]

PROJECT – REPORT

Submitted by

AKASH A 2051T301

ARUN PRASATH B 2051T302

KARTHIGEYAN S 2051T306

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SALEM -11

(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI- 600 025

DECEMBER - 2022
]
APPENDIX

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI- 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SPHERICAL

AUTONOMOUS MOBILE ROBOT” is the bonafide work of

AKASH A 2051T301

ARUN PRASATH B 2051T302

KARTHIGEYAN S 2051T306

who carried out the project under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. T. BALUSAMY, Ph.D. Dr.A.BARANIRAJ, ME, PhD

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT, TEAM GUIDE,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Government College of Engineering, Government College of Engineering
Salem-636011. Salem-636011.

Submitted for Project examinations Viva-Voce held on .

Internal Examiner External Examiner

]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Apart from the efforts of us, the success of any project depends largely on encouragement
and guidelines of many others. We take this opportunity to express our gratitude to the
people who have been instrumental in the successful completion of this project.

We take immense pleasure in thanking our beloved Principal

Dr.R.MALAYALAMURTHI, Ph.D., Government College of Engineering, Salem for
permitting us to do this project.

We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to professor and Head of the Department
Dr.T.BALUSAMY, Ph.D., Department of Mechanical Engineering, for his guidance and
useful suggestions, which helped us in completing this project work on time.

Words are inadequate in offering the thanks to our project guide, Dr.A.BARANIRAJ,
M.E,Ph.D, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, for his valuable
guidance and timely suggestion and kind encouragement to carry out this project and
helped us to complete the project successfully.

We would also thank our Institution and our faculty members, without whom this project
would have been a distant reality. We also extend our thanks the guidance and support
received from all the members who contributed for this project, was vital for the success of
this project. We are grateful for their constant support and help
]

ABSTRACT

The use of remotely operated robotic systems in security related applications is becoming
increasingly popular. However, the direct teleoperation interfaces commonly used today put a
large amount of cognitive burden on the operators, thus seriously reducing the efficiency and
reliability of these systems.

We present an approach to alleviate this problem by exploiting both software and hardware
autonomy. At the software level, we propose a variable autonomy control architecture that
dynamically adapts the degree of autonomy of the robot in terms of control, perception, and
interaction. At the hardware level, we rely on the intrinsic autonomy and robustness provided
by the spherical morphology of our autonomous mobile robot.

We also present a prototype system for facilitating the interaction between human operators
and robots using our control architecture. This work is specifically aimed at increasing the
effectiveness of the autonomous mobile robot for remote inspection tasks.
]
LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TOPIC PAGE NO

I INTRODUCTION

Automated Guided Vehicle 1

Background 2
Problem Statement 3
Project and It’s Scope 4

II LITERATURE REVIEW 5-8

III COMPONENTS USED 9 - 21

Design Objectives 9
Design Considerations 9
Components of AGV 11
Mechanical Part 12
Electrical Components 14
Software 18
Program Source Code 19

IV DEVELOPED PROTOTYPE 22 -27

Block Diagram 22
Circuit Diagram 23
Working Principle 25
Theoretical and logical calculation 26
Billing 27

V CONCLUSION 28 -29

VI REFERENCES 30
]

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TOPIC PAGE NO

1 Technical Data of Chassis 13

4.5 Billing Table 27

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TOPIC PAGE NO

3.3.1.1 Chassis of AGV 12

3.3.2.1 Arduino Uno 14

3.3.2.2 IR Sensor 14

3.3.2.3 L293D Motor driver 14

3.3.2.4 DC Motor 15

3.3.2.5 HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Sensor 15

3.3.2.6 L293D IC 16

3.3.2.7 IR for path detection 17

3.3.2.8 Working of IR Sensor 17

4.1.1 Block Diagram of developed prototype 22

4.2.1 Circuit Diagram 23

4.2.2 Assembled Miniature AGV prototype 24

 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

SPHERICAL AUTONOMOUS MOBILE ROBOT

A Spherical Robot, also known as spherical mobile robot, or ball-shaped robot is a mobile
robot with spherical external shape. A spherical robot is typically made of a spherical shell
serving as the body of the robot and an internal driving unit (IDU) that enables the robot to
move.

