MathQuestPreliminary Mathematics General (4th Ed)

MATHS QUEST
Preliminary
4TH EDITION
Mathematics General
ROBERT ROWLAND
Fourth edition published 2013 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
First edition published 2000

Second edition published 2008
Third edition published 2011
Typeset in 10/12pt Times LT Std
© John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2000, 2008, 2011, 2013
The moral rights of the author have been asserted.
National Library of Australia

Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Author: Rowland, Robert, 1963–

Title: Maths quest preliminary mathematics
general / Robert Rowland.
Edition: 4th ed.
ISBN: 978 1 118 51176 3 (pbk.)
978 1 118 51173 2 (eBook.)
978 1 118 51177 0 (flexisaver.)
Target Audience: For secondary school age.
Subjects: Mathematics — Textbooks.
Mathematics — Study and teaching
(Secondary)
Dewey Number: 510
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Introduction vi Chapter 3
About eBookPLUS viii Taxation 81
Acknowledgements ix
3A Calculating allowable deductions 81
Exercise 3A 83
Chapter 1 3B Taxable income 85
Earning money 1 Exercise 3B 87
1A Calculating salary payments 1 3C Medicare levy 90
Exercise 1A 2 Exercise 3C 90
1B Calculating wages 3 3D Calculating tax 91
Exercise 1B 5 Exercise 3D 94
1C Commission and royalties 8 3E Calculating GST and VAT 97
Exercise 1C 9 Exercise 3E 98
1D Payment by piece 12 3F Graphing tax functions 101
Exercise 1D 13 Exercise 3F 101
1E Working overtime 14 ■ Summary 103
Exercise 1E 16 ■ Chapter review 104
■ ICT activities 106
1F Government allowances 19
■ Answers 107
Exercise 1F 20
1G Additions to and deductions from Chapter 4
gross pay 22
Exercise 1G 23 Statistics and society, data collection and
1H Budgeting 27 sampling 109
Exercise 1H 29 4A Statistical processes 109
■ Summary 35 Exercise 4A 112
■ Chapter review 36 4B Target populations and sampling 114
■ ICT activities 39 Exercise 4B 116
■ Answers 40 4C Population characteristics 118
Exercise 4C 120
Chapter 2 4D Types of data 122
Investing money 43 Exercise 4D 123
2A Calculation of simple interest 43 4E Bias 125
Exercise 2A 46 Exercise 4E 128
2B Graphing simple interest ■ Summary 132
functions 48 ■ Chapter review 133
■ ICT activities 136
Exercise 2B 50
■ Answers 137
2C Calculation of compound interest 53
Exercise 2C 55 Chapter 5
2D Calculating compound interest from a table
of compounded values 57 Displaying single data sets 141
Exercise 2D 60 5A Types of graphs and stem-and-leaf
2E Share dividends 62 plots 141
Exercise 2E 62 Exercise 5A 144
2F Graphing share performance 64 5B Frequency tables and cumulative
Exercise 2F 66 frequency 146
2G Inflation and appreciation 68 Exercise 5B 149
Exercise 2G 69 5C Range and interquartile range, deciles and
■ Summary 72
percentiles 154
■ Chapter review 73 Exercise 5C 158
■ ICT activities 76 5D Five-number summaries 164
■ Answers 77 Exercise 5D 166
5E Appropriate graphs and misuse of graphs 169 Chapter 9
Exercise 5E 173 Similar figures and trigonometry 285
■■ Summary 177
■■ Chapter review 178
9A Similar f igures and scale factors 285
■■ ICT activities 182 Exercise 9A 287
■■ Answers 183 9B Solving problems using similar f igures 291
Exercise 9B 293
Chapter 6 9C Calculating trigonometric ratios 297
Summary statistics 189 Exercise 9C 301
9D Finding an unknown side 302
6A Calculating the mean 189
Exercise 6A 193 Exercise 9D 305
9E Finding angles 308
6B Median and mode 198
Exercise 6B 201 Exercise 9E 309
9F Applications of right-angled triangles 312
6C Standard deviation 205
Exercise 6C 208 Exercise 9F 315
6D Best summary statistics 212
Proportional diagrams 316
■■ Summary 317
Exercise 6D 214
■■ Summary 220
■■ ICT activities 321
■■ Answers 322
■■ Answers 227
Chapter 10
Chapter 7 Probability 325
Measurement 231 10A Multi-stage events 325
7A Measurements as approximations 231 Exercise 10A 327
Exercise 7A 233 10B The fundamental counting principle 329
7B Units of measurement and scientific Exercise 10B 331
notation 234 10C Probability statements 333
Exercise 7B 237 Exercise 10C 335
7C Ratios 239 10D Relative frequency 336
Exercise 7C 240 Exercise 10D 338
7D Rates 242 10E Equally likely outcomes 341
Exercise 7D 245 Exercise 10E 342
7E Percentage change 247 10F The probability formula 343
Exercise 7E 248 Exercise 10F 345
■■ Summary 250 10G Writing probabilities as decimals and
■■ Chapter review 251 percentages 348
■■ ICT activities 253 Exercise 10G 349
■■ Answers 254 10H Range of probabilities 351
Exercise 10H 353
Chapter 8 10I Complementary events 356
Perimeter, area and volume 257 Exercise 10I 357
8A Perimeter of plane shapes 257 ■■ Summary 360
Exercise 8A 259
8B Area of plane shapes 262
■■ Answers 365
Exercise 8B 264
8C Field diagrams 268 Chapter 11
Exercise 8C 270
8D Applications of area 271
Algebraic manipulation 369
Exercise 8D 271 11A Operations with algebraic expressions 369
8E Volume of prisms 273 Exercise 11A 371
Exercise 8E 275 11B Further multiplication and division 372
■■ Summary 279 Exercise 11B 373
■■ Chapter review 280 11C Expanding and simplifying algebraic
■■ ICT activities 282 expressions 374
■■ Answers 283 Exercise 11C 375
iv Contents
11d Substitution 376 13F Digital transfer rates 439
Exercise 11D 377 Exercise 13F 439
11E Solving linear equations 379 13G Random selection 440
Exercise 11E 381 Exercise 13G 441
■■ Summary 384 ■■ Summary 442
■■ Chapter review 385 ■■ Chapter review 443
■■ ICT activities 387 ■■ ICT activities 445
■■ Answers 388 ■■ Answers 446
Chapter 12 ICT activities — Projectsplus

Modelling linear relationships 391 pro-0135 The cost of piracy 448
12A Graphing linear functions 391 Chapter 14
Exercise 12A 393
12B Gradient and y-intercept 395 Focus study: Mathematics and
Exercise 12B 398 driving 451
12C Drawing graphs using gradient and Section 1 — Costs of purchase and
intercept 400 insurance 451
Exercise 12C 403 14A Depreciation of new cars 452
12D Simultaneous equations 404 Exercise 14A 453
Exercise 12D 407 14B Insurance and stamp duty 454
12E Practical applications Exercise 14B 456
of linear functions 409 14C Financing your vehicle 457
Exercise 12E 411 Exercise 14C 460
■■ Summary 414 Section 2 — Running costs and depreciation 462
■■ Chapter review 415 14D Fuel costs 462
■■ ICT activities 418 Exercise 14D 463
■■ Answers 419 14E Straight line depreciation 465
Exercise 14E 466
Chapter 13
14F Declining balance method of depreciation 467
Focus study: Mathematics and Exercise 14F 468
communication 425 Section 3 — Road safety 470
Section 1 — Mobile phone bills 425 14G Speed and stopping distances 470
13A Calculating costs 425 Exercise 14G 473
Exercise 13A 427 14H Blood alcohol concentration (BAC) 474
13B Reading a mobile phone bill 430 Exercise 14H 476
Exercise 13B 431 ■■ Summary 478
13C Phone usage 432 ■■ Chapter review 479
Exercise 13C 433 ■■ ICT activities 482
■■ Answers 483
13D Choosing the best mobile phone plan for
your needs 435
ICT activities — Projectsplus
Exercise 13D 435
pro-0136 Causes of accidents 486
Section 2 — Digital download and file storage 436
13E Units of storage 436 Glossary 489
Exercise 13E 438 Index 492
Contents v
Introduction
Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General is the fourth edition in a series specifically designed for
the Mathematics General Stage 6 Syllabus 2012.
There are five strands and two Focus studies:
• Strand: Financial Mathematics
• Strand: Data and Statistics
• Strand: Measurement
• Strand: Probability
• Strand: Algebra and Modelling
• Focus study: Mathematics and Communication
• Focus study: Mathematics and Driving
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Mathematics General
Preliminary
important text.
Worked examples in a Think/Write format provide a clear explanation of
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4T H E D I T I ON
MATHS QUEST
into worked examples to demonstrate judicious use. Preliminary
ROWLAND
4TH E D ITION
Mathematics General
Exercises contain many carefully graded skills and application problems,
including multiple-choice questions. Cross-references to relevant worked ROBERT ROWLAND
examples appear beside the first ‘matching’ question throughout the

exercises. Each exercise also contains new further development questions.
Investigations, including spreadsheet investigations, provide further learning opportunities through
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introduced in each unit of the course. Words in bold type in the theory sections of each chapter are
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vi Introduction
Teacher edition eGuidePLUS
The eGuidePLUS contains everything in the eBookPLUS and more. Two tests per chapter, fully worked
solutions to WorkSHEETs, the work program and other curriculum advice in editable Word format are
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Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General provides ample material, such as exercises, analysis
questions, investigations, worksheets and technology files, from which teachers may set assessment
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Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics

General Solutions Manual
The Solutions Manual contains fully worked solutions to every question
in the student textbook. Students are provided with explanations as well
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MATHS QUEST
Preliminary
4 T H EDIT IO N
Mathematics General
SOLUTIONS MANUAL
ANITA CANN ROBERT CAHN
Introduction vii
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Acknowledgements ix
ChAptEr 1
Earning money
ChAptEr ContEntS
1A Calculating salary payments
1B Calculating wages
1C Commission and royalties
1D Payment by piece
1E Working overtime
1F Government allowances
1G Additions to and deductions from gross pay
1h Budgeting
1A Calculating salary payments

