2021-36-0028
Validation of 0D Knock Models through Different Knock Detection Methods
Paulo Ricardo da Penha, Thiago Augusto Araújo Moreira, Fernando Antônio Rodrigues Filho, Marcelo Suman Silva
Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica de Minas Gerais (CEFET-MG)
Abstract
This paper applies numerical models to simulate the Onset of Knock
(OK) in a commercial automotive spark ignition engine. Results from
different models were compared with different knock detection
methods to verify the best agreement. Despite being widely studied
and reported in the literature, avoiding knock still poses a challenge
to engine efficiency improvement and it is the focus of many new
technologies. Knock detection methods rely on measurements of in-
cylinder pressure or engine vibrations to determine the onset of
knock, while some 0D predictive models are deduced from
experimental data and correlations involving the critical parameters
related to the knock phenomenon. Although 0D predictive models are
easy to apply and calculate, the initial formulation and the different
experimental conditions used to create each model often result in
different numerical formulations. In the present work, different
operational conditions of a spark ignition (SI) engine were used to
determine the OK using knock detection methods and numerical
simulation models. Knock detection was performed through
Maximum Amplitude of Pressure Oscillations (MAPO), Integral of
Modulus of Pressure Gradient (IMPG), Integral of Modulus of
Pressure Oscillations (IMPO). The experimental data is used as input
for knock prediction calculations through Arrhenius type correlations
and knock detection results were used as a reference to evaluate
knock simulations. Simplified 0D models are effective tools in engine
analysis but their variety of results match differently while compared
with different experimental methods of knock detection. The model
of Douaud & Eyzat, widely used in engine simulations indicated
knock in an instant close to the instant of maximum pressure
oscillations, while other models indicated delayed knock or did not
indicated knock at all, despite all knock detection indexes showing
similar knock intensity for all studied cases. This work aims to
provide a useful dataset to support future choices of knock models
and detection methods for engine analysis.
Introduction
Even with the advent of new technologies to power vehicles, internal
combustion engines will still compose a large share of the world’s
fleet for a long time [1]. By 2018, spark ignition gasoline engines
composed approximately 54% of passenger cars in use in the
European Union [2], 95% of the passengers and light-duty cars
produced in the USA [3] and 91% of the passenger and light-duty
vehicles registered in Brazil [4]. As a result of this scenario, internal
combustion engines development will be still pushing efficiency and
emissions to meet more constrained requirements in terms of energy
security and sustainability. Proper control of the combustion process
Page 1 of 8
Assis
is fundamental to optimize engine efficiency and consumption [5–8].
Therefore, avoiding high variability and abnormal combustion events
like auto-ignition and knock is key to achieve engine optimization.
Among the phenomena constraining Spark Ignition (SI) engines
performance and efficiency, knock is still a challenge for the
implementation of many new technologies, despite the extensive
investigation of the phenomenon [9]. SI engines operation is heavily
constrained by knock occurrence, which can bring several
undesirable results, namely: limitations to the maximum compression
ratio and turbocharge boost levels [6]; limitations to the spark timing
adjustment[10]; reduction of the engine lifespan or even cause severe
damage to the engine [11,12]. It is then mandatory to improve the
available tools to detect and simulate the occurrence of this
phenomenon. Numerical simulations have critical importance in
early-stage studies, as they can narrow the range of subsequent
experimental studies, thus reducing the time and costs of the study.
The spark plug initiates a deflagration wave that propagates through
the end gas, rising pressure and temperature inside the cylinder.
During the main flame front propagation, secondary flame fronts can
begin by auto-ignition of the end gas [8,13]. Although knock and
auto-ignition are not the same things and auto-ignition does not
necessarily result in knock [14], it is generally accepted that knock
originates from auto-ignition of the end gas ahead of the main
propagating flame [15–17]. As pressure and temperature inside the
cylinder keep increasing, the deflagration waves can progress into
detonation waves, referred to as knock in internal combustion
engines. This form of abnormal combustion is characterized by
sudden high rates of energy release which generate non-uniform
pressure distributions propagating as shockwaves across the
combustion chamber [18,19]. Given these characteristics, the term
“knock” was coined because of the noise propagated through the
engine structure while the cylinder walls are excited by the
shockwaves [20].
Several different strategies can be used to avoid knocking
combustion in SI engines, ranging from more traditional and widely
used approaches to more recent state-of-the-art technologies. As the
fuel reactions that induce knock are generally credited to the increase
in temperature and pressure inside the cylinder, most knock
mitigation approaches will aim to decrease these two parameters.
Retarding of the spark timing can reduce the peak cylinder pressure
and fuel mixture enrichment can decrease the cylinder temperature,
reducing knock occurrence. Both can be implemented without
component modification, and are widely applied in production
engines [1]. Other strategies have been under study or
implementation in production engines. Adjustments in valve timing,
multi-injection strategies, cooled Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR),
direct injection of water and direct injection of a secondary fuel are submitted the integration of the characteristic time to different data
some of the examples of knock mitigation strategies [10,21–27]. sets and found different equations for it.