The term "spherical robot" may also be referred to a stationary robot with two rotary joints and
one prismatic joint which forms a spherical coordinate system.

The spherical shell is usually made of solid transparent material but it can also be made of
opaque or flexible material for special applications or because of special drive
mechanisms. The spherical shell can fully seal the robot from the outside environment. There
exist spherical robots that can transform the spherical shell into other structures and perform
other tasks aside from rolling.

 Spherical robot can operate as autonomous robots, or as remotely controlled robots. In almost
all the spherical robots, communication between the internal driving unit and the external
control unit (data logging or navigation system) is wireless because of the mobility and closed
nature of the spherical shell. The power source of these robots is mostly a battery located
inside the robot but there exist some spherical robots that utilize solar cells. Spherical mobile
robots can be categorized either by their application or by their drive mechanism.

Mobile robotics is one of the important branches of robotics. For mobility of the robots,
different motions like rolling, walking, hopping, sliding are used. Rolling motion has certain
advantages over other motions. The problem of wear and tear is less, the set of configurations
is reachable by lesser number of inputs as the system is nonholonomic and the role of friction
is conservative. As compared to single wheeled robots like gyroscopes ,the spherical structure
is statically stable and due to the spherical shape, the robot recovers from the collisions with
unknown obstacles. Any sensor can be mounted inside the spherical shell and the robot can be
effectively used. Due to these reasons and for the purpose of constructing a testbed, an
autonomous spherical mobile robot has been designed 

1
BACKGROUND

The creations of Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) have been around since the 1950’s
and the technology was first developed by Barret Electronics from Grand Rapids,
Michigan. It was then developed by the Europeans in the 1970’s and nowadays AGVs
can be found in anycountries. One of the first AGVs was a towing vehicle that pulled a
series of trailers between two points, and today’s there are many task given to AGVs
and they also have their ownname and potentials.

Considering the full potentials and advantages of the Automated Guided Vehicle
(AGV) in our livings, it is valuable to do this project, as it also will be the first step
towards the creation of more intelligent technology or system. The simplest AGV
model may use just a sensor to provide its navigation and can be the complex one with
more sensors and advancesystems to do the task. They can work or do the task
everywhere needed but the safety for theAGV as well as the people and environment
surround it must be provided.

The AGVs is just the same as mobile robot, which can moves from one place to
another to do their task, but mostly the mobile robot is used for difficult task with
dangerous environment such as bomb defusing. Furthermore, the mobile robot can be
categorized into wheeled, tracked, or legged robot. AGV work, which usually menial,
are often be essential to the smooth running of factories, offices, hospitals, and even
houses. They can work without any complaint around many workplaces all over the
world.

2
 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Autonomous mobile robots (AMRs) have changed the way manufacturers and warehouses
operate. They are often the backbone of cheap drop shipping industries and function around
the clock to help warehouses and manufacturers get their products to customers.
They help eliminate repetitive mundane tasks from workers, allowing them to work at stations
more conducive to workers' health and productivity.

Traditional manufacturing robots are fixed in place or operate on a fixed track. They are
unable to make independent decisions on how to perform the tasks they are assigned to do. An
autonomous robot can make decisions on its own based on a set of parameters it takes from its
environment. This feature greatly increases the amount of flexibility in assigned robotic
tasks. When using autonomous technology in conjunction with a mobile robot platform, the
robot can complete a higher number of tasks than previously thought. Machine learning and
environmental awareness open smart robots' possibility to perform tasks previously
unimaginable with regular robotics.  

3
PROJECT AND ITS SCOPE

The objective and scope of this project is to create an AGV model that can follow
a trail of line on a flat surface horizontally. This AGV model is using microcontroller to
control all navigation and lifting functions during its operation. In other words, the
microcontroller acts just like the brain for the model that controls all operation of the
system.