Methods of payment
A payment received by an employee for doing a job is called income. There
are many different ways people are paid for performing a job. In this section
we are going to look at some of these methods of payment: salaries, wages,
commission, royalties, piecework and overtime.
Salaries
Many people employed in professional occupations are paid a salary. Such
employees include teachers, lawyers, accountants and some doctors.
A salary is a fixed amount of money that is paid to employees to do their
jobs. The amount paid does not change, regardless of the number of hours
worked.
Salaries are usually calculated on an annual basis. A salary is therefore
usually stated as an amount per annum, which means per year. Salaries are
paid in weekly, fortnightly or monthly amounts. To make calculations about
salaries, you will need to remember the following information.
1 year = 52 weeks A lecturer is paid a salary.
= 26 fortnights
= 12 months
WorkED ExAMplE 1
Dimitri works as an accountant and receives an annual salary of $46 800. Calculate the amount
that Dimitri is paid each fortnight.
think WritE
1 There are 26 fortnights in a year, so we Fortnightly pay = $46 800 ÷ 26

divide $46 800 by 26.
2 Evaluate. = $1800
ChAptEr 1 • Earning money 1

We reverse this calculation when we are given the weekly, fortnightly or monthly pay of a person and
are then asked to calculate the annual salary.
WorkED ExAMplE 2
Grace is a solicitor who is paid $3500 per month. Calculate Grace’s annual salary.
think WritE
1 There are 12 months in a year, so multiply Annual salary = $3500 × 12

$3500 (monthly pay) by 12.
2 Evaluate. = $42 000
To compare a salary payment with other forms of income it may be necessary to calculate the equivalent
daily or hourly payment. To do this, we need to know the number of days or hours worked per week.
WorkED ExAMplE 3
Charlotte works as a laboratory technician and is paid an annual

salary of $41 560. If Charlotte works an average of 42 hours per week,
calculate her equivalent hourly rate of pay.
think WritE
1 Calculate the weekly pay by Weekly pay = $41 560 ÷ 52

dividing the salary by 52. = $799.23
2 Calculate the hourly rate by Hourly rate = $799.23 ÷ 42
dividing the weekly pay by 42. = $19.03
Exercise 1A Calculating salary payments

1 WE1 Toni is paid a salary of $44 200 per annum. Calculate Toni’s fortnightly pay.
2 Roger is paid a salary of $49 920 per annum. Calculate Roger’s weekly pay.
DiGitAl DoC 3 Frieda is paid a salary of $54 000 per annum. Calculate Frieda’s monthly pay.
Spreadsheet
4 Wendy works as an office secretary and is paid a salary of $38 740 per annum. Calculate Wendy’s pay
doc-1439
payroll calculations if she is paid:
a weekly b fortnightly c monthly.
5 Darren earns a salary of $43 000 per annum. Calculate Darren’s fortnightly pay, correct to the
nearest cent.
6 Copy and complete the table below for food production employees.
Annual salary Weekly pay Fortnightly pay Monthly pay

$30 000
$39 500
$42 250
$54 350
$86 475
7 WE 2 Maxine is paid a salary. She receives $460 per week. Calculate Maxine’s annual salary.
8 Thao receives $1250 per fortnight. Calculate Thao’s annual salary.
9 Deidre is paid monthly and receives $5800. Calculate Deidre’s annual salary.
2 Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General

10 MC Which of the following people receives the greatest salary?
A Goran, who receives $530 per week. B Bryan, who receives $1075 per fortnight.
C Wayne, who receives $2330 per month. D Ron, who receives $27 900 per annum.
11 WE 3 Fiona receives a salary of $29 700 per annum. If Fiona works an average of 40 hours per week,
calculate the equivalent hourly rate of pay.
12 Jade receives a salary of $33 000 per annum.
a Calculate Jade’s weekly pay, correct to the nearest cent.
b Jade works an average of 36 hours each week. Calculate the hourly rate to which Jade’s salary is
equivalent. Give your answer correct to the nearest cent.
13 Karina is on an annual salary of $35 776. Letitia is on a wage and is paid $16.00 per hour.
a Calculate Karina’s weekly pay.
b If Karina works an average of 42 hours per week, calculate whether Karina or Letitia receive the
better rate of pay.
14 Garry earns $42 500 per year while his friend Henry earns $18.50 per hour. Calculate the number of
hours that Henry will need to work each week to earn more money than Garry does.
Further development
15 Calculate the monthly salary that is equivalent to earning $500 per week.
16 Dan earns $1045 per fortnight while Brian earns $2100 per month. Brian claims that he earns $10 per
month more than Dan. Explain why Brian is not correct.
17 Sandra is a lawyer who works an average 40 hours per week for her $78 500 per annum salary.
Stephanie also works as a lawyer and receives the same salary as Sandra. Stephanie asks for a salary
increase on the basis that she must work 45 hours per week to complete her workload.
a What would be an equivalent salary that Stephanie would ask for?
b Is it necessarily correct to say that since Stephanie works more hours than Sandra that she works
harder than Sandra?
18 The monthly salary that Alan earns in his job as a sports broadcaster is $4550. Calculate the equivalent
fortnightly salary.
19 Michelle is earning $74 000 per year at the time that she retires. In retirement she is paid a fortnightly
pension that is equivalent to 65.75% of her salary at retirement. Calculate the amount of Michelle’s
fortnightly pension.
20 Garry’s superannuation package allows for a lump sum payment of 8.3 times his final salary.
a At retirement Garry’s gross weekly salary was $765.70. Calculate his annual salary.
b Calculate the amount of Garry’s lump sum payment.
1B Calculating wages
Most people in the workforce earn a wage. A wage is paid at an hourly rate.
The hourly rate at which a person is usually paid is called an ordinary rate. The wage for each week
is calculated by multiplying the ordinary rate by the number of hours worked during that week.

WorkED ExAMplE 4
Sadiq works as a mechanic and is paid $13.65 per hour. Calculate Sadiq’s wage in a week where he
works 38 hours.
think WritE
Multiply $13.65 (the hourly rate) by 38 Wage = $13.65 × 38

(the number of hours worked). = $518.70
To compare two people’s wages, we can’t just look at the amount of money each receives in a pay packet. We
must also consider the number of hours each has worked. Wages are compared by looking at the hourly rate.
To calculate the hourly rate of an employee we need to divide the wage by the number of hours worked.
WorkED ExAMplE 5
Georgina works 42 hours as a data entry operator for a computer company. Her wage for the
week totalled $483.84. Calculate Georgina’s hourly rate of pay.
think WritE
Divide $483.84 (the wage) by 42 Hourly rate = $483.84 ÷ 42

(number of hours worked). = $11.52
Using a similar method we are able to calculate the number of hours worked by an employee, given their
wage and hourly rate of pay. The number of hours worked is found by dividing the wage by the hourly
rate.
In some cases, wages are increased because an allowance is paid for working in unfavourable
conditions. An allowance is an additional payment made when the working conditions are difficult or
unpleasant.
For example, a road worker may be paid an allowance for working in the rain. In these cases, the
allowance must be multiplied by the number of hours worked in the unfavourable conditions and this
amount added to the normal pay.
WorkED ExAMplE 6
Ryan is a road worker and is paid $9.45 per hour for a 35-hour week. For working on wet days he
is paid a wet weather allowance of 86c per hour. Calculate Ryan’s pay if for 12 hours of the week
he works in the rain.
think WritE
1 Calculate Ryan’s normal pay by multiplying Normal pay = $9.45 × 35

$9.45 (hourly rate) by 35 (number of hours worked). = $330.75

2 Calculate the wet weather allowance Allowance = $0.86 × 12
by multiplying 0.86 (the wet weather = $10.32
allowance) by 12 (number of hours
worked in the wet).
3 Add the normal pay to the wet weather Total pay = $330.75 + $10.32
allowance to calculate the total pay. = $341.07
This type of allowance is also paid to casual workers. When you are employed on a casual basis you
do not receive any holiday pay and you do not get paid for days you have off because you are sick. The
casual rate is a higher rate of pay to compensate for this.
Exercise 1B Calculating wages

1 WE 4 Allan works in a newspaper printing mill and is paid $12.95 per hour. Calculate Allan’s wage in
a week where he works 40 hours. DiGitAl DoC
2 Copy and complete the table below by calculating the wage of each of the workers. Spreadsheet
doc-1439
payroll calculations
Hourly Hours
Name rate worked Wage
A. Smith $14.52 40
B. Brown $16.45 38
N. Tran $15.95 37.5
A. Milosevic $20.10 41
L. McTavish $18.04 36
3 Alicia is an apprentice chef. In the first year

of her apprenticeship she earns $11.80 per hour.
Calculate Alicia’s wage in a week where she works:
a 36 hours
b 48 hours
c 42.5 hours.
4 Domonic is a fully qualified chef. He earns $13.50 per
hour. Calculate Domonic’s wage in a week where he
works:
a 32 hours
b 37 hours
c 44.5 hours.
5 Katherine works as a casual waitress. Casual workers earn 20% more per hour than full-time workers
to compensate for their lack of holidays and sick leave.
a A full-time waitress earns $14.45 per hour. Calculate the casual rate earned by casual waitresses.
b Calculate Katherine’s wage in a week where she works 6 hours on Saturday and 7 hours on
Sunday.
6 MC Which of the following workers earns the highest wage for the week?
A Dylan, who works 35 hours at $13.50 per hour
B Lachlan, who works 37 hours at $12.93 per hour
C Connor, who works 38 hours at $12.67 per hour
D Cameron, who works 40 hours at $12.19 per hour
7 WE 5 Calculate the hourly rate of a person who works 40 hours for a wage of $387.20.
8 Julie earns $11.42 per hour. Calculate the number of hours worked by Julie in a week where she is paid
$445.38.

