c;apillary saturation, •the· degree of saturation is ·below 100 per'
cent, ·because isol~ted air bubbles are always trapped in some of the voids.
" The relative heights of these zones and their water contents are quite
variable~ Higher water contents occur if:the water table has· previouly
. bee? .':1t a higher el~vation. than at present_or if the soil is saturated from
above by downward percolating water rather than from water lifted up
from the water table.

\Vatcr in the- capillary fringe does _not ,remain in a "purely static

'si~uati~n. It may 1nove in any pirection depending on the df".structiou
of s:1ct1on equilibrium within the ·soil. Movement is always fro1n a lower
suction region to ·a region of higher su<;tion~ It may be.,noted !bat soils
of diflen:11t10
_types may be .in _sucti~n eq9ilibrium ~t widely difforent water ,
conteuts. .T he fc,ctors disturb~g the ·su_~tion equilibrium ar~: reduction
' of Water content of a region . due 'to evaporation, increase .of water content
, · due to rain\ water on the-, ~rface, water table fluctuations, plant trans-
,piratio:t;i, and variations in S<;H temperature. ' -
• , 1!1 • ' •

The existe,n ce of capillary '. Wa.t er ·u~c;Ier redU:ced pressure depen.4s on .

the existence of 1nenisci at air-water interfaces. If air-water interface is
destr_o yed, · such -as by submerge11ce/ the same , capillary water which
. might be saturating the sojl 'un'der reduced pressure changes · to free ·
water. . · · · · · ·

· Neglecting the effect. of gravity, . the yelocify .Q( movement of capillary

' )_ • ' 1L ' , •

_water'· in liquid phase can be expressed by the relation: 10

• V • I '

. S1- ,S9
... _,!cu...-:----
V ,.
L , · (6.10)
. where: V = velocity of A?w
•_,,._s1 .~nd :s 2 = suctions in ~o plan~ s.epa;rat~d
· · , by a s~all distance L .
ku = coefficient of -~nsaturated 'permeability ' ·
The value _of coefficient· of unsaturated permeabi,lity is not c~nstant but .
depends ·upon , the mean . value of s'.i,' _
an<;! 1s2, .te·~,. on the average .w~ter · ·
content of soil 'thr~ugh ,which fl<;>w occurs. It ,increases rapidly _as the
.water content increases. Capillary ~ater movcmeµt in soil ca~ also be
studied i~ the laboratory by perforniing the ~pillari_ty-per-meabilit : test
described · in C~apter 7. · · · · _, .- ·· 7
 SOIL WATER 115
'
6.4 Free Water
Free water moves through or drains from soil under the influence of
gravity, hence it is also called gravitational water. Free water may
saturate natural soil formations upto some elevation and form a water
. table. A water table, also termed ground water surface or free water
surface; represents a water surface at which the pressure is atmospheric.
or 1.Yith respect to atmospheri~ pressute, the pressure in water is zero.
Free- Wll,ter below the water table js also called ground- water. Water table
separ-.tes the free water from the capillary water in natural soil formations.
It ia- rather difficult to define or locate· tho water table when a zone of
capillary--saturation exists over it. If a }VCll is dug in ~e ground deep
enough through the .g round water, in due course of time the surface
· elevaµon of free water in the well will represent the water table. Free
\vater surface is also referred to as the phreatia_ surface, a term derived fro!ll
Jhr-.s, a Greek word meaning "well". Above\ the water table, water exists
under reduced pressure which ' is below atmospheric, while below-the
. ·w ater table, pressure in water is more than atmospheric, or water is said
to have po'sitive pore pressure which increases with depth. The movement 9f
free water· in soil is described in Ch~pters 7 and 8. . ·
, 6.5 Effective and Neutral Pressures
, Effective pressure is . the . pressure transmitted from particle to pa~ic~e
·through the!r points of contact through a soil 1;11ass. Such a pressure 1S
effective in decreasing the · voids ratio of a soil mass· ~nd in mobilising _its.
shear strength. Effective pressure is also termed iniergranular pressure. .

SUACHARGE
1, PEA UNIT AREA
PIEZOMETER
ATURATEO &Y
APILLARY
WATER

FREE
·'wATER
SURFACf

,L.