The model is a four-wheeled mobile robot that has the ability to follow line on
floor. There are three wheels including two driving wheels controlled by two motors
and a free wheel in front that is able to rotate 360°. With three wheels, both driving
wheels are alwaysin contact with the surface, because of the robot’s steering relies on
both its driven wheels being in contact with the surface at all times.

This project consists of four main stages, which are theoretical design,
mechanical fabrication, electronic hardware design and as well as algorithm design in
assembly language. The matter to be considered is how the robot can follow the trail of
line continuously. It is also important to choose the most suitable microcontroller,
actuators, and sensors to achieve the project objectives.

4
 CHAPTER - II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Automatic Guided Vehicles (AGVs) have played a vital role in moving material
and product for more than 50 years. The first AGV system was built and introduced in
1953. It was a modified towing tractor that was used to pull a trailer and follow an
overhead wire in a grocery warehouse. By the late 1950's and early 1960's, towing
AGVs were in operation in many types of factories and warehouses.

The first big development for the AGV industry was the introduction of a unit
load vehicle in the mid-1970s. This unit load AGVs gained widespread acceptance in
the material handling marketplace because of their ability to serve several functions; a
work platform, a transportation device and a link in the control and information system
for the factory. Since then, AGVs have evolved into complex material handling
transport vehicles ranging from mail handling AGVs to highly automated automatic
trailer loading AGVs using laser and natural target navigation technologies. The
problem of scheduling of AGVs and the other supporting equipments has been
extensively studied by Basnet and Mize and Rachamadugu and Stecke currently
providing the most up-to-date and comprehensive reviews in this area.

Han and McGinnis have developed a real time algorithm in which material
handling transporters are considered. Schriber and Stecke have shown how the
additional considerationof the material handling system and limited buffers degrades
the system performance. Sabuncuoglu and Hommertzheim have highlighted the
importance of material handling and they compared several AGV dispatching rules.
They have also shown how the buffer capacitycan affect the performance of the system.
Flexibility, which is a distinguishing feature of FMSs, has received an extensive
amount of attention. Routing flexibility (i.e., alternative machines and processing
routes) has been considered by Wilhelm and Shin, Chen and Chung,and Khoshnevis
and Chen. These studies have indicated that dynamic routing (i.e., a path determined
dynamically during schedule generation) performs better than a preplanned routing.

5
 Rachamadugu have proposed a quantitative measure of sequence flexibility and
have shown that perfect sequence Flexibility improves system performance. Similar
observations have been made by Lin and Solberg. In most work to date, tools,
pallets/fixtures and their availability are not modeled adequately.

A static allocation of tools is usually assumed in these studies. However, some

researchers have considered a limited tool magazine capacity and the changing of tools
from central tool storage. One purpose of this thesis is to develop an algorithm that can
be used to investigate the research issues discussed above.

Kim proposed a deadlock detection and prevention algorithms for AGVs. It was
assumed that vehicles reserve grid blocks in advance to prevent collisions and
deadlocks among AGVs. A graphic representation method, called the "reservation
graph," was proposed to express a reservation schedule in such a form that the
possibility of a deadlock can be easily detected. A method to detect possible deadlocks
by using the reservation graph was suggested.

Maxwell and Muckstadt first introduced the problem of AGV flow system
design. While their main concern is vehicle routing, they also address material flow
path and station location design issues. The flow network they used, known as
conventional configuration, is composed of unidirectional arcs. Gaskin and Tanchoco
developed the first integer programming model for material flow path design. Given a
fixed network of aisles and fixed pickup and delivery stations, the model assigns
direction to arcs to minimize the total trip distances of loaded vehicles.