9 Copy and complete the table below.
Name Wage Hours worked Hourly rate

A. White $416.16 36
B. Black $538.80 40
C. Green $369.63 37
D. Brown $813.96 $19.38
E. Scarlet $231.30 $15.42
F. Grey $776.72 $20.44
10 Calculate the hourly rate of a casual worker who earns $250.80 for 20 hours work.
11 MC Which of the following workers is paid at the highest hourly rate?
A Melissa, who works 35 hours for $366.45
B Belinda, who works 36 hours for $376.20
C April, who works 38 hours for $399.76
D Nicole, who works 40 hours for $419.60
12 MC Which of the following people worked the greatest number of hours?
A Su-Li, who earned $439.66 at $11.57 per hour
B Denise, who earned $576.00 at $14.40 per hour
C Vera, who earned $333.20 at $9.52 per hour
D Camille, who earned $707.25 at $17.25 per hour
13 WE 6 Richard works as an electrical linesman and is paid $10.94 per hour for a 38-hour week. When
he has to work at heights he is paid a 46c per hour ‘height allowance’. Calculate Richard’s pay in a
week where 15 hours are spent working at heights.
14 Ingrid works as an industrial cleaner and is paid $14.60 per hour for a 35-hour working week. When
Ingrid is working with toxic substances she is paid an allowance of $1.08 per hour. Calculate Ingrid’s
pay if she works with toxic substances all week.
15 Rema works as a tailor and earns $9.45 per hour.
a Calculate Rema’s wage in a week where she works 37 hours.
b Zhong is Rema’s assistant and earns $8.20 per hour. Find the least time Zhong must work if he is
to earn more money than Rema does.
16 Tamarin works 38 hours per week at $12.40 per hour.
a Calculate Tamarin’s weekly wage.
b Zoe earns the same amount each week as Tamarin does, but Zoe works a 40-hour week. Calculate
Zoe’s hourly rate of pay.
17 Harlan earns $23.80 per hour in his job as a teacher’s aide. He works school hours which are 8:30 am
to 3:30 pm 5 days per week.
a Calculate Harlan’s fortnightly wage.
b Julie is a teacher on a salary of $81 000 per year. In addition to school hours Julie does 20 hours
of preparation and marking per week during a school term. Calculate the difference in hourly rate
of pay for Julie and Harlan.
Further development
18 Juanita has a casual job and is paid $10.80 per hour on weekdays and $14.85 per hour on weekends.
Calculate Juanita’s weekly pay when she works from 5:00 pm until 10:00 pm on Thursday and from
8:30 am until 1:00 pm on Saturday.
19 Naomi works the following hours in one week.
Monday 5:30 pm to 9:00 pm
Tuesday 6:45 pm to 9:00 pm
Wednesday 8:15 pm to 10:30 pm
Naomi is paid $12.45 per hour up until 9:00 pm and $15.16 per hour after that. Calculate Naomi’s
total pay for the week.
20 Katie earns an annual salary of $56 750 and works an average 42 hours per week.
a Bill is paid the equivalent hourly rate as a wage. Calculate this amount.
b Calculate the number of hours per week that Bill would need to work to earn $60 000 per year.

21 John works a 40 hour week at a rate of $12.76 per hour. John receives a 5% pay rise, so decides to
reduce his working hours by 5%.
a How many hours will John now work per week?
b John believes that his gross pay will remain the same. Is John correct? Use calculations to justify
your answer.
22 Tracey works a 40 hour week at a rate of $18.49 per hour.
a Show that Tracey’s gross weekly pay is $739.60
b Tracey receives a 5% pay rise.
• Tracey’s employer says the new hourly rate is $19.41.
• Tracey says that her total pay should now be $776.58.
Explain how each figure is calculated.
c What is the total pay under the employer’s plan?
d What is the hourly rate under Tracey’s plan? Is it possible to pay Tracey at this hourly rate?
e Who is correct? Justify your answer.
23 Frank is a butcher who earns $14.92 per hour for a 38 hour working week.
a Calculate Frank’s total weekly pay.
b Frank receives a 3.9% wage increase. Calculate Frank’s new hourly rate of pay correct to
4 decimal places.
c Frank wants to earn $650 per week. Calculate the number of hours that he needs to work to
achieve this goal.
Computer Application 1 Spreadsheets

Throughout this chapter we are going to develop a number of spreadsheets that will calculate wages.
Work through the following steps. DiGitAl DoC
Spreadsheet
1. Open a spreadsheet and enter the following information. Alternatively, access the spreadsheet doc-1440
(Wages_1) from the Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General eBookPLUS. Wages_1
2. Enter a pay rate of $11.20 per hour for each employee.

3. Enter the hours worked as follows: Frederick Astini, 40; James Carter, 38; Kelly George, 36;
Dean Jones, 15; Paul Limbrick, 45.
4. In cell E7 (in the column headed Gross Pay) enter the formula =C7*D7. This will calculate the wage
for Frederick Astini (the figure 448 should appear in the cell).

5. Format cell E7 as currency (cell E7 should now show $448.00).
6. Highlight cells E7 to E11 and select the Fill Down option. The wages for each employee should now
be calculated and be formatted as currency. (The entries in this column should read $448.00, $425.60,
$403.20, $168.00 and $504.00.)
7. If you now change the hours worked by each employee, his or her gross pay should update automatically.
8. Choose the Save As function to save the spreadsheet as Wages_1.
1C Commission and royalties

Commission is a method of payment used mainly for salespeople. When paid commission, a person
receives a percentage of the value of goods sold.
A royalty is a payment made to a person who owns a copyright. For example, a musician who writes
a piece of music is paid royalties on sales of CDs; an author who writes a book is paid according to
the number of books sold. Royalties are calculated in the same way as commission, being paid as a
percentage of sales.
WorkED ExAMplE 7
Jack is an author who is paid a royalty of 12% of all sales. Calculate the royalty that Jack earns in
a year where his book has sales to the value of $150 000.
think WritE
Calculate 12% of $150 000. Commission = 12% of $150 000

= 12 ÷ 100 × $150 000
= $18 000
In some cases, commission may operate on a sliding scale. This means that the commission rate changes
with the value of sales. This type of commission is commonly used in real estate sales. In these examples,
each portion of the commission is calculated separately. The final commission is the sum of each portion.
WorkED ExAMplE 8
A real estate agent is paid commission on his sales at

the following rate:
• 5% on the first $75 000
• 2.5% on the balance of the sale price.
Calculate the commission earned on the sale of a property
for $235 000.

Think Write
1 Calculate 5% of $75 000. 5% of $75 000 = $3750

2 Calculate the balance of the sale. Balance = $235 000 − $75 000
= $160 000
3 Calculate 2.5% of $160 000. 2.5% of $160 000 = $4000
4 Add up each portion to calculate the Commission = $3750 + $4000
commission. = $7750
In some cases, people receive a fixed amount (called a retainer) as well as a commission. This is to
ensure that the person earns some money even if no sales are made. To calculate this type of pay, you
will need to add the retainer to the commission.
Worked Example 9
Shelley is a furniture salesperson and is paid $250 per week plus a commission of 2% of all sales.
Calculate Shelley’s pay in a week where her sales total $12 250.
Think Write
1 Calculate the commission of 2% of $12 250. Commission = 2% of $12 250

= 2 ÷ 100 × 12 250
= $245
2 Add the $250 to the commission to calculate Pay = $250 + $245
her pay. = $495
In some cases, the commission does not begin to be paid until sales have reached a certain point. Here
the commission is calculated only on sales above this fixed amount.
Worked Example 10
Tony is a car salesman. Tony is paid $300 per week and 2% of all sales over $50 000. Calculate
Tony’s pay in a week where his sales total $84 000.
Think Write
1 Calculate the amount on which commission is $84 000 − $50 000 = $34 000

to be paid.
2 Find 2% of this amount. Commission = 2% of $34 000
= 2 ÷ 100 × $34 000
= $680
3 Add the $300 to the commission to Pay = $300 + $680
calculate Tony’s pay. = $980
Exercise 1C Commission and royalties

1 WE 7 Kylie is an insurance salesperson and she is paid 8% of the value of any insurance that she sells.
Calculate the amount that Kylie is paid for selling insurance to the value of $25 000.
2 Beryl sells exercise equipment and is paid a commission of 10% on all sales. Calculate Beryl’s earnings
in a week where her sales total is:
a $2600 b $3270 c $5687.90.
3 Darren is a songwriter who is paid a royalty. If Darren has songs that have sales that total $400 000,
calculate his royalty if it is paid at a rate of:
a 1% b 3% c 3.4%.
Chapter 1 • Earning money 9

4 Linda is a car salesperson who is paid 1.5% commission. Calculate the amount of money Linda earns
in a week where her sales total $95 000.
5 Ken is an author and is paid a royalty on his book sales. The royalty is 12% of the value of all sales of
his book. Calculate the value of Ken’s royalty if the value of sales totals $34 500.
6 MC Ursula is a computer software salesperson. Ursula’s sales total $105 000 and she is paid a
commission of 0.8%. How much does Ursula receive in commission?
A $105 B $840
C $8400 D $84 000
7 Lindsey is a salesperson who is paid 1.5% commission on all sales.
a Calculate Lindsey’s earnings in a week where her sales total $95 000.
b Calculate the sales that Lindsey must make in order to earn $1650.
8 George is paid royalty on all sales. Given that George earns $450 on sales of $10 000:
DiGitAl DoC a calculate the percentage royalty that George is paid
Spreadsheet b calculate the royalty that George would be paid on sales of $15 400
doc-1443 c calculate the sales that George would need to make in order to earn $810.
Calculations with
percentages 9 MC Asif is a sales representative for a hardware firm. Asif earns $870 commission on sales of
$17 400. What rate of commission does Asif receive?
A 0.05% B 0.5%
C 5% D 20%
10 WE 8 A real estate agent charges commission at the following rate:
• 5% on the first $75 000
• 2.5% on the balance of the sale price.
Calculate the commission charged on the sale of a property valued at $250 000.
11 Gabrielle is a fashion sales representative. Gabrielle is paid a commission of 5% on the first $3000 of
sales each week and 10% commission on the balance. Calculate Gabrielle’s commission in a week
where her sales total $9500.
12 Using the sliding scale for commission shown in question 10, calculate the commission on a property
that sells for:
a $90 000 b $140 000 c $600 000.
13 WE 9 Stanisa is a car salesman who is paid $250 per week plus a commission of 2% of any sales he
makes. Calculate Stanisa’s pay in a week where his sales total $35 000.
14 Daniel works as a sales representative for a car accessories firm. Daniel is paid $150 per week plus 4%
of any sales. Calculate Daniel’s earnings in a week where his sales total is:
a $6000 b $8500 c $12 475.
15 MC A group of sales representatives each have $10 000 in sales for a week. Who earns the most money?
A Averil, who is paid a commission of 8%
B Bernard, who is paid $250 plus 6% commission
C Cathy, who is paid $350 plus 4% commission
D Darrell, who is paid $540 plus 2.5% commission