(&),
(c) ,

· Fm. 6.6 .,
Effective I and Po1·e Pressure~

Neutral press~re, also called J,ore water pressure or po.re pressure, is the
pre&sure transmitted t~rough t!~e pore _water. Pore pressure acts ;.e qually
/.
I 16 son.. ENGINEERING IN TIIEORY AND PRACTICE'
II
on al~ sides of soil par~cles &nd :does riot cause them to press agai~t on·e
I
I _. anot~er, and hence, 1s .not effecth:e in decreasing voids ratio or in in-
cr~as1ng ~h~ar strength of a ·soil •mass. .
· Under static equilibriuin conditions the differe~ce and relation .
b~tween effectiv,~ and p9re pressures may be explained with the help of
Fig; 6.6. Fig. 6.6a ' r~presents a satura~ed soil mass of:thickricss .t over
wh1c~ ·f~ee ~ater s~~nds to a height z1• The total · vertical pressure at
plane_A-A . 1s the sum· of the vertic,al effective pressure and the pore
. p~essure.; hence the fundamental equation is:
' a= a'+ u (6.11)
where: a = ' total vertical pressure
a'= vertical effective pressure .
r.: = pore pressure
The totar pressure a at plane A-A is due to the weight of all material
ahove it:
(6.12)
where: Psai = saturated, density of soil
• ·p w = density of water_•
Toe pore pressure at any p,oint .equals the hydrostatic pressure due to \
water at that point, and this may .be represented by the piezometric luad.
·The piezomet~c heia-hw represents the .elevation above -the point under
consideration to which free water will ·rise in a tube . starting from the
said point and open to atmosphere. Such a tube is called a piez,om1tlr.>
Thus: . ,
U =kw Pw · {6.13)
From Eq. 6.1 l: a'= a- u
= (t P1at + Z1 'f!w) -
1

or a' hw·Pw •

- (z 'Psat + Z1 P'w) - (z, + Z-1)· :l!w

= Z (Psat. - 'Pw) .
0r (1
I
==.t p' .I / .. (6.14)
. The effective pressure rs' cauals .the ~ckness ·or a soil mass multiplied
i
I.
I
I by·its submerged or effective density p' •. It is in~epe~dent of the 'bei_ght of
water standing above th:e subm.~rged sod. At pl~ne .B-B the effective pressure
• is zero. . .
,, - Fig. 6.6b _represe~ts a soil _mass of. total thickn~ .t in which,the free , .
water surface,is at depth z.1 from ~he top. The denS1ty of soil ,abovc the free
-. water surface is f!d• It' also-carries a surch~rge o~ intensity q·per unit area
which is assumed to be ·transmitted through the soil mass without anv
1

red~ction in its intensity.i At plane A-A the pr~ures are: · · ·

I

11
I
 son... WAIBR 117

, ' a . Z1 Pd + (z- Z1) Psat + q

. U . , hw 'P w = (z - Z1} Pw
and a, = a-
'
u = ;:,1 Pd + (z - : z1) 'I! ' + q
' '

(6.15)
If the bulk density of soil above free water surface is e, Eq. 6.15-
becomes: -
.a' ,. z1'p + (~-
Z1) p' + q
Also at plane B-B: a' ·= q
At depth z1 : a' == :.t1 Pd+ q
, In Fig•. 6.6c, z1 represents the zone Qf capillary saturation above.the
free water surface. Capillary water is held in a state of reduced pressure
or suction with formation of menisci at the level B-B. Similar to a capil-
. lary tube (Fig. 6.2) ,' capillary water induces compression in the soil mass,
causes the-soil particles· to press against one another and thereby incr,ases
·effective pressure~ From the capillary tube analogy' the compressive
stress or the effective -pressure .due ·to -capillary water at .~ny elev3tion
below. the plane B:.B_is equal to z1 w; The :effective pressures at vario~
elevatioi)s within the soil m~s are calculated as below: ·
Just below the plane B~E: a' = ti;Pw _ (6.19j:~-
' a' = Zi Pw + Z1'P = Z1'Psat
1
At depth z1: ' (6.20) -
At plane A-A: a' ...:... ·_z1 'Pw + z I?' (6.21)
= Z1. (Pw +,, .'P') + (z_;, Z1) p'
= Z1 P'sat + (z- Zi) p·: (6.22)
Alternatively: a' at A-A = a - u •· ,
. = z 'P'sat - (z_-:- Z1) Pru (&.23) ·
. Z1 PU/ + Z -p', ,-
The .effective pressure due to capillary saturation is thus analogous
to a surcharge q = z1 fw placed on a saturated soil mass. If the free water
. surface is·,lowered, i.e., if z1 increases, effective pressure increases ev~ry-
where within ' the soil IQass b:y the product of the depth of 'lowering
the free water surfa~e and the density of water. However, if the free
'water' surface rises to the 'top surface of the soil mass, the menisci forma-
tions a1:e destroyed, capiUary water changes into free water and effective
preJsure . due ,to .capillazy forces reduces to zero. . ·
' .
E'fample 6.1 , , .,
Fin~ _the V-e~tic~l efle~tive_pfess~re __at a d_epth' of 10 m-helow the ground
. sur_face 1n a deposit of fine sa~d h~vmg a ~oros1~ 40 per cent and specific graviJy
2. 7. The ground water table 1s 5 m below the ground 1surface. Sand is saturated
 ll8 . SOILENGINEERINGINTIIEORY AND _PRACTICE

