1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 Introductory Concepts The study of experimental physics in this scientific Age is of great importance as the entire development in science rests Upon the systematic investigation of the 1.2 ERRORS OF OBSERVATIONS In the first place, itis necessary to distinguish between a ‘mistake and an error. The term mistake denotes a fault Of measurement or of observation which can be avoided by care on the part of the observer. An example is the Tecording of a wrong (© constant (i) systematic and (ii) accidental ot random errore 1. Constant Errors Constant errors are those which affect the results of a series of experiments y the same amount. For example, ifthe graduations of a seale we faulty, the error die to it will bea constant error. Thus, inthe measurement ofthe acceleration due to gravity by simple pendulum, the le ath of which is measured by means of a scale in which the interval marked Centimeters are all 0.99 cm, the result obtained from a series of measurements would differ by a constant amount from the true value. Such2. Systemetie Errors 4. Random Ervors Insp of avoiing nerve generally made ‘mark on the perimenter 13. GAUSSIAN LAW OF ERRORS Hagen in 1837 derived a lw which gov Cerin te Normal Ly ofa pat rb Een of eer cis given by is very large. Gauss proved Ios probable valu ‘Aithmatie me cexrors may be stated as follows: the average err is given by as- 22! Suppose the focal leagt ofa mir has been determine ci following esl have been obtained Sa | Poel Lewik ttn oon \ 0.86 006 Ex) 030m. even el . 8 222 omsem Senter Doan snes emote ure ofr ans ehre teaseutnen opr oer Teac te fom tec nee ne mats eet he tie sn souaon on ayhence add ll the enor terms on hand side of) ad get, age nierentaced 9 AOD bp sferor nthe vale of the res foreach rs where we ‘Procedure 1. Hang the pendulum fom sand and give it osilatons of small amplitude ing the percentage eo. or Ton peenagecmar = ——E 100% pcrimenal vale 199g | # 1100= 15% 6. Plota graph between ‘x’ along x-axis and f° along y-axis, I will have a shape simile to the graph in Fig. 1.1. Observations: Least count ofthe stopwatch = .. se. Suppose we are determining a quantity P whichis related to some other quantities 0, 4, ed and by the relation Zi ie Tint prod as T (sec) oe | ae a By igus itrenation, A 2 > AP _ Ae, 24), 38 tad sue é z awn cu. 3 hae Aah Ad and earth sin he ene of te quant 6 dnd eand 4? is the error in the determination of . fe oeSeca ene (a Spite ers nar sonar mais seg (6 Pvc and we Tecra bey n= 22 Wak , sola aes ata pe ittelin Sita wake ona tnenng ice unio mcee BS es outa rail mia age ein ads ops actor| imple rule that would tll the students which bservation Hoe 4 and D are te ee and AD at icant figures, In these figures, the 1 ‘reasonably correct while otbers are absolutely correct. ‘measured quantity indicate the numberof digits in which we have confidence 1.9 PLOTTING A GRAPH White deducing the result of an experiment, itis ften required to visualize the relation betwee two interdependent physical quantities. Sometimes the rest of Sch graph i used in calls as well I pong a graph the following Ns should be carefully studied. (i) Take good graph paper and daw two lines atsiaht angles ach 5! sane erion ofthe left-hand edge of he paper to indicate the axes ofextending the graph on ek side. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE STUDENTS BEFORE STARTING AN EXPERIMEN’ spectrometer. prisms and other ra ‘meakage report the mater immediately tothe ibs Py ep, Do not show hae. PERFORMING THE EXPERIMENT log tables. Pu unis in the inal eu, Commis th pseege ao, anja eb of eta figs to be kept in the result 1.13 BEFORE LEAVING THE LABORATORY getan experiment lone for the next rum, 1.14 PRESENTATION OF THE EXPERIMENT heme adopted in dasribing an experiment is usually as fllows: statement ofthe objects the experiment o ofthe determi i ot eager Apparat: Te salt Sd onl of te pn teed for the pelomange of fe epee Te pe of ap se, for example galvanometer and keys, should also be specifies.Measurement of. dian Mass and Time possible soares of ero" (0, What are random and systematic ro ana fasten Fig. 21 fides on the stip, Itcanbe fixed in any the verier scale 2. Vernier sale: A veri tion bythe screw Te sie offut tobe negative, Suppose x =4, then zero eror= (- 0.1 em+4%001 em) =(-0110-+004) =-006cm Zero corretion = +0.05em, Vernier Constan (Least Coun) The difference beoween 1 MS.D, and 1 VSD. called the versierconsiont (.C) 0 the ees count LC) ofthe instrament ands the mals dance shiek ‘he insrument capa uring. Vic=INSD.-1vsp. -iaso. = Yale ofthe sts mia sale division numberof divisions onthe varie sale SD.-9MSD, ° ivsp.- 2 wisp, ‘emier consist = 1MS.D.—1V80, =iMsp.-2 uso. 2.2.3: Measurement with Vernier Callipers “The following tps ace followed in measuring smal length or ‘Determine the number of the vernier divisions which jst coincides wh any main scale division. Let tbe n.(00) Mutipy thie ure by the vere? (©) Add ht product wo Mo tate RS 23. SOME INSTRUMENTS BASED ON VERNIER CAL 18D = 2g sD -(-)s - + Msp. ~fpet mm “Vv ___Insome spectrometers, cach main scale division sequal toa $ degree and 40 VSD. coincide with 39 MSD. Thus bere, 9 tvsp.- 2 usp. 0 Vernier constantMeni mi = (089150 -1psp-psp, j sf-d) (r-£)osp -tosp ; -(Z)- a (3) “(z5) 1 5p *60x60"= 120 Measurement of Lng Mass and Time use to measure extremely small distances such asthe diameters of thin pls plates and cardhoards ete Obviously, itis sequined -y than th vemier Srstne bud on te | principle ofa screw and consists ofa Usshaped metal fame one end of which farriesa fixed pug 4. Trough is other ‘end passes a seew having alt sul Whereas the other arm isatached 0 4 ‘movable stud 8 is made to touch the fixed sti 4, the zero of the liaeae scale should coincide with the ero ofthe circular sale, Ifthey da not coincide, the screw gauge is said to have a zero ero. A ratched wheel (R) which slips over the screw top can be seen in some of the ‘auges. The purpose ofthe ratched wheel isto give light pressure onthe object cing ‘measurement so that the object does not suffer from any deformation, ‘The principle ofthe screw-gauge isthe conversion of te circular motion of the ‘Screw head into the linear motion of the movable stud, Ifthe screw head is rotated ‘rough equal angles then the screw moves axially through equal distance,Nate: To fin tera spherometer plone set 26 MEASUREMENT OF MASS 262. Difference betncen Mass and Wight Besides he diferace nt defn. he wo ques a (0 diferences I, Mass misconstant al plaos, Weigh =n varies om place to place a g is not the samc at all places. 9 t 2, Mass ins never re, Weight Wm becomes cath where g=0. following are aap a Es Feta owe BY ee rot eb bn end ofthe pil speanso atthe centre ofthef I | t i | f 100, 0, and mg EI ne geaen : (ats ao coring balan by tng the ino ‘a So al amass obtined by algcbracaly wing te zr orton the observe yale of gravitational mas isto be determined is suspended from the “The weigh of « body may be determined using 2 physical balance by the ce cat Je aetna: oy 2 =: i ae al to the atonal ‘The aoe este dou, The wept propor! the gestation mas Fa Pe pie Psi val ote orator mass oft boy 1. Level the balance by adjusting se leveling st then be vertval. The plumb line witl