This study aims to compare and correlate the result of different auto-
ignition models with the results of different detection methods. The
different experimental setup of each work results in different
formulations for the characteristic auto-ignition time. The results of
this study should provide useful background to support future choices
between the several possible combinations of detection methods and
calculation models.
Knock Detection
Wayne, et al. studied knock mitigation in a bi-fuel (gasoline/natural
gas) four-cylinder turbocharged engine and derived a similar
correlation but with different constants [36]. In another experiment,
Hoepke et al. included the EGR rate as a parameter for the
characteristic auto-ignition time and validated a different set of
constants using a turbocharged engine with water-cooled EGR[37]. A
similar application of the characteristic auto-ignition time approach
was performed by Chen et al. and included the EGR rate and the air
excess ratio (λ) as input parameters [38]. The works mentioned above
are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristic Ignition Time Models.

The pressure oscillations characteristic of knocking combustion are . Douaud

𝑂𝑁
of such magnitude that can be properly measured by pressure sensors 17.68 𝑝 . 𝑒 & Eyzat
installed inside the combustion chamber. Moreover, these 100 [34]
shockwaves excite the combustion chamber resonant frequencies and
the generated vibration is translated by the engine structure into the 𝑂𝑁 . Wayne
knocking sound [28]. It is then viable to detect knocking combustion 0.389 𝑝 . 𝑒 et
through measurements of either cylinder pressure or engine vibration. 100 al.[36]
While the latter is the most practical for mass production engines, the
former is extensively used in experimental researches [14]. .
𝑝 . Hoepke
8.449𝑥10 (1 − 𝑋 ) 𝑒 et al.
𝑇
As the pressure signal is a very rich source of information, being base [37]
for several interpretations and calculations related to the combustion,
𝑝 . Chen et
it also requires thorough analysis and systematized evaluation. Many 5.35𝑥10 . . (1 − 𝑋 ) .
.𝜆 .
.𝑒
methods include treating the pressure signal by either using a band- 𝑇 al. [38]
pass filter or transforming it from the time domain into the frequency
domain [29]. For instance, Integral of Modulus of Pressure
Oscillations (IMPO) and Maximum Amplitude of Pressure
Oscillations (MAPO) are used by many authors to evaluate knock In the relations in Table 1, temperature (T) is in Kelvin, cylinder
intensity through band-filtered cylinder pressure analysis [30]. pressure (p) in bar, ON is the Anti-Knock Index (AKI) of the fuel,
XEGR is the ratio of exhaust gas recirculation and λ is the ratio
Knock Prediction between the actual air-fuel of the cylinder charge and the
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio of the fuel.
Although knock and auto-ignition are not the same phenomena,
conventional knock occurs when combustion increases the Methodology
temperature and pressure of the unburned gases until the auto-
ignition point [31]. The work of Livengood and Wu suggests that The present section describes the methods employed in this work. In
auto-ignition can be modelled by the integration of the characteristic order to evaluate the detection and prediction of knock, the following
time necessary to reach a critical concentration of pertinent reaction steps were performed:
products [32]. However, this approach is not sensible to external
sources of heat such as a spark or a hot spot on the cylinder surface. 1. A reference experiment was used as the basis for this work
Instead, it relies on the average thermodynamic state of the end gas which was performed on a four-cylinder spark ignition engine,
(temperature and pressure) to determine auto-ignition. Nevertheless, fueled with a gasoline-ethanol blend;
similar approaches are proposed as a way to predict the ignition delay 2. Fast Fourier Transform of the pressure data was performed to
in diesel engines [33]. As for the characteristic time for auto ignition, highlight the frequency range in which peak oscillations
Douaud and Eyzat [34], for instance, found a correlation adapted to occurred. A band-pass Butterworth filter of fourth-order was
account for the fuel octane rating. then applied at the pressure signal to extract the pressure
oscillation within the frequency window comprising the peak
It has to be noted that the integration of the characteristic ignition oscillations;
time cannot be strictly interpreted as a knock prediction, as it is 3. A two-zone model was calculated to estimate the unburned
meant to evaluate auto-ignition. Rather, it can help to predict knock gases temperature and heat release rate, and calculations were
by pointing out the instant of auto-ignition. The constants in Douaud performed based on cylinder pressure, engine characteristics,
and Eyzat work were obtained by the original authors from test bench data and fuel properties;
experimental data of a Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) engine. As 4. Auto ignition predictive integrals were calculated, using
it happens with numerical correlations extracted from experimental different formulations, and computing for each of them: its
data, the conditions under which the experiment is performed greatly maximum values and the crank angle in which it reached the
affect the equations or formulations found as result [35]. As expected, value 1;
given the simplicity and flexibility of this approach, different studies 5. Band filtered pressure was used to calculate knock indexes
MAPO, IMPO and IMPG;
Page 2 of 8
6. Results were compared to evaluate the behaviour of the knock Following the procedure proposed by MOREIRA, RODRIGUES
model in comparison to the different detection methods; FILHO, BAÊTA et al. [39], the polytropic coefficient can be
estimated at the instant of the spark, as in Equation 3:
Experimental Setup
log 𝑃 𝜃 − log 𝑃 𝜃 − 5°
𝑛= (3)
Engine base characteristics are described in Table 2. 𝑃 𝜃