a
by ca~illary water upto height Jr 1 m above .the water table. -~ he degree,of
, ~aturation of the first ·4 m of moist sand below the gr:ound surf~ce is l0 per cent.
Solution: ·,
0·4
Eq. 2.8: e = -1 --n ' n = l - 0 ·4
= 0·67 • .
Eq. 2.22: - _ (G
Psat
-
++e)tw
l
_ 2·7 +
e - 1+
0 ·67
0·67
= 2·018 g/cm 3 ·'(~ 20.18 kN/~)
· w-

I
I'
E q. 2 •21.: ·
P (above water table) = (G +
1
e S,/!w
+ e ·

= 2-·7 + 0·067 =
1·658 g/,:;ms it:!4. 16.58 kN/1113)
. 1·67 , · · ,
1.
d-:-- (4 X 100 X P) +
(6 X 100 X ~sat) . •. , .. .
:;:= '(4 X 100 X l ·658) (6 X 100 X 2:018) = l ·874 ·X 103 ~/~m2
+
Eq. 6.13: u = hwPw = 5
x 100 x 1 = 0·5 x -103 g/cm2 . . = (~
187 · 4 kPa)
The·refore a' = <J'.- u = (l ·874 - -0·5) X I~ g/crn2
· ·. =
l •.3 74 kg/cm2
.Alternativ~ly: a', = (4 x 100 · X 'P) (1 X l00 . X Psat)+ + (5 X 190 X ·p')
· = (4 X 100 x·1·658) +(l x 100 x -~1018.) + (5 x 100 x 1·018)
. .. = l ·374 X 1'03 ~/cm2 = l ·374 kg/crp.2·:::::, 137.4 kPa
.. /
Example 6.2
- '
A 12-m. thick bed of sand is uµderlain by a layer· of clay 7 m thick. The
water table which. was originally at the ground surface is , lowered by drain-
age · to a depth of 2 ~, whereupon the degree C>f saturation above the lowe.req
water table is reduced to 25 per cent. Determine the increase in the magnitud~
I •
of the vertical effective pressl!re at 'the middle of the clay. layer due to lo~er- _ _
1
ing of water table. The saturated densities of sand and clay ate respectively
2~2 ~/cm3 a~d I·~ g/cm8, and the dry dem:i~y of sand is l ·8 g/cm3.
. 'If the . top 2 m of sand remains saturated due . to capillary water even after
lowe~ing of, water table; . determine the increase in effective pres~~re at tjie
i .middle of clay · layer. · -.·
i '
· Si>l"'tion:
(~) Before.' 1owering w~ter ~a:blri, the pressur~ at the ,middle of ·c1ay
layer· are_: . · _
. , <1 . . (12· X JOO 2·2) + ,(3·5 .'X 100 x 1·9) - . ·3·305 :x 108 '.g/~2
x
' .. • , 330.5 kPa .
u = 15·5 X fOO X 1- . -:- ·1·55 x J.01 g/cmt. -~ ~-~S-~,kP~_.
a_' = a - '(l == (3·~05 - I.·55) X' 10' .· l ·755 x 103 g/cm2 175.S le.Pa
After lowering-'water tah~e, bulk de~ity 9t'° sand above water table is givcl)
bv Eq; 2:23·
. .• ·p = PiJ + .Sr (/!sat -:-Pd) .
'
=· l ·8 .+ 0·25 (2·~ ...:. l ·8) '....- l ·9 g/cin' 19 kN/in1 .
' ..
1
 SOIL WATER 119
-
a = ,(2 X 100 X 1·9)·+ (l_0.~ 100 x 2·2) + (3·5 x 100 x 1·9)
= 3~245 >( 1()1 g/cm* _F:::1 324.5 ,kf>a ·. ·
u = 13·5 X ,100 X • == 1•35 X 108 g/cml .:::: 135 kPa
a' = a __ - u == (3·245 - 1•35) X 10' = 1·895 X ,10' g/cm1 ' F:::I, 189.5 kPa
~erefore ifu~re~e in effective pt~ure · ·- ·
= (1·895 --- 1·755) X 101 ·gfcm~
= 0·14 kg/cm*~~ 14 ki>a
Altcrn~tively: _
x·l•.2) +( 3·5 x IOQ x 0·9)
: _, . •, . .~ ·' ' i' ,