Afentakis states the advantages of the loop layout as simplicity and efficiency,
lowinitial and expansion costs, and product and processing flexibility. Loop layout has
been studied by many researchers including Bartholdi and Platzman, Sharp and Liu,
Kouvelis and Kim, Egbelu, Banerjee and Zhou, and Chang and Egbelu. Bozer and
Srinivasan initiate the concept of tandem configuration as a set of no overlapping,
bidirectional loops, each with a single vehicle.

Another problem in steering issues is to schedule several AGVs in a non-

conflicting manner which is a complicated real-time problem, especially when the
AGV system is bi- directional. In fact, many conflicting situations may arise such as
6
head-on

7
and catching-up conflicts when the AGVs or the guide-paths are bidirectional and if no
efficient control policyis used to prevent them. Several conflict-free routing strategies
have been proposed and can be classified into two categories:

 Predictive methods: Aim to find an optimal path for AGVs. The conflicts are

predicted off-line, and an AGV’s route is planned to avoid collisions and

deadlocks.
 Reactive methods: the AGVs are not planned and the decisions are taken in a

real- time manner according to the system state.

These methods are based on a zone division of the guide-path and consider them
as non-sharable resources. Predictive methods give good performance, but are not very
robust since they do not take into account real time problems. However, reactive
methods are very robust but the resulting performances can be poor because the
decisions are taken by considering a very short-term time horizon. In this report due to
specification of the whole plan (presence of only one AGV) a kind of predictive
method is proposed.

In early 1990s Fuzzy logic came through to control and manipulate whole of the
material flow in manufacturing floors. The main indication of employing this system on
AGVs was the ability of controlling multiple AGV in a same time without collision.
However,only simulation results are presented. Senoo et al used experimental results of
a three wheeled mobile robot to discuss the stability of a fuzzy controller. It is also
stated that fuzzy control was implemented in order to achieve reduction of steer energy,
while maintaining better steer angle when compared with PI control.

Fuzzy logic has found useful applications in control among other areas. One
useful characteristic of a fuzzy controller is its applicability to systems with model
uncertainty and/or unknown models. Another useful characteristic of a fuzzy logic
controller is that it provides a framework for the incorporation of domain knowledge in
terms of heuristic rules. Wuwei et al. They presented the new navigation method for
AGV with fuzzy neural network controller when in the presence of obstacles. Their
AGV can avoid the dynamic and static obstacle and reach the target safely and reliably.

8
 Wu et al. used fuzzy logic control and artificial potential field (APF) for AGV
navigation. The APF method is used to calculate the repulsive force between the
vehicle and the closest obstacle and the attractive force generated by the goal. A fuzzy
logic controller is used to modify the direction of the AGV in a way to avoid the
obstacle. Lin and Wang proposed a fuzzy logic controller for collision avoidance for
AGV.

Mehdi Yahyaei has design a AGV using fuzzy logic system and a rotational
ultra- sonic sensor to steer the AGV to avoid collisions and obstacles. He also
employed a programmable logic control (PLC) as the processor which makes the AGV
to be ultimately fitto the industrial environments.

They combined fuzzy logic with crisp reasoning to guide an AGV to get out of
trap since memories of path and crisp sequence flows are handled by non-fuzzy
processing. Their designed AGV was able to avoid collision with unknown obstacle.
Alves and Junior used a step motor to turn the direction of the ultra-sonic sensors, so
that each sensor can substitute two or more sensors in mobile robot navigation. Perhaps
Sugeno has done one of thepioneering researches in mobile robot navigation using
fuzzy logic control.

The fuzzy control rules, which he defines for the controller, were derived by
modeling an expert driving action. He made a computer model of a car in
microcomputer to find fuzzy rules. The speed of the designed car was constant; then,
the control input to the car is only the angle of the steering angle

9
 CHAPTER - III

COMPONENTS USED

DESIGN OBJECTIVES

In nowadays AGV has a greater influence in the production field. Why we prefer
this system is mainly because of its accuracy to transport goods, avoiding accidents at
industrial zone, decreasing production overall cost etc.
In our project the important factor is that, we provide a sensor which detects the
objects in the paths to avoid collision with those objects, by stopping the vehicle and
moves after the when object leaves the path.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:

The spherical mobile robot designed in our laboratory works on the principle of conservation
of angular momentum. The robot has two internal rotors similar to a few constructions
mentioned above. The robot’s spherical shell is made up of acrylic material having 4 mm
thickness. The inner radius of the robot is 30 cm. A crucial aspect of the design is to place the
internal components such that the center of mass of the robot is exactly at the geometric center
of the sphere. This is very important

• Flow path layout

• Traffic management: prediction and avoidance of collisions and deadlocks
• Number and location of pick-up and delivery points
• Vehicle requirements
• Vehicle routing
• Vehicle scheduling
• Battery management

A flow path layout compromises the fixed guided paths on which vehicles can
travel to the various pick-up and delivery points of loads. Traffic management is
required to avoid collisions and deadlock situations in which two or more vehicles are
blocked completely. To ensure that loads are transported in time, sufficient vehicles
should be available and the right vehicle should be dispatched to the right load.

10
 This layout is usually represented by a directed network in which aisles intersections
and pickup and delivery locations can be considered as nodes. The arcs represent the guide
path the AGVs can travel on. Directed arcs indicate the direction of travel of vehicles in the
system.
The layout of this flow path directly influences the performance of the system. In
our project we just mark two stations only. One loading and one unloading station. The
carrier moves in the loop which connects these two stations.
In controlling and designing AGV systems the problem of prevention of AGV
collisions. By attaching sensors on AGVs, physicalcollisions can be avoided. An AGV
should have the ability to avoid obstacles and the ability to return to its original path
without any collisions. So the traffic management has only less important in our case.
But while using more than one carrierwe should take care about them.

To determine an optimal AGV’s system, capable of meeting all requirements,

many factors have to be taken into account. Several of these factors are:
• Number of units to be transported
• Points in time at which units can be or need to be transported
• Capacity of the vehicle
• Speed of the vehicle
• Costs of the system
• Layout of the system and guide path
• Traffic congestion
• Vehicle dispatching strategies

Number and location of pick-up and delivery points. If AGVs use batteries,
frequent battery changing might be required. McHaney (1995) presents an overview of
AGV battery technology. The time required for replacing or chargingbatteries can
impact the number of vehicles required. Simulation results from McHaney (1995)
indicate a significant increase in the number of AGVs required while incorporating
battery management issues in the simulation study compared to neglecting these issues
in the studies. Furthermore, the time required for charging batteries impacts throughput,
congestion and costs.

11
COMPONENTS OF AGV:

MECHANICAL PARTS:

The Mechanical components includes,

1. Chassis
2. Steering system

Chassis:

 Act as sacrificial component to prevent damage of expensive payload in

case ofaccidents
 Act as a frame for attaching other components carry the load of other
components.

Steering System:

 Steering system is for steering the AGV. The two individual motors are directly
attached with the wheel for steering.

ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS:

Electrical components include the motor and the power supply unit for the motor and
sensoring. Electronic components provide sensing, logical decision and control of the
vehicle. It includes Arduino, which is the brain of the vehicle for the decision logic,
the motor driver as both sensing and control of motor, regulator ICs, sensors for
sensing the path, position of loading and unloading stations, detect object in the path
etc.

SOFTWARE:

Computer is used for making and implementing program for the Arduino, using
embedded computer programming language. For this project we use Arduino Uno
microcontroller. The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software.

12
MECHANICAL PART

CHASSIS:

The chassis is fabricated from Acrylic sheet. This is done for ease of fabrication,
and to reduce the overall weight. It was designed in Catia, part of fabrication was
outsourced due to unavailability of precision cutting tools. The chassis was designed to
take a static load of 3kg.

The Top part of chassis has lots of drilled holes which serves as holes for bolting
other parts and reduce the weight of the chassis. The Holes are arranged in a zigzag
linear arrangement so that the decrease in strength of chassis is not considerable.