Table 2. Engine characteristics.

Displacement 1596 cc (four cylinders) The procedure described above needs the values of cylinder pressure
Stroke 81.4 mm (P), volume (V) and mass (m). At stoichiometric condition, intake air
Bore 79 mm mass and fuel injection can be determined by measuring either one of
them. To properly define the cylinder mass, however, the residual
Connecting Rod 137 mm
burned gas mass in the cylinder would need to be estimated. A
Compression ratio 11:1 precise estimative of the residual burned mass would require a more
Number of valves 16 complete model, including intake geometry, valve opening profile,
for example. To make the approach of this work as simple as possible
Fuel supply Port injection
to implement, residual mass equal to 5% of total cylinder mass was
Air supply Aspirated considered as an approximation.
Fuel E25 gasoline (25% ethanol; AKI=87)
Knock detection was performed through IMPG, IMPO and MAPO
indexes. These indexes can be calculated as expressed in equations 4,
The test was performed at wide-open throttle (WOT) with 5 and 6:
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (A/F), for 4 different speeds, from
4000rpm to 5500rpm, with steps of 500rpm. As the engine was 𝑑𝑝̂
running at full load and using stoichiometric condition, light knock 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝐺 = 𝑑𝜃 (4)
𝑑𝜃
was expected to occur. Test results were the average of 100 measured
cycles.
𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑂 = |𝑝̂ | 𝑑𝜃 (5)
Calculation Procedure

The engine test bench results were used to calculate further 𝑀𝐴𝑃𝑂 = max |𝑝̂ | (6)
parameters. After applying the bandpass filter to the pressure signal,
the noiseless pressure signal was used to model the two zones of the In equations 4, 5 and 6, θ is the crank angle position in degrees, 𝑝̂ is
cylinder. Given that the auto-ignition model predicts spontaneous the band filtered cylinder pressure, and the window of analysis is
ignition of the end gas, the adequate temperature input for this model equal to δ, starting at the angle θi.
should be the unburned zone temperature. Cylinder mass averaged
temperature and unburned zone temperature were modelled as
Knock prediction was performed using the approach of Livengood
follows [39].
and Wu, expressed in Equation 7 below, which is the criterion for
auto-ignition.
Mass averaged temperature of the cylinder mass can be estimated by:
1
𝑃(𝜃) . 𝑉(𝜃) 𝑑𝑡 = 1 (7)
𝑇 (𝜃) = (1) 𝜏
𝑅 .𝑚

In Equation 1, at an instant defined by the crank angle position (θ), P
and V are the cylinder pressure and volume, respectively, and m and
R are cylinder charge mass and the related gas constant.
Considering the polytropic expansion of the end gas ahead of the
flame front, the unburned mass temperature can be modelled as:
In the equation above, τ is the characteristic time for auto ignition, ti
is the initial time of integration and tai is the time when auto-ignition
occurs. The instant in time when the integral value reaches 1 is the
time when the end gas mixture is at a thermodynamic state prone to
auto-ignition. The characteristic ignition time was calculated
according to the Douaud [34], Hoepke [37] and Chen [38]
correlations in Table 1.