a'. (before'lowering
.-
water...., table)'= (12 X .100
. i . -, . ~. ..
· -= 1·755 x 1() g/cm1 175.S kPa 1 --~

-a' {after lowering water table) = (2 x 100 x ' 1·9) + (io x100 x 1·2)
+ (3•5 _X 100 X 0•9) _ _.
_ .= 1·895 X -I01 ·g/cm•
189.5 kPa .
(b) When" sand rem~ns- sa~ated by ~pillary water, the 1n~rease in
ur~ is z1 Piu, whc.r e z1 'is the depth· throug~ _which .wat~r ta~le
effective press_
is· lowered. ·
. , Increase in- effective pressure · 2 x too X I = 200 g/~ 1

Alt~rnatively: · a' ·(before )owcring water table)-.,=::: 1·755 X 108 g(cm.2

a' (after lowering ·water 'table) ·= (2 X 100 x Psat)
+ (10 X 100 X p') + -(3·5 .X l00<_X P')
= (2 X iQO X 2·2) + (_10 X 100 X 1·2) + (3·5 X 100 -X 0·9)
. = 1·955 _x 101 g/cmt · ·
Increase in effective pressure ={1·955 - 1·755) x -101 glctn1
- . = 0·2 kg/cint . ~ - 20 kPa
. Note: As an illustration, Yw = 9.~ kN(~:', __10 kN/m\, and
_ 1.0 kg/~m2 ,~ 100 kNjn.r · (- 100 kPa): ·
6.6 . · Equllibnum Water ·Content . ·. -
J . : ..... •

Equilibrium -water content at any pb,i nt in a soil i~ the constan~ wa~

confcnt which the soil attains ir, _c!,ue, course of time un?er given ccmdi-
tions of pressure and drainage · aft~r moisture move~ents };lave ceas~d. '
• I