The flange which holds the motor was designed using Aluminium and is bolted
to the chassis. So that the driving motors can easily accommodate below the chassis.
The chassis incorporates hole for attaching front globe wheel, and also for attaching the
lift structure

Chassis of AGV

13
Technical Data of Chassis:

Features Data
Length 240mm
Breadth 150mm
Height 30mm
Material Acrylic sheet
Maximum load 2 Kg
Mounting Holes 14×3mm ø Holes for general
mounts2×8mm ø Holes for
motor
1×10mm ø Hole for switch

14
ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS:

Arduino Uno

IR Sensor

L293D Motor Driver

15
 DC Motor

It is an electronic circuit which enables a voltage to be applied across a load in either

direction. It allows a circuit full control over a standard electric DC motor. That is, with
an H-bridge, a microcontroller, logic chip, or remote control can electronically
command the motorto go forward, reverse, brake, and coast.

16
 A "double pole double throw" relay can generally achieve the same electrical
functionality as an H-bridge, but an H-bridge would be preferable where a smaller
physical size is needed, high speed switching, low driving voltage, or where the
wearing out of mechanical parts is undesirable. The term "H-bridge" is derived from the
typical graphical representation of such a circuit, which is built with four switches,
either solid- state (e.g., L293/ L298) or mechanical (e.g., relays).

In our AGV we use the driver IC L293d. There are two driver ICs are provided
in the design, because three motor are in the AGV. One driver circuit is connected to
the two motors of driving mechanism. And second one is used for the motor which is
incorporated with the lift.

L293D IC

IR Sensor is one of the important parts. Path detection and obstrucle detection is done
withthe help of IR Sensors. There are five IR Sensors are in our AGV. Out of them four
are used for the path detection and rest of one is used for obstrucle detection.

17
IR sensor have a transmitter and a receiver port.

The strength of signal reached at the receiver port after the reflection of light is
usedto detect the path. Path is marked in the black background by white lines. Sensor
detect the white line by the strength of IR wave. The reflected wave from white line has
high strength than that of from black. TSOP1730 are used in the design.

IR for Path Detection

Working of IR Sensor

18
SOFTWARE:

Arduino is an electronics platform and is an open source, which originated in

Ivrea in Italy. It consists of 8, 16 or 32-bit microcontroller and is programmed based on the
requirement and the task to be performed. It can be used for prototyping with little or no
knowledge of electronics and programming.

Users can build Arduino boards independently and make it adaptable to various
applications and projects. Arduino software, (IDE – Integrated Development Environment)
is also open source and runs on Mac, Windows and Linux. It is based on C and C++
programming language. Arduino IDE software is used to program the AGV. Program is
burned using special Arduino board. For this Arduino Uno board is used.

Arduino is an open-source electronics prototyping platform based on flexible,

easy-to-use hardware and software. It's intended for artists, designers, hobbyists, and
anyone interested in creating interactive objects or environments.

The program is written in the Arduino software using special commands. The
main feature of this software is that we can run the program to the Arduino board in
Arduino IDE and then we can upload it to our Arduino board via USB cable. And we
can check the function. It will helps to make changes in the program, in easy way.

The program is written in such a way that when the robot gets forward
instructions , its moves by forward and if backward means it moves backward. This is
all possible because of the motor driver which powers the system.

19
PROGRAM SOURCE CODE:

nclude <Newfl ng.h>

nclude <Servo.h>
nclude <AFMotor.h>
nclude <SoftwareSer al.h>

//hc-sr04 sensor
def ne TRIGGER_flIN A2
def ne ECHO_flIN A3
def ne max_d stance 50

// r sensor
def ne rLeft A0
def ne rR ght A1

//motor
def ne MAX_SflEED 200
def ne MAX_SflEED_OFFSET 20

char command;

Servo servo;

Newfl ng sonar(TRIGGER_flIN, ECHO_flIN, max_d stance);

AF_DCMotor motor1(1, MOTOR12_1KHZ);