𝑇 (𝜃) = 𝑇 𝜃
𝑃(𝜃)
(2) Results
𝑃 𝜃
Basic test bench results in terms of performance are summarized in
In Equation 2, n is the polytropic coefficient of the expansion and Table 3. As detailed in the section Methodology, the test was
θspark is the value of the crank angle position at the instant when the performed at WOT and with stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. Data for
spark is generated. cylinder mass was estimated based on stoichiometric relation for the
fuel (13.2) and considering 5% of residual mass.

Page 3 of 8
Table 3. Test performance data.

Speed Net IMEP A/F Air intake Fuel Injection

(rpm) (bar) (-) (1 cyl) (1 cyl)
4000 11.72 13.2 364.8 mg 30.4 mg
4500 11.95 13.2 377.6 mg 30.5 mg
5000 11.73 13.2 350.1 mg 30.8 mg
5500 11.27 13.2 393.3 mg 30.5 mg

Pressure signal from test bench data was analyzed via FFT to
evaluate the amplitude of oscillations at different ranges of
frequency. In this analysis, the graph presents the amplitude of
pressure oscillations (vertical axis) for each frequency (horizontal
axis). It is visible in Figures 1 and 2 that measurements showed two
peaks of amplitude around frequencies near 14kHz and 19kHz.
Summarizing this result, these two values seem to be the frequencies
of the high-pressure oscillations caused by detonation in this engine.
To include the whole range of high amplitudes, the window between
12kHz and 23kHz was chosen for the bandpass filter. All results
shown for pressure oscillation analysis were performed with data
filtered between this frequency band.
Figure 3. Cylinder Pressure (Pa) and Pressure Oscillation (Pa) x CAD
(ºATDC) – 4000rpm, WOT.
It can be seen that, for 4000rpm, the underdamped behaviour of the
pressure oscillations is noticeable. The value of MAPO for this case
was close to 31kPa. It is also marked the angle at which the auto-
ignition model of Douaud and Eyzat reached the value 1, and the
angle at which the maximum amplitude of oscillation occurred,
parameters which are discussed in the next sections of this paper.
These values coincided closely, as shown by the vertical lines
(dashed and dotted lines). The maximum oscillation matched the
instant when the integral assumed 1 as its value and this happened
slightly before the instant when mass burned fraction was equal to
90% of total fuel mass (MBF = 90%).

Knock Detection Results

Results for knock detection are shown in this section. Figure 4

presents MAPO results for all speeds. As expected, MAPO results
were well related to the presented FFT analysis. Values of MAPO
increased for speeds between 4000rpm and 5000rpm, having
decreased slightly for 5500rpm. The reduction at high speed could be
associated with the reduction of available time to build up the
detonation condition.

Figure 1. FFT analysis of Cylinder Pressure Signal – Pressure amplitude (Pa)

x Frequency (Hz) – 4000-4500rpm, WOT.

Figure 4. MAPO (Pa) x Speed (RPM) - WOT.

Figure 2. FFT analysis of Cylinder Pressure Signal – Pressure amplitude (Pa)
x Frequency (Hz) – 5000-5500rpm, WOT.
Results of crank angle related data are shown as an example for the
4000rpm speed case, while other results were evaluated as a function
of speed. Pressure signal and band filtered pressure oscillation for
this speed can be seen in Figure 3.
Page 4 of 8
Figure 5 shows IMPO and IMPG results for each speed. These three
indexes were calculated based on the same parameter: band-filtered
pressure oscillations. As a result, they should agree in the general
trend, although some differences are not unexpected. Differently
from MAPO results, IMPO and IMPG showed a similar knock
intensity for 5500rpm compared to the other speeds. IMPO results
were slightly increasing with speed, while IMPG have decreased
slightly, although both remained more stable than MAPO throughout
the speed range.