. Wh~n -~nee the relation b~-t ween soil suction and wa~er content has .
·been es~blished by any one -of -the m~thods e~_µmerated in Sec. 6.3,
the. cquilih1iu~ _w ater cc;mt~nt corresponding to ·any_soi_l suctio_n ,,wit~in
the. soil · can be.read frqm the water-~uction rela~iorish:ip. Soil su~tion .is
to be cak1,1fate.d ·fro11]. ~q. '6.8. ·TJ1e value ·of o.. to be used _in ~q. 6.8 c_:,an ~e -
•m easured'~ire~tly by ,a_s~mple !9a?ing test on a s,a mple ofknown suction.12
'In wet climates where the I water table"•is generally presefit close. to the
ground surfac~, ,t he q1pillary _pressure p~, at , any point within the · soil
mass .abo.y;~-~ ~:water t~ble is_estim~t~d _from the elevation 'of the ~int >

~~~Vf; ~e. -~ ~ter thu~, at a~ el~~atlon \h abov,e t~e water table, p"
equals ~--·Pu;• The applied pr~~re c, .for shallow d~pths is deduced direct},,
fr~in the ,over-burden and surface loading con~tlc~.. .
- '
 120 son.. E~dINEERING mlliEORY AND PRACfICE
' •

ln saturated soils· ·t he equilibrium· water content is propo~onal to the

voids ratio, which in turn depends upon .the effe~tive pressure. When, the _..
effective pre$Sure on a saturated mass of soil is increased, voids ratio de-
cre~es .and w~ter is ·expelled, ifit has opportunity to escape. Equilibrium
is· attained when·suction in·the soil water equals the effective Pl'eSSUr.e.10
The water content-soil suction relationship for saturated specimen can
be established by performinJ ~e' consolidati~n t~t (Se,. Chapter 1.0).
From tlte results of a consolidation test, relation JS .. established between
applied pressure · (effective) a' and voi~s ratio e. In the field ·at
any
poin~ within ,s aturated soil the effective pressure a' is , calculated as
described ·in Sec. 6.5.. From the a'-e curve corresponding voids ratio
is read. The water content is then calculated f~m Eq.' 2.l5: Wsat === !...
•' I . ·. f G
F,or calculating effective pressure a', an average saturated density is first
assumed uniformly throughout the depth, although it varies with water
·con\ent. After calculating water content at various depths, for further
refine~ent, variation of sa'tur~ted density _c an be estimated fro91 the
followmg equation: . • ,
Piat ·= l <i +
e) p,;, = (G Waat G) p;,,+ (B. 2~)
. I e+ I -+ Wsat G·
'where: .. Wsat = Water content as calc4-lated from the first-- assumed
average value of p sat
The · submerged density is then given by:
p' = _(G ---1) 'Pio
· 1 .J- Wsat G-
, The distiibution of. effective., pressure wittnn the depth under considera-
tion is recalculated on the basis of submerged density as obtained from-
Eq. 6.25. . Equilibrium distribution .:,f 'water can be recalculated, if
desi~ed, on the basis of the above second approximation. 7
in very dry climates where there is -VP-ry little or no rainf~ll an~ water ..
table, if present, is so deep as not to affect the upper layers of groµnd,
the water content in ·the upper layers is governed by t~e 'atmosph~ric
humidity. The water content-suction l'elati9nship for such soils can be
obtained' by the ·vacuum desiccator or sorption balance using the follow-
ing tol'IJlula:~ _ ·
JJF = 6·5' log-10 (2-Jog10 H ~
+ , (6.26)'
'where: H = aqueou~ telative humidity i~ equilibrium with soil at 20°0
Field .soil suction is deduced from Eq. 6~26 ·u~ing an average v~lue of
humidity. The water distribution .corresp?p.ding t? th~ field sod _suc-
tion· can be estimated froi_n the wate.r.:suctlon relat1onsh1p. The cst1ma-
 SOJiWATER - 121

tiqn of equilibrium: water distribution in intermediate cases, between ·

wet and very dry climates, is most intractable.• \

&.7 Frost Action.

' ,
to, I
Frost actionla refers. the freezing and thawing of water in soil and
the resultant effects on soil and__ ·on structures of ,which soil -a part or
with which it is in contact~ Frost action ls a combination of two processes:
frosl hl.aoe and frost boil.
-(a) Frost H,o,. _The raising of a surface due to accumulation of ice