16 Fred and Gina sell life insurance. Fred is paid a commission of 8% and Gina is paid $250 plus 5%
commission.
a How much does Fred earn for a week in which his sales are $5000?
b How much does Gina earn for a week in which her sales total $5000?
c In another week Gina earns $650. What is the value of Gina’s sales?
d Fred wishes to earn $650 in a week. How much should his sales be?
17 WE10 Mario is a pay television salesman. Mario earns $500 per week plus 5% commission on all
sales above $5000. Calculate Mario’s pay in a week where his sales total $7500.
18 Neville is a door-to-door encyclopedia salesman. He is paid $300 per week plus 3% commission on all
sales greater than $5000. Calculate Neville’s pay in a week where his sales total is:
a $4000 b $6500 c $8560.
Further development
19 MC A firm employs five sales representatives. Which representative will earn the most in a week
where each of their sales totals $12 480?
A Peter, who receives a commission of 4%
B Richard, who receives $100 plus a commission of 3%
C Susan, who is paid $280 plus a commission of 1.8%
D Trevor, who is paid $300 plus a commission of 3.5% on all sales over $6000
20 Andrew and Bonito are sales representatives. Andrew is paid $300 plus a commission of 2.5% on all
sales. Bonito is paid $250 plus a 3.5% commission on all sales over $3000.
a Calculate Andrew’s commission in a week where his sales total $6500.
b Calculate Bonito’s commission in a week where his sales total $6500.
c Who will earn the most money in a week where both Andrew and Bonito make $16 000
in sales?
21 Fiona is an auctioneer and has the choice of payment packages.
Package A — 4.4% commission on sales.
Package B — An annual salary of $87 500
Package C — A wage where she is paid at a rate of $40 per hour.
Fiona found that in the past year sales totalled $2 million and involved an average 44 hours work per
week. Assume Fiona works 52 weeks per year.
a Based on last year’s figures, what package should Fiona select?
b What would be the minimum value of sales required to make Package A the best option?
c What is the minimum number of hours that needs to be worked each week to make Package A the
best option?
d What reasons might Fiona’s employer have for wanting her to accept Package A?
22 J. L. Booker real estate agents pay its salespeople a commission of 0.25% of all sales. Ray Black real
estate agent pays a commission of 0.5% on all sales above $200 000.
a Calculate the commission earned on selling a block of land for $250 000 for J. L. Booker
compared to selling a block of land for Ray Black.
b Calculate the commission earned on selling a house for $500 000 for J. L. Booker compared to
selling a block of land for Ray Black.
c Find the sale price for which the salesperson would earn the same commission under either
employer.
23 Tom earns $1650 in a week. This includes a retainer of $350 and a commission component.
a If Tom is paid a flat rate of commission and sales total $65 000, calculate the rate of commission
paid.
b If Tom receives commission only for sales above $15 000 calculate the rate of commission that he
receives.
24 If Geoff is paid a flat 4% of all sales as commission and Linda is paid $250 plus 2.4% commission,
calculate the weekly sales for which both would receive the same pay.
25 Henrietta is paid a retainer and receives a 4% commission on all sales. Given that Henrietta
earned $830 on sales of $12 000 and $950 on sales of $15 000 calculate the amount of Henrietta’s
retainer.

1D payment by piece
Payment by piece, or piecework refers to payment for the amount of work completed. It is commonly
paid for jobs such as car detailing and letterbox delivery.
The amount earned is calculated by multiplying the rate of payment by the number of pieces of work
completed.
A person delivering to a letterbox is paid for piecework.
WorkED ExAMplE 11
Len has a job washing cars in a car yard. He is paid $2.25 per car washed. Calculate what Len
earns in an afternoon where he washes 24 cars.
think WritE
Multiply the pay rate by the number of Pay = $2.25 × 24

cars detailed. = $54.00
In some cases, piecework is paid for multiples, rather than for single units. For example, for letterbox
deliveries you may be paid per 1000 deliveries made.
WorkED ExAMplE 12
Holly is delivering brochures to letterboxes in her local area. She is paid $23.00 per thousand
brochures delivered. Calculate what Holly will earn for a delivery of 3500 brochures.
think WritE
1 Divide 3500 by 1000 to calculate the number of 3500 ÷ 1000 = 3.5

thousand brochures delivered.
2 Multiply 3.5 by $23.00 to calculate what Holly is Holly’s pay = 3.5 × $23.00
paid. = $80.50
There are also examples where you will be asked to compare payment by piece with other methods of
earning income, in particular, wages.
WorkED ExAMplE 13
Tristan has a job picking apples. He is paid $4.40 per basket.

a Calculate Tristan’s pay for picking 21 baskets of apples in one day.
b If it takes Tristan 8 hours to pick these apples, calculate the equivalent hourly rate of pay he
has earned.

Think Write
a Multiply 21 (the number of baskets) by $4.40 (the pay a Pay = 21 × $4.40

per basket). = $92.40
b Divide $92.40 (total pay) by 8 (number of hours b Hourly rate = $92.40 ÷ 8
worked). = $11.55
Exercise 1D Payment by piece

1 WE11 Julia works after school at a car yard detailing cars. If Julia is paid $10.85 per car, calculate
what she will earn in an afternoon when she details 7 cars.
2 A group of four friends take a job picking fruit over summer. They are paid $4.50 per basket of fruit
picked. Calculate the earnings of each person in the group if:
a Ryan picked 23 baskets b Summer picked 21 baskets
c Seth picked 19 baskets d Taylor picked 18 baskets.
3 Natalie advertises that she will do ironing for $12.50 per basket. Calculate Natalie’s earnings for doing
14 baskets of ironing.
4 Matthew charges $15 to mow a lawn. Calculate Matthew’s earnings in a week if he mows 9 lawns.
5 Dean works as a house cleaner. He charges $46.50 to clean a house. If Dean cleans 7 houses, calculate
his earnings.
6 WE12 Barbara delivers pamphlets to local letterboxes. She is paid $21.80 per thousand pamphlets
delivered. Calculate what Barbara will be paid for delivering 15 000 pamphlets.
7 A local business employs four people to deliver advertising to letterboxes. They are paid $18.40 per
1000 deliveries. Calculate the amount each person is paid.
a Jim makes 5000 deliveries.
b Georgia makes 7500 deliveries.
c Nicholas makes 4750 deliveries.
d Claire makes 6200 deliveries.
8 Raul works in a factory assembling toys. Raul is paid $19.25 per 100 toys assembled. Calculate what
Raul is paid in a day where he assembles:
a 300 toys b 650 toys c 540 toys.
9 Carolina works as a bicycle courier. She charges $5.70 per kilometre for her deliveries. Calculate
Carolina’s earnings for a 4 km delivery.
10 Keith is a taxi owner/driver. He is paid $3.00 plus $1.60 per kilometre. Calculate the amount Keith will
earn for a journey of:
a 5 km b 15.5 km c 10.2 km.
11 WE13 Denise works as a fruit picker. She is paid $4.20 for every basket of fruit picked.
a Calculate the amount Denise will earn in a day during which she picks 32 baskets of fruit.
b If it takes Denise 8 hours to pick the fruit, calculate the equivalent hourly rate of pay.
12 Charlie works in a car yard as a detailer. Charlie is paid $11.60 per car.
a What will Charlie earn in an afternoon during which he details 15 cars?
b If it takes Charlie 8 hours to detail the cars, calculate his hourly rate of pay.
c If Charlie could finish in 6 hours, calculate the hourly rate of pay he would earn.
Further development
13 George is paid $1.20 for each toy that he assembles, up to the first 100. For the next 50 he receives
$1.60 per toy. For any further toys that he assembles he is paid $2.
Calculate his gross pay for a day in which he assembles:
a 98 toys b 136 toys c 167 toys.
14 Paul types manuscripts for a publishing company. Paul is paid $7 per page for the first 50 pages, $9 per
page from 51–100 pages and $10 per page thereafter. Calculate his gross pay for a period in which he
types:
a 38 pages b 68 pages c 140 pages.

15 Ravi delivers newspapers and is paid $28 per 1000 newspapers delivered.
a What is Ravi paid for delivering 3500 newspapers?
b How many must he deliver to earn $100?
1
c If it takes Ravi 3 2 hours to deliver 1000 newspapers, find his equivalent hourly rate of pay.
16 Garry delivers pizzas. He is paid $4 per delivery between 5:00 pm and 9:00 pm and $5.50 per pizza
after 9:00 pm.
a Calculate his earnings on a night where he makes 12 deliveries between 6:00 pm and 9:00 pm and
4 deliveries between 9:00 pm and 10:30 pm.
b Calculate his average hourly earnings between 6:00 pm and 10:30 pm.
17 Tina packs canned goods into boxes as they come off a production line. During a shift she is paid
20 cents per box up to 600 boxes and 25 cents per box thereafter.
Tina is offered the chance to be paid a wage of $16.09 per hour. Given that Tina works an 8-hour
shift:
a which package should Tina choose if she packs 500 boxes per shift?
b which package should Tina choose if she packs 800 boxes per shift?
c for both packages to be equivalent, how many boxes would Tina have to pack?
18 MC If a pieceworker earns x cents per article, up to 100 articles and y cents per article thereafter, then
his total earnings in dollars for producing 145 articles is:
DiGitAl DoC 100 x + 45 y 45 x + 100 y
WorkSHEET 1.1 A 100x + 45y B 100y + 45x C D
doc-10307 100 100
1E Working overtime
Overtime is paid when a wage earner works more than the regular hours each week. When an employee
works overtime a higher rate is paid. This higher rate of pay is called a penalty rate. The rate is
normally calculated at either:
1
time and a half, which means that the person is paid 1 2 times the usual rate of pay,
or
double time, which means that the person is paid twice the normal rate of pay.
A person may also be paid these overtime rates for working at unfavourable times, such as at night or
during weekends.
To calculate the hourly rate earned when working overtime we multiply the normal hourly rate by the
1
overtime factor, which is 1 2 for time and a half and 2 for double time.
WorkED ExAMplE 14
Gustavo is paid $9.78 per hour in his job as

a childcare worker. Calculate Gustavo’s
hourly rate when he is being paid for
overtime at time and a half.
think WritE
1
Multiply $9.78 (the normal hourly rate) by
1
Time and a half rate = $9.78 × 1 2
1 2 (the overtime factor for time and a half). = $14.67