AF_DCMotor motor2(2, MOTOR12_1KHZ);
AF_DCMotor motor3(3, MOTOR34_1KHZ);
AF_DCMotor motor4(4, MOTOR34_1KHZ);

nt d stance = 0;
nt leftD stance;
nt r ghtD stance;
boolean object;

vo d setup() {
Ser al.beg n(9600);
p nMode( rLeft, INflUT);
p nMode( rR ght, INflUT);

servo.attach(10);
servo.wr te(90);

motor1.setSpeed(250);
motor2.setSpeed(250);
motor3.setSpeed(250);
motor4.setSpeed(250);
}

20
vo d loop() {
AGV();
}

// Th s funct on s for the l ne follow ng

vo d AGV(){
f (d g talRead( rLeft) == 0 && d g talRead( rR ght) == 0 ) {
objectAvo d();
}
else f (d g talRead( rLeft) == 0 && d g talRead( rR ght) == 1 )
{
objectAvo d();
moveLeft();

}
else f (d g talRead( rLeft) == 1 && d g talRead( rR ght) == 0 )
{
objectAvo d();
moveR ght();
}
else f (d g talRead( rLeft) == 1 && d g talRead( rR ght) == 1 )
{
Stop();
}

vo d objectAvo d() {
d stance = getD stance();
f (d stance <= 13) {
Stop();
lookLeft();
lookR ght();
delay(100);
}
else {
moveForward();
}
}

nt getD stance() {
delay(50);
nt cm = sonar.p ng_cm();
f (cm == 0) {
cm = 100;
}
return cm;
}

21
 nt lookLeft () {
servo.wr te(120);
delay(500);
leftD stance = getD stance();
delay(100);
servo.wr te(90);
return leftD stance;
delay(100);
}

nt lookR ght() {
servo.wr te(30);
delay(500);
r ghtD stance = getD stance();
delay(100);
servo.wr te(90);
return r ghtD stance;
delay(100);
}
vo d Stop() {
motor1.run(RELEASE);
motor2.run(RELEASE);
motor3.run(RELEASE);
motor4.run(RELEASE);
}
vo d moveForward() {
motor1.run(FORWARD);
motor2.run(FORWARD);
motor3.run(FORWARD);
motor4.run(FORWARD);
}
vo d moveBackward() {
motor1.run(BACKWARD);
motor2.run(BACKWARD);
motor3.run(BACKWARD);
motor4.run(BACKWARD);
}

vo d moveR ght() {
motor1.run(BACKWARD);
motor2.run(BACKWARD);
motor3.run(FORWARD);
motor4.run(FORWARD);
}
vo d moveLeft() {
motor1.run(FORWARD);
motor2.run(FORWARD);
motor3.run(BACKWARD);
motor4.run(BACKWARD);
}
22
 CHAPTER – IV

DEVELOPED PROTOPTYPE

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Block Diagram

Block diagram is a diagram of a system, in which the principal parts or functions are
represented by blocks connected by lines that show the relationships of the blocks.
They are used in the engineering world in hardware design, electronic design, software
design, and process flow diagrams. In this diagram direction of all arrows are either
from or to the microcontroller.

22
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Circuit Diagram

23
The completely fabricated prototype of Automatic Guided Vehicle has possessed the
intelligences such as following a particular line, loading and unloading at particular
stations and collision avoidance etc.

Miniature AGV Prototype

24
WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The spherical mobile robot works on the principle of conservation of angular momentum. The
angular momentum is defined as property of any rotating object given by moment of inertia
times angular velocity. The robot has two internal rotors. The robot’s outer envelope is
spherical shell.. A crucial aspect is to place the internal components such that the center of
mass of the robot is exactly at the geometric center of the sphere
This spherical robot’s unique design leads many advantages prior to other spherical robots:
Movement: Based on the structure, the robot has a flexible movement. It can turn on the spot
and move with a high speed. It is suitable to variety of different terrains and environments.
Control: The control of the spherical robot’s movement is based on the differential driven
system.
Stability: This robot has a stable platform to carry the sensors. The hemispherical shells can
protect the inner mechanical parts and sensors effectively.