m:,th~ upderlying frozen soil is called frost heave.18 When temperature
drops to or below the freezing point (0°C) soil ~ater starts fr~ezing,
the depth of freezing varying with the cliniate~ On freezing, pore wat~r
increases in volume (abo~t.9 per cent). In addition, the process of freezing
develops • •1iction forc_e6,• which is stronger than the, capillary attrac-
tion of water· by the soil particle. -The fonnatio~·of ice crystals, therefore,
. deprives the adjacent soil particles ·or .their water films •. This disturbs
the suction equilibriu_m in soil and more watet is drawn up from the
water·table to replenish water lost by .the soil partfoles to the ice crystal.
This way iu unses or layen are formed which may increase the thick-
. n~ of tlie frozen ground by 20 or 30 per _cent.
The depth or boundary below the ground ·surface upto which water
m~y freeze is called the.frost line. Above the frost line, it is the water in
. tilt larger ·pores which is fint to freeze into an ice crystal which attracts
water from the smaller pores where water is still in liquid phase. While
, the freezing paint of water is 0°C at one attoo,8pheric p~essure, gets_ ~f~.
·,lowered at higher pressures. Pressure under which water 1s held,:·1n:\ the
poiea depends upon the pore size, the .smaller the pore· size the greater
• · the soil suction and consequently higher is the.,:p,ressure in water. I
Thui~_water in sn1aller soil pores gets over-cooled :~~'/can freeze· ~nly
when the temperature _fal~ belcw.' 0°0. .- - - I
Conditions fav,oura~le· for ice lens formation and marked frost heave
are: to be saturated at the hegi?_ning and dµtjng the freezing period,
.proxmuty of. wat~r table from W1!ich ·~ater. 111ay be pulled up in the
i~n~ of f~g~ so~ to poss~ fairly high capacity to ·pull water, i.e.,
. ~gh _capillarity, soil to possess mO?erate pe~eabili~y" fo~ 'allowing
- unobstructed flow of water tJirough 1t, and lastly, a gradual dro . in
of. aeasona!. temperature .and a pdual rate .of change in tempef1:U:r~ · ·
WI~ · dep~. Co~rse-gr8;111ea soils (sand and - gravel) altho h ·_
permeable, have
. di .d , al -il . - very little
. . - capilla ·ty w . '
n - . ater in . such sods . freezes
ug in
m VI. u. ,so pPres -without -any ~gra_tion of water . .h .
to _fonn ic~ lenses. Frost ·heave in' such· so1ls· is no't ob' WI~ abtlendency
· . .
-· · - .
~c.tlona e. Clavs
 122 SOIL ENGINEERING IN TIIEORY AND'PRACTICE -
'

on the otl~er-hand have very ·10-w •pet:meabili_ty and water cannot pass
thr~ugh them · rapi~ly to reach the zone of freezing cjuring the frost -
per~q~. ij,oweyer, if cracks and fissures are ·present, they, may .permit
. ,ap1~. mov~ment of water. Fine sands and silty soils ~re _thus the most
susceptibl¢ to frost bt:cause of their having both good capillarity and
~e~nieability. According to·Casagrande, 14 0·02 mm is the critical particle
· size for frost heaving. Consid~rable heaving may be expected if more
than 10 ,per cent of particles in a unifonn soil are finer than 0·02 mm
and · in a well-graded soil, if more than 3 per cent of soil particles ar;
fine~ than 0·02 mm. , - . . '

_(b) Frost Boil. When fr~zen soil thaws, free water is libetated -which -
may ·b,e much greater in quantity than that originally present in the soil
before freezing. Moreover, · since thawing starts from the· upper layen
doWJ;l.wards, melt water is ~apped in the· upper layers while the lower
layers may. 'be still frozen. This release of excess water results 1~ lowering ·
-the streng!h of soil and its effects are .termed frost boils•. The term frost- _
boil13. is· used to indicate the following phenomena: (i) ·softening of. soil
ncr.urring duril\g ·a thawing _period, due to the liberatio'if of- water
frqm
ice lenses or _layers, (ii) a hole for-med in flexible -pavement by the
extrusion of soft soil and melt waters under the action of wheel loads,
a
and -(iii) breaking of highway or air field pavement -under traffic .