To calculate the pay for a period of time worked at time and a half or double time, we multiply the
1
normal pay rate by the overtime factor (either 1 2 or 2) and then by the number of hours worked at that
overtime rate.
WorkED ExAMplE 15
Adrian works as a shop assistant and his normal rate of pay is $12.84 per hour. Calculate the
amount Adrian earns for 6 hours work on Saturday, when he is paid time and a half.
think WritE
1 1
Multiply $12.84 (the normal pay rate) by 12(the Pay = $12.84 × 1 2 × 6
overtime factor) and by 6 (hours worked at time = $115.56
and a half).
When we calculate the total pay for a week that involves overtime, we need to calculate the normal pay
and then add the amount earned for any overtime.
WorkED ExAMplE 16
Natasha works as a waitress and is paid $11.80 per hour for a 38-hour week. Calculate Natasha’s
pay in a week where she works 5 hours at time and a half in addition to her regular hours.
think WritE
1 Calculate Natasha’s normal pay. Normal pay = $11.80 × 38

= $448.40
2 Calculate Natasha’s pay for 5 hours at time 1
and a half. Time and a half = $11.80 × 1 2 × 5
= $88.50
3 Add the normal pay and the time and a half Total pay = $448.40 + $88.50
pay together. = $536.90
Some examples will have more than one overtime rate to consider and some will require you to work out
how many hours have been worked at each rate.
WorkED ExAMplE 17
Gina is employed as a car assembly worker and is paid $10.40 per hour for a 36-hour week. If
Gina works overtime, the first 6 hours are paid at time and a half and the remainder at double
time. Calculate Gina’s pay in a week where she works 45 hours.

think WritE
1 Calculate the number of hours Overtime = 45 − 36

overtime Gina worked. = 9 hours
2 Of these nine hours, calculate how much was Time and a half = 6 hours
at time and a half and how much was at Double time = 3 hours
double time.
3 Calculate Gina’s normal pay. Normal pay = $10.40 × 36

= $374.40
1
4 Calculate what Gina is paid for 6 hours at time Time and a half = $10.40 × 1 2 × 6
and a half. = $93.60
5 Calculate what Gina is paid for 3 hours at double Double time = $10.40 × 2 × 3
time. = $62.40
6 Calculate Gina’s total pay by adding the time Total pay = $374.40 + $93.60 + $62.40
and a half and double time payments to his = $530.40
normal pay.
Exercise 1E Working overtime

1 WE14 Reece works in a restaurant and is paid a normal hourly rate of $11.30. Calculate the amount
Reece earns each hour when he is being paid time and a half.
2 Carmen works as a waitress and is paid $11.42 per hour. Calculate Carmen’s rate per hour on a Sunday
when she is paid double time.
3 Gareth works as a train driver and is normally paid $11.48 per hour. For working on public holidays he
is paid double time and a half (overtime factor = 2 1). Calculate Gareth’s hourly rate of pay on a public
2
holiday.
4 WE15 Ben works in a hotel and is paid $11.88 per hour. Calculate the total amount Ben will earn for
an 8-hour shift on Saturday when he is paid at time and a half.
5 Taylor works as an usher at a concert venue. She is normally paid $13.10 per hour. Calculate Taylor’s
pay for 6 hours on Sunday when she is paid double time.
Ordinary Overtime Hours

Name rate rate worked Pay
A. Nguyen $8.90 Time and a half 4
M. Donnell $9.35 Double time 6
F. Milosevic $11.56 Time and a half 7
J. Carides $13.86 Time and a half 6.5
Y. Robinson $22.60 Double time 5.5
7 MC Ernie works as a chef and is paid $9.95 per hour. What will Ernie’s hourly rate be when he is paid
time and a half for overtime?
A $11.45 B $14.92
C $14.93 D $19.90
8 MC Stephanie works in a shop and is paid $9.40 per hour. Calculate how much more Stephanie will
earn in 8 hours work at time and a half than she would at ordinary rates.
A $37.60 B $75.20
C $112.80 D $188.00

9 MC Eric works on the wharves unloading containers and is paid $14.20 per hour. Calculate the
number of hours at time and a half that Eric will have to work to earn the same amount of money that
he will earn in 9 hours at ordinary rates.
a 4.5 hours b 6 hours
c 10.5 hours d 13.5 hours
10 WE 16 Rick works 37 hours at ordinary time each week and receives $12.64 per hour. CalculateRick’s
pay in a week where, in addition to his normal hours, he works 4 hours overtime at time and a half.
11 Kirsty works 36 hours each week at a pay rate of $16.40 per hour. Calculate Kirsty’s pay in a week
where, in addition to her ordinary hours, she works 4 hours on Sunday, when she is paid double time.
12 Grant works as a courier and is paid $13.25 per hour for a 35-hour working week. Calculate Grant’s
pay for a week where he works 4 hours at time and a half and 2 hours at double time in addition to his
regular hours.
Ordinary Normal Time and a Double time

Name rate hours half hours hours Total pay
W. Clark $8.60 38 4 —
A. Hurst $9.85 37 — 6.5
S. Gannon $14.50 38 5 2.5
G. Dymock $16.23 37.5 4 1.5
D. Colley $24.90 36 6 8.5
14 MC Jenny is a casual worker at a motel. The normal rate of pay is $10.40 per hour. Jenny works
8 hours on Saturday for which she is paid time and a half. On Sunday she works 6 hours for which she
is paid double time. Jenny’s pay is equivalent to how many hours work at the normal rate of pay?
a 14 b 21 c 24 d 28
15 MC Patricia works a 35-hour week and is paid $14.15 per hour. Any overtime that Patricia does is
paid at time and a half. Patricia wants to work enough overtime so that she earns more than $600 each
week. What is the minimum number of hours that Patricia will need to work to earn this amount of
money?
a 40 b 41 c 42 d 43
16 WE 17 Steven works on a car assembly line and is paid $12.40 for a 36-hour working week. The
first 4 hours overtime he works each week is paid at time and a half with the rest paid at double time.
Calculate Steven’s earnings for a week in which he works 43 hours.
17 Kate works as a computer technician and is paid $18.56 per hour for a 38-hour working week. For
the first 4 hours overtime each week Kate is paid time and a half and the rest is paid at double time.
Calculate Kate’s pay in a week where she works:
a 38 hours b 41 hours c 45 hours.
18 Zac works in a supermarket. He is paid at an ordinary rate of $8.85 per hour. If Zac works more than
8 hours on any one day the first 2 hours are paid at time and a half and the rest at double time. Calculate
Zac’s pay if the hours worked each day are:
Monday — 8 hours
Tuesday — 9 hours Wednesday — 12 hours
Thursday — 7 hours
Friday — 10.5 hours.
Further development
19 Yvette is on a salary equivalent to $700 per week. She is offered the chance to accept a wage of
$14.65 per hour for a 38 hour week, and time and a half for any overtime.
a Calculate the number of whole hours that Yvette needs to work to ensure that she does not receive
less money if she accepts the offer.
b Yvette estimates that she works an average 41 hours each week. If Yvette is to move from a salary
to a wage, what is the minimum hourly rate that she should ask for?
20 Judy is paid $16.58 per hour for a 36 hour working week. Any overtime that Judy works is paid at a rate of
time and a half. Calculate the number of hours that Judy worked in a week where she earned $721.23.

21 Jack is a casual worker who is paid time and a quarter for all hours worked. The standard rate of pay is
$12.76 per hour. Jack works an average 36 hours per week.
a Calculate Jack’s average weekly earnings.
b Jack is paid the penalty rate as he is not paid for sick days and holidays. Jack has the opportunity
to accept a permanent job, paid at normal rates; however, he would receive 10 sick days and
4 weeks holiday per year. Is Jack better off financially by taking the permanent job? Explain your
answer.
22 Tim is a builder who works a 38 hour working week. Tim is paid time and a half for any overtime
worked. Calculate Tim’s hourly rate of pay given that he receives $746.36 for 44 hours work.
23 Carla is a nurse and works a 40 hour week. On a particular Monday, which is a public holiday, Carla is
paid double time and a half. Carla’s pay for the week will be equivalent to how many normal hours?
24 Georgia earns $18.45 for a 38 hour working week and is paid time and a half for any overtime worked.
Lily earns $16.76 for a 36 hour working week and is paid time and a half for the first four hours of
overtime worked and double time thereafter.
Calculate the minimum number of hours that Lily needs to work to earn more than Georgia who
works a total of 42 hours.
Computer Application 2 Wages

1. Load the spreadsheet Wages_1 that you started earlier in this chapter and edit it with the following
DiGitAl DoC information. Alternatively, access the spreadsheet Wages_2 from the Maths Quest Preliminary
Spreadsheet Mathematics General eBookPLUS.
doc-1448
Wages_2
2. In cell G7 write the formula =C7*D7 + C7*1.5*E7 + C7*2*F7. This formula will calculate the gross
wage for Frederick Astini. (You should get $526.40.)
3. Highlight cells G7 to G11 and choose the Fill Down option to copy this formula to the rest of this
column. (Your answers should show $526.40, $442.40, $537.60, $481.60 and $644.00.)
4. Check the functioning of your spreadsheet by changing the hours worked by Frederick Astini to
38 normal hours, 3 hours at time and a half and 4 hours at double time. You should now have $554.40
in cell G7. Now change the hours for the other employees and notice the gross pay changing. Now
change the hourly rate of pay for each employee.
5. Use the Save As option to save this spreadsheet under the name Wages_2. (This will mean that you
have copies of both version 1 and 2 of the spreadsheet.)

1F Government allowances
Many people rely on government allowances for their income, or at least to supplement their income. In
this activity we look at some of these allowances and how they are calculated.
To complete the investigation, go to the website www.centrelink.gov.au and answer the following
questions.
inVEStiGAtE: Youth allowance
1. What is the youth allowance and who is eligible to receive it?