Figure 5. IMPO and IMPG x Speed (RPM) - WOT.
The indexes differ in their calculations and the main difference
between MAPO and the other indexes is that it considers only the
maximum value of amplitude in its definition. As a result, it may be
that, despite the lower peak value, the oscillations at 5500rpm lasted
over a longer period of time (measured in crank angle degrees),
causing the values of IMPO and IMPG to not decrease sharply at
5500rpm.
Knock Prediction Results
Results for knock prediction are shown in this section. Figure 6
presents the maximum value of the auto-ignition integral for all
speeds. Given the nature of this method, the end gas mixture was
prone to self-ignite (and possibly detonate) whenever the integral
value became equal to 1.
Figure 6. Auto-Ignition Integral x Speed (RPM).
The three models showed similar trends, decreasing their maximum
values at higher speeds. However, while the Douaud model results
would imply that all speeds reached a condition of auto-ignition of
the end gas, the Chen model did not reach 1 at 5000rpm and
5500rpm. Also, the model of Chen barely reached 1 at 4000rpm and
4500rpm. The same was observed for the correlation of Hoepke at
5000rpm and 5500rpm. This indicates that, for the mentioned speeds,
the calculations of these models reached 1 very close to the end of
combustion.
Figure 7 compares the crank angle position in which the integral
reached the value 1 for the evaluated models. It is also marked the
instant (in crank angle position) when cylinder mass burned fraction
was equal to 90% of the fuel mass (90%MBF) and the instant when
the maximum oscillation occurred. The Douaud characteristic time
integral reached 1 at crank angle positions close to the position of
90%MBF. The Hoepke model was delayed, compared to the model
Page 5 of 8
of Douaud and did not reach 1 for 5500rpm. The Chen model was
further delayed and did not reach 1 for the cases with 5000rpm and
5500rpm speeds.
Figure 7. Angles (º ATDC) for 90%MBF, Douaud Auto-Ignition Integral and
MAPO x Speed (RPM).
The angle of auto-ignition according to the model of Douaud
matched the instant when the maximum oscillation occurred within 5
degree difference for all speeds but 5000rpm. For the mentioned case,
the maximum oscillation was found to be advanced compared to the
modelled onset of knock. Further investigation would be necessary,
but a possible cause of this result may be the averaging of the
collected data. This could cause either a change on the instant of the
maximum oscillation or a change in the pressure shape affecting the
calculated onset of knock.
Conclusions
Three different knock detection indexes were compared and related
to different predictive models for auto-ignition. The application of the
MAPO, IMPO and IMPG indexes achieved similar results, indicating
similar knock intensity for a few speed cases. There were diverging
points, however, as seen in the higher speed case in this work, in
which the MAPO index has shown a sharp decrease compared to the
other cases. The other two indexes (IMPO and IMPG) showed a
small variation comparing the 6000rpm speed case value with the
lower speed ones. Data used was an average of 100 cycles, which
could possibly affect the maximum value of oscillation and explain
this result.
For the cases in which the models detected auto-ignition, they
showed a similar trend. The models of Hoepke and Chen, however,
did not indicate knock at some speeds, despite the similar values of
the knock detection indexes. The model of Douaud was the only one
to reach 1 for all speed cases. Also, the instant in which this model
reached 1 matched closely the instant of the maximum pressure
oscillation for all speeds but 5000rpm. For the mentioned case, the
maximum pressure oscillation was advanced more than 5 degrees in
comparison to the modelled onset of knock. This could also be a
result of the averaging of measured cycles, affecting the modelled
onset of knock or the instant of the measured maximum oscillation.
The widely used Douaud & Eyzat correlation seems to be the best
suited for this test configuration, with consistent results for the
evaluated speed.
Further works could include cycles without sensible pressure
oscillations and also utilize data for single cycles, instead of averaged
measurements. The use of single cycles would allow the comparison
of cycles with different intensities of knock at similar speed and load.
It would also allow to evaluate the offset of auto-ignition during
cycle variability. Subsequent works could also include the analysis of
heat release rate to the comparison of knock models. Lastly,
variations in EGR and dilution rate could be performed to better
observe the compared performance of the Hoepke and Chen auto-
ignition models and the relations between the three models and the
knock detection methods.
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Contact Information
Paulo Ricardo da Penha, B.Sc.

pauloricardo.dapenha@gmail.com

Thiago Augusto Araújo Moreira, Ph. D.

thiago.moreira@cefetmg.br

Definitions/Abbreviations
λ dillution ratio

τ characteristic auto ignition

time

A/F air to fuel ratio

AI auto-ignition

AKI anti-knock index

CFR cooperative fuel research

E25 gasoline-ethanol blend with

25% ethanol in volume

EGR exhaust gas recirculation

FFT fast Fourier transform

IMEP indicated mean effective

pressure

IMPG integral of modulus of

pressure gradient

IMPO integral of modulus of

pressure oscillations

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 MAPO Maximum amplitude of
pressure oscillations

MBF mass burned fraction

ON onset of knock

rpm revolution per minute

SI spark ignition

WOT Wide-open throttle

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