and the ejection of subgrade soil in. a soft and soapy -condition.- caused
-by 'the _meiting of ice_lenses by frost · actio~. In coarse-grained soils --~ e
excess· water drains oq.t through the -soil quickly. Silty soils have -low
plasticity index compared .to -clays ~nd ,t~erefore the ·softenin~ effect
c;lue to excess water -will be more severe in silts thail in clays. _, ·
- (c) ·pr,~ventive .MetJfures. The most -~~ective_- ~ethod of p,reventing frost
action is to remove the frost su~ceptible soil upto the frost depth and
substitute it by -soil which is less susceptible. Proper drainage ~revents
serious frost heave- by lowering the water table and · by allowing the
excess water to escape more readily dq.ring !11awing~_ The inter.position
of a pervious gr~vel bl~nket betwee_I?- the h1ghes~ ~ater table and the ,
f,rost line prevents c?ns1der~bly capillary; sat~x~ti.~n of the frost zone,_
Insulating. blanke_ts10 of 15 to 30 :.cm ~luck, l~yers of san~ and. ~ravel
when. placed on ·the ground surface above. th~ -~rost s~sceptibl~ soil pre-
v~nt -deep-frost penetr~tion. B~lding foot1ng$. should be car~1ed below
the fro~t depth ,_to :avoid possible . heave~
,_ .
· --

PROBLEMS ·
6.1 Determine the -effective vertical pressure· at a ' depth <If 5 m below ·,the
ground surface in· a deposit of fin'C? sa11-d whe~e the water table is. l ·5 ·.m _belqw _
' ' ' I
 son.. WATER 123

, the_·ground surface. The ·. denaitv of~turated sand is .2 g/cm1• \JAs~ume the

sand·above ~ater table to~ sat~rated by capillary water. "If the water table
rises to the ground surface what w-ill be the change h;1 eff'~cdve pre~surcf at a ,
depth of 5',m? . . , (Ans. 0·65 kg/ctn2 , 0·15 kg/cm1 )
of
' r - • _(

· 6.2· The; subsoil .strata 'at a site· consist.s of a stratum

· . I
fine sand. 1~6 .m
• _ " I , ,

· thick overlying a stratum qf. clay 1.4 -~ thick. Unde~ the clay stratum ,lies a _
_deposit of. coarse sand extending · to a considerable' _depth./ The water· table
1--5 below tlie groq.nd surface. Assuming the top fine sand to be satµrated
,r·
by- capillary{ water, calculate the effective pressures at ground surface and at
. of 1·6, 3-0 and 5·0' me~. below
. . depths., . the groµnd surface. Assume for fine
. .
= . ·\
· . sand·. G 2·65, , = 0·6, for clay G = \2·75, e =··o-a-, and for coarse sand
· G ·= 2·66~ ·e =
0·5. . . _ .
What will be _the chang~ in effective pressure at.depth 3·0 m, if capi1lary- · no
water is assumed _to he present in fine sand and its bulk density- is -assumed to
. . ·(Ahs. 0·15Q~ 0!315, 0·451, 0•673, 0·0497 kg/cm )
2
be --i~7 g/cm 8•. ·

REFERENCE~

I. LAMBE, T. ·w. "The Structure of Inorganic ·SoH". Proceedings; _

, ,

ASCE, Vol. 79, Separate No. 315, O_ct~, · 1953.

' .
2. -LAMBE, T~ W~ ' "The Structure of Compa~ted Clays'\ .]our.
Soil. Mich. _Found! Div., Vol. ' 84, No. SM-2/ Proc. ·: Paper 1654,
· -May, 1958. . Also, Transactions, ASCE, Papet No. 304_1,
,,.
pp. 681-706,
.
Vol. 125, Part 1, 1960.
. .
3. !TAYLOR, D. W.- Fundamentals of1 Soil Mechanics. John Wiley _
& Sons, Inc. ·New·· York, 1948. .,,.
. . ,
I . ·, .
.4. GARDNBR 1 W. ·''The Capillary Potential an~ Its .R elation .to
Soil Moisture Constants". Soil , Science, 10: . 103-126, ·1920.
I) I • '

5. AI:roli1soN,- G. D. & B1sH0P, A. W. "Discussion on Pore Pres-

sure and 'Suction ·· in ·S(.lil". Conf.. on Pore Pressure . and Suction
.in.
Soils, ~'ritish National Soc. of .Intern. Soc. Soil Mech.
Found. 'Engg., London./ March, · 1960.
1
~ ·

6. -CRONEY D. & COLEMAN, J~-n ;··''Pore Pressure and Suction in ·

Soil". Conj. on . .
or, 'Pr1ssure
.
and Suction·in Soils
' '
London , 1960 .
' .
7. · C.~P~~R, ~· ~- &. ~~SSIE, :W ..-F·. · T~ Mechanics of Engin~ering .
. Soils. Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 196L · .
8. _Sc~~FIELD, _R~ :1{~~- pF ~r· '~Th:e _
Water i~- Soil;'. Trans. the
Third l~,teJn, Cimgr. _Soil Scienc~, Vol: 2.; 37-48, Oxford, , Eng-
1
land, l 935~ '