2. How do you claim youth allowance?
3. Youth allowance is subject to an income test. What is an income test?
4. What is the income bank?
5. What is the assets test that applies to youth allowance?
The following table shows the amount of youth allowance paid under various circumstances. The table
is correct at the time of publishing; however, you can go to the eBookPLUS and this table and all other
material, including the worked examples and exercises, will be kept current.
The maximum
If you are fortnightly payment is
single with no children, under 18 years and living at home $220.40
single with no children, under 18 years and required to live away
$402.70
from home
single with no children, 18 years and over and living at home $265.00
single with no children, 18 years and over and required to live away
$402.70
from home
single with children $527.50
partnered with no children $402.70
partnered with children $442.10
income limits
The income test reduces the amount of youth allowance received, depending upon your weekly income.
The rate at which the youth allowance decreases is described in the table below.
Fortnightly income range Reduction

Job seekers $62–250 50 cents in the dollar
Above $250 60 cents in the dollar
Students and Australian $236–316 50 cents in the dollar
apprentices Above $316 60 cents in the dollar
WorkED ExAMplE 18
Angelo is 17 years old, single, has no children and lives at home while he works as an apprentice
electrician.
a Calculate the maximum amount of youth allowance that Angelo can receive.
b If Angelo earns $300 per fortnight calculate the amount of his youth allowance payment.
think WritE
a Look up the table for a single 17 year old a Maximum youth allowance = $220.40
who lives at home.

b 1 Look up the table to find the income limit. b Lower income limit = $236
2 Find the amount by which his income exceeds $300 − $236 = $64
this limit.
3 Calculate the reduction by multiplying the Reduction = $64 × 0.5

excess income by 0.5. = $32
4 Subtract the reduction from the maximum Angelo’s youth allowance = $220.40 − $32
allowance. = $188.40
WorkED ExAMplE 19
Riana is single, 17 years old with no children, lives at home and is a job seeker
a Calculate the maximum amount of youth allowance that Riana can receive.
b If Riana earns $280 per fortnight calculate the amount of her youth allowance payment.
think WritE
a Look up the table for a single under 18 year old a Maximum youth allowance = $220.40
who lives at home and has no children.
b 1 Look up the table to find the income limit. b Lower income limit = $62,
upper income limit = $250
2 Find the amount by which her income exceeds $280 − $250 = $30 above the upper limit
the $250 threshold. $250 − $62 = $188 between $62 and $250
3 That part between $62 and $250 reduces Reduction = $188 × 0.5 + $30 × 0.6
her income by 50c in the dollar while the = $94 + $18
remainder reduces it by 60c in the dollar. = $112
4 Subtract the reduction from the maximum Riana’s youth allowance = $220.40 – $112
allowance. = $108.40
The above worked examples show the typical Centrelink calculations for the youth allowance. There are
several other government payments such as Austudy, Abstudy, fares allowance and the aged pension.
Similar calculations can be applied to each of these.
Exercise 1F Government allowances

1 WE18 Katrina is a single 18 year old, with no children, and lives at home while she works as an
apprentice baker.
a Calculate the maximum amount of youth allowance that Katrina can receive.
b If Katrina earns $310 per fortnight calculate the amount of her youth allowance.
2 Calculate the amount of youth allowance payable to Greg, who is 17 years old, single with no children,
lives away from home and is employed as an apprentice carpenter earning $280 per fortnight.
3 Benjamin, 20 years old, partnered with a child, is earning $210 per fortnight. Calculate the amount of
youth allowance that he is entitled to.
4 What is the maximum fortnightly amount that can be earned by a single apprentice who is under
18 years old, living at home with no children:
a if they are to receive the full youth allowance?
b a part youth allowance?
5 A single job seeker with no children who is under 18 years of age and living at home earns $90 per
fortnight for delivering pamphlets to letterboxes.
a Does this person receive the full youth allowance?
b How much more can this person earn per fortnight before the youth allowance cuts out completely?

6 WE19 Jenny is 20 years old, has no children, lives away from home and is a job seeker. Calculate the
amount of youth allowance paid to Jenny given that she has income of $260 per fortnight.
7 Calculate the youth allowance payable in each of the following circumstances.
Family situation Income per fortnight

a Single, no children, under 18, at home, in an apprenticeship. $190.00
b Single, no children, under 18, at home, job seeker $112.50
c Single, no children, 18 and over, at home, and in an apprenticeship. $615.80
d Single, no children, 18 and over, at home, job seeker $212.90
e Single, no children, 18 and over, away from home, in an apprenticeship. $526.80
f Partnered, no children and a job seeker. $275.00
g Partnered, with dependants, and in an apprenticeship. $751.00
h Partnered, with dependants, job seekers $394.75
8 Austudy is payable to people 25 years or older who are studying full-time or are in an apprenticeship. It
is paid at the following rates and is subject to the same income and test as the youth allowance for a job
seeker.
If you are The maximum fortnightly payment is
single $402.70
single, with children $527.50
partnered, no children $402.70
partnered, with children $442.10
Calculate the amount of Austudy payable to each of the following.
Status Fortnightly income
a Single Nil
b Single, with children $153.50
c Partnered, with children $327.75
d Partnered, no children $279.80
9 Johann is a 30 year old who has gone back to university to full-time study. Johann is partnered with no
child. Johann works casually for $230 per fortnight.
a Does Johann receive the full amount of Austudy?
b What amount of Austudy will he receive per fortnight?
10 MC Jade is a single 19 year old with no children who lives at home. The maximum amount of youth
allowance that Jade is entitled to is
a $194.50 b $233.90 c $265.00 d $465.60
11 MC Which of the following people is entitled to the full youth allowance?
A Andrea who is single, living at home and a job seeker earning $75 per fortnight.
B Bryce who is partnered with dependants is an Australian apprentice who earns $290 per fortnight.
C Cathy who is single, long-term unemployed, aged 24, who earns $240 per fortnight.
D David, who is single with no dependants, lives away from home, is a job seeker and earns $50 per
fortnight.
Further development
12 Frank is a student who is over 18 years old and lives at home.
a What is the maximum amount of youth allowance that Frank can receive?
b What is the maximum amount that Frank can earn before the youth allowance begins to reduce?
c What is the maximum amount that Frank can earn before his youth allowance cuts out completely?
13 Josie is single, living away from home, 28 years old, long-term unemployed but is returning to full-time
study.
a Calculate the amount of Austudy that Josie receives.
b If Josie earns the most money possible from casual work without affecting her payment, what
would be her total fortnightly income?

Additions to and deductions from
1G
gross pay
Although we may calculate a person’s pay, this is not the amount that is actually received by that person.
The amount that we calculate based on their wage or salary is called gross pay or gross wage. From
gross pay several deductions may be made for items such as tax, union fees, private health insurance
and superannuation.
Many of you who are considering tertiary education may be aware that you may be left with what is
called a HECS debt on completing a university course. HECS (higher education contribution scheme)
is paying back the cost of your tertiary education to the government, although payment only needs to be
made once your annual income passes a certain level. Repayment is through HELP (higher education
loan program) and is a percentage of income that increases as annual income increases.
The amount of money that you actually receive each week is called your net pay and is calculated by
subtracting all deductions from your gross pay.
WorkED ExAMplE 20
Robert’s gross pay is $643.60 per week. Robert has deductions for tax of $144.46, superannuation
of $57.92 and union fees of $11.40. Calculate Robert’s net pay.
think WritE
From $643.60 (gross pay) subtract $144.46 Net pay = $643.60 − $144.46 − $57.92 − $11.40
(tax), $57.92 (superannuation) and $11.40 = $429.82
(union fees).
In some cases, you will be required to calculate the size of a deduction based on either an annual amount
or a percentage.
WorkED ExAMplE 21
Bruce is a shop assistant and he has his union fees deducted from his pay each week. If the annual
union fee is $324.60, calculate the size of Bruce’s weekly union deduction.
think WritE
1 Divide $324.60 (the annual union fee) by 52. Weekly deduction = $324.60 ÷ 52
2 Round the answer off to the nearest cent. = $6.24
WorkED ExAMplE 22
Charissa is a salary earner and her gross fortnightly salary is $1320. Charissa pays 9% of her
gross pay each fortnight in superannuation. Calculate how much is deducted from Charissa’s pay
each fortnight for superannuation.
think WritE
Calculate 9% of $1320 (gross pay). Superannuation = 9% of $1320

= 9 ÷ 100 × $1320
= $118.80
When employees take annual leave,, they may receive an annual leave loading. When on holidays, such
1
employees are paid an additional 17 2 % of their gross pay for up to 4 weeks.

WorkED ExAMplE 23
Russell is a newspaper printer and is paid

$14.75 per hour for a 36-hour working week.
a Calculate Russell’s pay for a normal working
week.
b Calculate Russell’s total pay for his 4 weeks
1
annual leave if he receives a 17 2 % annual
leave loading on the 4 weeks pay.
think WritE
a Multiply $14.75 (hourly rate) by 36 (hours a Normal pay = $14.75 × 36

worked). = $531.00
b 1 Multiply $531.00 (weekly pay) by 4 to find b Normal 4 weeks pay = $531.00 × 4
his normal pay for 4 weeks. = $2124.00
1
2 Calculate the annual leave loading by finding Annual leave loading = 17 2 % of $2124.00
1
17 2 % of $1692. 1
= 17 2 ÷ 100 × $2124.00
= $371.70
3 Add $371.10 (annual leave loading) to $2124 Total holiday pay = $2124.00 + $371.70
(normal 4 weeks pay). = $2495.70
Exercise 1G Additions to and deductions from

gross pay
1 WE 20 Trevor is a tiler and his gross pay is $532.75 per week. His weekly deductions are $106.20 for
tax, $47.95 for superannuation and $17.70 for health fund contributions. Calculate Trevor’s net pay
each week.
Gross pay Deductions Net pay