25
THEORETICAL AND LOGICAL CALCULATIONS

Torque of DC motor used, T = 12Kg-cm = 1.7772 N-m

Speed of motor, N = 100 RPM

Angular Velocity, ω = 2ΠN/60

= (2*Π*100)/60

= 10.47 rad/sec

Physically Power is the rate of doing work. For linear motion, power is the product of
force multiplied by the distance per unit time. In the case rotational motion, the
analogous calculation for power is the product of Torque multiplied by the rotational
distance per unit time.
Rotational Power, P =T*ω

= 1.1772*10.42

=12.33 W

No. of motors available for driving mechanism = 2 motors.

So total power available for driving = 2* 12.33 = 24.66W

There is only one motor is used for the lifting purposes,

∴ Linear velocity, v = (0.3*10^ (-2)) * 10.47

= 0.03141 m/s

= 3.14 cm/s

Weight of carrier = 1.5 Kg

Width of line marking= 3 cm

Maximum load carrying capacity = 1.5 Kg

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BILLING:

NO ITEMS NO. OF COST OF TOTAL

ITEMS ITEMS COST
(INR)
1 DC Motor 4 50 200
2 Wheel 4 40 160
3 IR Sensors 2 70 140
4 Ultra sonic censor 1 80 80
5 Ultra sonic base 1 50 50
6 Acrylic Case 1 700 700
7 Servo Motor 1 160 160
8 Li ion 18650 Battery 4 110 440
9 Battery Holder 1 120 120
10 Battery Charger 1 180 180
11 L293D Motor Driver 1 200 200
12 Wires 4 bundles 80 320
13 Fasteners - 250 250
14 Switch 1 50 50
15 Arduino UNO 1 900 900
16 Other Accessories - 500 500
Total 4450

Billing Table

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 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

 Wear and Tear losses are low compared to other robots

 The outer shell protects the whole system of the robots,
 The smoothness of movement,
 Great power effectivity,
 The motion can be omnidirectional due to the design,
The possibility of movement on water or throwing a robotReduce manpower
INCREASED FLEXIBILITY
INCREASED SAFETY

QUICK IMPLEMENTATION
EASY TO INTEGRATE
ABILITY TO SCALE
.

Each of the machines has their own merits and demerits. The followings are
the limitations of the spherical autonomous mobile robot

 AMRs are fragile and should be handled with care.

 Regular care, inspection and maintenance needed
 Battery should be recharged periodically

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 CHAPTER VI
REFERENCES

 Borrmann, D.; Nüchter, A.; Bredenbeck, A.; Zevering, J.; Arzberger, F.;
Reyes Mantilla, C.A.; Rossi, A.P.; Maurelli, F.; Unnithan, V.; Dreger, H.; et
al. Lunar Caves Exploration with the DAEDALUS Spherical Robot.

 http://www.arduino.cc/
 Theory of Machinery by R.S.Khurmi
 Robotics my Peter McKinnon

 www.sunroms.com

 Automation, Production Systems, and Computer Integrated Manufacturing, By

Groover,Mikell.P, ISBN 8120334183
 https://www.instructables.com/Arduino-Obstacle-Avoiding-Robot-with-
L293D
 https://create.arduino.cc/projecthub/electropeak/arduino-l293d-motor-driver-
shield-tutorial-c1ac9b
 Chase, R.; Pandya, A. A Review of Active Mechanical Driving Principles of
Spherical Robots. Robotics , 1, 3–23. 
 artificial-intelligence-used-in-robotics-IJERTCONV6IS14083
 Abad, A.C.; Sarmiento, A.P.M.; Danseco, J.A.P.; Leon, J.S.D.; Otani, J.P.;
Aguilar, P.S.B. Spherical Mobile Robots as Wireless Sensor Nodes for
Ambient Temperature and Relative Humidity Monitoring


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