$345.00 $89.45
$563.68 $165.40
$765.90 $231.85
$1175.60 $429.56
$2500.00 $765.40

3 David works in a mine and is paid a wage of $15.75 per hour
for a 36-hour working week. His deductions are $118.02 for tax,
$32.50 for health insurance, $51.03 for superannuation and
$5.00 for the miner’s social club. Calculate David’s net pay.
4 Belinda is on an annual salary of $65 500. Belinda is paid
fortnightly.
a Calculate Belinda’s fortnightly pay.
b If Belinda has fortnightly deductions of $834.92 for tax,
$226.73 for superannuation and $23.50 as a contribution to
a professional organisation, calculate Belinda’s net pay.
5 WE 21 Lars works as a train driver and is a member of the
union. If Lars’ union fees are $394.00 per year and Lars has his
fees deducted from his pay weekly, calculate the size of Lars’
weekly deduction.
6 Yasmin is a salary earner who is paid fortnightly. Yasmin has
her fees for private health insurance deducted from her pay
fortnightly. If the annual premium for Yasmin’s health cover is $1456.50, calculate the amount that
needs to be deducted from Yasmin’s pay each fortnight.
7 Dorothy is paid a wage of $13.45 per hour for a 38-hour working week.
a Calculate Dorothy’s gross weekly pay.
b Dorothy pays union fees of $265.60 per annum. Calculate the amount that should be deducted
from her pay each week for union fees.
c Dorothy has $98.73 deducted from her pay each week for tax and union fees. Calculate Dorothy’s
net pay.
8 Patrick is on an annual salary of $56 000 and is paid fortnightly.
a Calculate Patrick’s gross fortnightly pay.
b Patrick pays fortnightly into a private health fund for which the annual premium is $1165.75.
Calculate the fortnightly payment.
c Patrick has his health fund payment and tax (total $660.60) deducted from his fortnightly pay.
Calculate Patrick’s net fortnightly pay.
9 WE22 Sabrina earns a weekly wage of $623.50. She puts 9% of this wage into a superannuation fund.
Calculate the amount that Sabrina pays in superannuation.
10 Arthur earns a gross fortnightly salary of $1520.50. He pays 11% of his gross salary in superannuation.
Calculate the amount that Arthur has deducted from his salary each fortnight for superannuation.
11 Rex is paid $11.12 per hour for a 38-hour working week.
a Calculate Rex’s gross weekly wage.
b Rex pays 10.5% of his gross weekly wage in superannuation. Calculate Rex’s weekly
superannuation contribution.
c Rex pays tax of $68.18 as well as his superannuation contribution. Calculate Rex’s weekly net wage.
12 The table below shows the rate at which HECS–HELP is to be paid.
HELP repayment income (HRI) Repayment rate

Below $49 096 Nil
$49 096–$54 688 4% of HRI
$54 689–$60 279 4.5% of HRI
$60 280–$63 448 5% of HRI
$63 449–$68 202 5.5% of HRI
$68 203–$73 864 6% of HRI
$73 865–$77 751 6.5% of HRI
$77 752–$85 564 7% of HRI
$85 565–$91 177 7.5% of HRI
$91 178 and above 8% of HRI
Calculate the amount of the annual HECS–HELP payment for a person whose HRI is:
a $32 000 b $72 500 c $82 670 d $142 456.

13 Raylene is on an annual salary of $75 000 and is paid fortnightly.
a Calculate Raylene’s gross fortnightly salary.
b Raylene pays 12.75% of her gross salary in superannuation. Calculate the amount that is deducted
from Raylene’s salary each fortnight for superannuation.
c Calculate the amount of HECS–HELP that Raylene must pay annually and hence the deduction
that is made each fortnight for HECS–HELP.
d Raylene pays union fees of $486 per annum and has private health insurance of $1323.70
deducted from her pay fortnightly. Calculate the amount of the fortnightly deduction made for
union fees and also for health insurance.
e If Raylene pays $1009.22 in fortnightly tax, as well as the above deductions, calculate her weekly
net pay.
14 WE23 Liang-Yi earns $13.60 per hour for a 38-hour working week.
a Calculate the amount Liang-Yi will earn in a normal working week.
b Calculate the total amount Liang-Yi will receive for his 4 weeks annual leave if he receives a
1
17 2 % holiday loading.
15 Paula is paid an annual salary of $45 800.
a Calculate Paula’s gross weekly salary.
1
b Calculate the total amount Paula will receive for her 4 weeks annual leave if she is paid a 17 2 %
holiday loading.
16 Leon is paid $12.95 per hour for a 36-hour working week.
a Calculate Leon’s weekly wage.
1
b Leon takes one week’s holiday for which he is given a 17 2 % loading. Calculate the holiday loading.
c If Leon pays $83.24 in tax, calculate his net pay for his week’s holiday.
17 Scott is paid an annual salary of $68 500.
a Calculate Scott’s salary for a 4-week period.
1
b Calculate how much holiday loading Scott will receive for this 4-week period if it is paid at 17 2 %.
c Scott pays $1250 per annum in private health insurance, which is deducted from his gross salary.
Calculate how much health insurance Scott must pay for a 4-week period.
d If Scott pays $1779.92 in tax for this 4 weeks, calculate his net pay for the 4-week holiday.
Further development
18 Tyrone is paid $15.65 per hour for a 40 hour working week. Tyrone pays 23% of his gross pay in tax
and 6% in superannuation.
a Calculate Tyrone’s net pay.
b Tyrone receives a 5% pay rise. This causes his tax to increase to 24% of his gross pay and his
superannuation rises to 7% of his gross pay. Calculate the increase in Tyrone’s net pay as a
percentage correct to 1 decimal place.
19 Ricky has a job that pays him an annual salary of $55 000. When negotiating a pay rise the company for
which Ricky works asks the employees to give up their 17.5% holiday loading in return for the pay rise.
What is the minimum percentage pay increase that is required so that the employees will not be worse off?
20 Nancy is paid a fortnightly salary of $2397.68. Nancy’s employer also contributes an amount equal to
6% of her salary to her superannuation fund and provides a car under a lease arrangement which has a
value of $724.50 per month.
Calculate the total value of Nancy’s salary package.
21 Frank earns an annual salary of $90 000. He must pay 8% of his gross annual salary in superannuation
payments and 32% of his gross annual salary in taxation. Grace earns 85% of Frank’s salary but only
pays 6% in superannuation and 30% in taxation.
What percentage of Frank’s net annual salary is Grace’s net annual salary?
22 Richard earns an annual salary of $76 000. He pays 28% of his gross annual income in taxation and has
no other deductions.
a What is Richard’s net annual salary?
b Richard needs a new computer and chooses to salary package the computer. This means that his
employer buys the computer for him and deducts the cost from his gross salary. As the computer
is used for work purposes its value is not taxed. Given that the computer he chooses has a value of
$3000 calculate the amount by which his net salary is reduced.

23 Indore has a gross annual salary of $62 750. Indore’s salary package includes a car that has a monthly
cost of $859.60.
a Find the annual cost of packaging the car.
b Calculate Indore’s net annual salary given that her only deduction is 27% in tax.
c Calculate the amount that the car actually costs Indore from her net pay, per month, given that the
car cost is taken from her gross salary and that this deduction causes her tax to fall to 25%.
Computer Application 3 Wages template

1. Load your spreadsheet Wages_2 and add the Deductions and Net Pay columns. Alternatively, access the
spreadsheet Wages_3 from the Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General eBookPLUS.
DiGitAl DoC
Spreadsheet
doc-1452
Wages_3
2. In cell I7 write the formula = G7 − H7. This formula will calculate Net Pay by subtracting Deductions
from Gross Pay.
3. Your spreadsheet will now calculate both a person’s Gross Pay and Net Pay. Save this as Wages_3.
(You should now have three versions of the spreadsheet saved.)
4. Now clear all the data from the columns Pay Rate, Normal Hours, Time and a half Hours, Double
Time Hours and Deductions. You should then have a spreadsheet set up with no data and $ - (as can be
seen below) where there are formulas.
DiGitAl DoC
Spreadsheet
doc-1453
Wages template
When a spreadsheet is in this form it is called a template. The spreadsheet is now ready to accept new
data and make new calculations. Save this version as Wages template. Alternatively, download the Wages
template from the Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General eBookPLUS.

1h Budgeting
Once we have earned money we need to allocate the money to cover our expenses; otherwise, we may
spend more than we earn! Allocating money to cover expenses is called making a budget. A budget is
divided into two parts: income and expenditure. A budget is balanced when income and expenditure
are equal.
Consider the budget below, drawn up for Tanya, who earns a net wage of $700.
Income Expenditure
Wages $700 Rent $150
Groceries $100
Bills $100
Car loan $75
Car running costs $50
Entertainment $60
Credit card $50
Savings $115
Total $700 Total $700
When designing a budget, it is important to look for all your expenses and set money aside for them.
For example, electricity bills arrive every three months and money should be set aside each week so that
when the bill does arrive you have the money to pay for it. The amount set aside should be based on the
normal amount of the bill over a year, with that amount divided into weekly or fortnightly amounts.
For bills such as electricity and telephone, an extra amount should be allowed, as you do not know
the exact amount of the bill until it arrives. Such an allowance covers the possibilities of a price rise or
increased usage. This is not necessary for bills such as council rates or insurance, as these are known in
advance.
WorkED ExAMplE 24
Ben receives four electricity bills each year. For the previous year they were for $136, $187, $169
and $105. How much should Ben budget for electricity bills out of each week’s pay? We should
allow an extra 10% to cover the possibility of price increases or extra usage.
think WritE
1 Calculate the total of the previous years bills. Annual total = $136 + $187 + $169 + $105
= $597
2 To calculate the weekly amount, divide $597 Weekly amount = $597 ÷ 52
by 52. = $11.48
3 Increase $11.48 by 10%. 110% of $11.48 = $12.62
4 Make a practical approximation of the answer. Ben should budget $12.50 per week to cover the
electricity.
Some bills are calculated over different lengths of time, so the simplest way to develop a budget is to
calculate all bills over a year.
WorkED ExAMplE 25
Marlene has the following bills.

Electricity $110 every 2 months
Telephone $95 per quarter
Car insurance $254 every 6 months
Rates $1250 per year
Calculate the total amount that Marlene should budget for all of these bills each fortnight,
allowing for an extra 10% to cover possible increases.

think WritE
1 Calculate the total annual amount for Electricity = $110 × 6

electricity. = $660
2 Calculate the total annual amount for Telephone = $95 × 4
telephone. = $380
3 Calculate the total annual amount for car Car insurance = $254 × 2
insurance. = $508
4 Calculate the total annual amount for rates. Rates = $1250
5 Find the annual total for all of these bills. Total = $660 + $380 + $508 + $1250
= $2798
6 Increase $2798 by 10%. 110% of $2798 = 110 ÷ 100 × $2798
= $3077.80
7 Divide $3077.80 by 26. Fortnightly allowance = $3077.80 ÷ 26
= $118.38
8 Round off and give a written answer. Marlene should allow about $118 per fortnight to
cover her bills.
To bring a budget into balance, any money that is not spent can be saved. The amount saved can be
calculated by subtracting the expenses to which we are committed from the total earnings.
WorkED ExAMplE 26
Peter earns $950 per fortnight. He allows $110 per fortnight for his bills, $250 per fortnight for
groceries, $70 for car running costs and $80 per fortnight for entertainment. Peter also has a
mortgage for which the payment is $600 per month.
a Calculate the amount Peter should allocate each fortnight for his mortgage.
b Calculate the amount of money Peter can save each fortnight.
c Draw up a budget for Peter, showing his income and expenditure.
think WritE
a 1 Calculate the annual mortgage amount. a Annual mortgage = $600 × 12

= $7200
2 Calculate the fortnightly amount by Fortnightly amount = $7200 ÷ 26
dividing by 26. = $276.92
b 1 Calculate total expenses. b Total expenses = $276.92 + $110 + $250 + $70 + $80
= $786.92
2 Calculate savings by subtracting all Savings = $950 − $786.92
expenses from $950. = $163.08
c Draw up a budget by listing income and c Income Expenditure
expenses in two columns.
Wages $950 Mortgage $276.92
Bills $110
Groceries $250
Car $70
Entertainment $80
Savings $163.08
Total $950 Total $950
To do work on budgeting you will need to be able to interpret the information on various household bills.

WorkED ExAMplE 27
Look at the extract from a sample telephone bill below.
a What is the total of the bill? b For what period are the call charges?
c How much of the bill is for service and equipment?
think WritE
a Look in the box labelled ‘Total amount payable’. a The total of the bill is $154.10.
b Look at the dates following ‘Local Calls’. b The calls were for the period 5 Jan. to 4 Apr.
c Look at the amount next to ‘Service & Equipment’. c The cost for service and equipment
was $51.45.
Exercise 1h Budgeting
1 WE24 Vesna gets her telephone bill quarterly. Last year her four bills were $89.50, $103.40, $110.30
and $95.00. Calculate the amount that Vesna should budget for her telephone bill each week, allowing
approximately 10% to cover price increases or extra usage.
2 Christopher pays $1360 each year in council rates. Calculate how much he should budget for each
fortnight for council rates.
3 Isabelle pays $34.65 per month in car insurance. Calculate the amount that she should budget each
week for car insurance.
4 Tristan’s mortgage repayments are $750 per month. Calculate the amount that Tristan should budget for
each fortnight to cover his mortgage bill.
5 WE25 Mr and Mrs Banks have the following bills.
DiGitAl DoC
Electricity $130 every quarter Spreadsheet
Telephone $108 per quarter doc-1455
Budgets
Car insurance $35 per month
House insurance $29.50 per month
Council rates $1100 per year

Calculate the amount that Mr and Mrs Banks should budget for each week, to pay all these bills,
allowing an extra 10% for extra usage or price increases.
6 Mr and Mrs Duric have the following bills.
Car insurance $287 every 6 months
Home contents insurance $365 per year
Private health insurance $1200 per year
Rent $180 per week
Calculate the total amount that Mr and Mrs Duric must budget for each fortnight, to cover all these bills.
7 WE26 Neville earns $685 per week. His expenses are $100 for rent, $90 for groceries, $75 for bills,
$70 in car running costs, $60 in entertainment and $50 for miscellaneous expenses.
a Calculate the amount that Neville can save each week.
b Present the above information in the form of a budget for Neville.
8 Petria has the following bills.
Electricity $120 every quarter
Telephone $80 every quarter
Council rates $800 per annum
Water rates $700 per annum
Insurance $70 per month
a Calculate the amount that Petria must budget each fortnight for the above bills.
b Petria has a mortgage with a monthly repayment of $900. Calculate the amount that Petria must
budget each fortnight for her mortgage.
c Petria has a net fortnightly pay of $1345. If Petria budgets $250 per fortnight for groceries,
$80 for entertainment, $30 for medical expenses and $70 for car running costs, calculate the
amount that Petria can save each fortnight.
d Prepare the above information in a budget for Petria.
9 WE27 Look at the extract from a sample telephone bill below.
a What is the total of the bill?

b For what period are the local calls charged?
c What is the charge for international calls?
d If four of these bills are received each year, what amount should be budgeted per week to pay them?

10 Look at the extracts from a sample electricity bill below.
a What is the amount due for this bill?

b What was the amount charged for off-peak use on
this bill?
c How many days does this bill cover?
d How many kWh of power were used under the
Domestic heading?
e What is the present reading of the domestic
meter?
f What was the previous reading of the off-peak
meter?

11 Look at the extracts from a sample gas bill below.
a What is the amount due for this bill?

b How many days does this bill cover?
c What is the cost per MJ on this bill?
d What is the daily gas consumption in
MJ for this household?

12 Look at the extract from the sample bill for council rates below.
a What is the amount owed in council rates?

b What is the rateable value of the property?
c What is the domestic waste charge?
d The rates can be paid in how many instalments of what amount?

Further development
13 Petria earns $13.60 per hour in her casual job at McDonalds. Petria works an average 12 hours per
week.
a Calculate Petria’s gross weekly pay.
b Petria spends an average $30 per week on her mobile phone. Calculate the percentage of her gross
pay that she spends on her phone.
14 Olivia has a home telephone that costs her an average $65.00 per month. She also spends an average
$30 per week on her pre-paid mobile phone. Calculate the weekly saving if Olivia replaces both phones
with a mobile plan that costs $119.95 per month.
15 Damien has insurance costs of $562.50 for home and contents insurance with GOI Insurance,
$1650 per year for health insurance with HBF insurance and $739.60 for car insurance with RMNA
Insurance.
GOI offers a 5% discount on its $1720 health insurance premium and a 10% discount on its
$812.60 car insurance premium if Damien switches all policies to GOI.
HBF will match its competitor’s premiums and discount the health insurance by 5% if all policies
are with them.
Which, if either, offer should Damien choose and what will be his total cost?
16 Mr and Mrs Forrester have a combined net income of $1650 per week. Their weekly expenses include
$600 per week for mortgage repayments and $450 per week in household bills.
a What is the percentage of net pay that the Forresters allocate to their mortgage repayment and
household bills?
b Over the next year the Forresters’s pay increases by 3%. Their mortgage repayment remains
unchanged; however, they allocate an extra 10% to cover their bills. Calculate the new percentage
of net pay allocated to each of these items.
17 Mr and Mrs. Marone have a $300 000 mortgage. They have a combined net income of $6000 per month
and repay the loan at a rate of $2121 per month.
a What percentage of their net income is allocated to repaying the home loan?
b After a series of interest rate rises, their loan repayment increases to $2316 per month. Calculate
the change in percentage of income allocated to the loan.
18 Economists often talk of the cost of items in ‘real terms’. This is the percentage increase or decrease in
purchasing power after wage rises and cost increases are factored. If the average income is $1500 per
DiGitAl DoC
WorkSHEET 1.2 week and average expenses are $1350 per week, and wages rise by 5% and expenses increase by 10%,
doc-10308 calculate the loss of income as a percentage in real terms.

Summary
Methods of payment • A salary is a fixed amount paid to an employee to do a job. This is usually based on an annual
amount divided into weekly or fortnightly instalments.
• A wage is an amount paid to an employee according to an hourly rate. The weekly wage is the
hourly rate multiplied by the hours worked.
• Commission or royalties are payments based on a percentage of sales.
• Payment by piece is payment to an employee according to the amount of work completed.
Working overtime • Overtime is paid when the employee works more than the regular hours each week. Usually the
employee will be paid at either:
1
time and a half — 1 2 times the normal hourly rate, or
double time — twice the normal hourly rate.
Government • Government payments can be received as youth allowance, aged pension and for study purposes.
allowances • The Centrelink website can be used to look up the amount of these payments.
• Most government payments are subject to an income test. In such cases the amount of the payment
reduces once income reaches a certain level. At another, higher level of income the allowance cuts
out altogether.
• Payments are also subject to an assets test which works in a similar way. If you have more than a
certain level of assets, payment is reduced.
Additions to and • Gross pay is the pay the employee receives before any deductions are taken out.
deductions from gross • Deductions are made from gross pay for tax, superannuation, union fees and so on.
pay • The amount left from gross pay after deductions are taken out is called net pay.
1
• Employees receive an extra 17 2 % when they take their annual leave. This is called the annual leave
loading.
Budgeting • A budget is a list of income and expenses.

• Budgets are used to allocate money to various purposes and to ensure that expenditure does not
exceed income.
• If income and expenses are equal the budget is said to be balanced.

Chapter review
1 Which of the following is the highest salary?
M U lt ip l E
C h oiCE A $961.48 per week
B $1923.12 per fortnight
C $4165.00 per month
D $50 000 per annum
2 Simone works as a florist and receives a normal hourly rate of $13.60. Simone’s pay for a
Saturday night, when she works 6 hours at a rate of time and a half, is:
A $20.40 B $81.60 C $122.40 D $163.20
3 Noel sells computer software and receives a $250 per week retainer plus a commission of 5% of all
sales over $10 000. In a week where Noel’s sales reach $13 460, he is paid a total of:
A $17 B $423 C $673 D $923
4 Janelle works a 38-hour week at a rate of $14.50 per hour. When Janelle takes her 4 weeks annual leave
1
she is paid a loading of 17 2%. Janelle’s weekly wage, when she takes her leave, is:
A $551 B $647.43 C $2204 D $2589.70
5 Which of the following employees is paid a wage?
A Anthony, who receives a payment of 4% of the value of all sales each month
B Beth, who is paid fortnightly at a rate of $13.50 per hour
C Carmel, who is paid weekly based on an annual amount of $37 500
D Damien, who is paid $1.2 million for every movie that he appears in
6 Cherry is single, for whom the full youth allowance is $402.70 per fortnight. The income test reduces
the amount of youth allowance by 50c in the dollar for fortnightly income between $62 and $250,
and 60c in the dollar thereafter. Cherry has fortnightly income of $286.60, so the youth allowance she
receives is:
A $230.74 B $255.74 C $259.40 D $286.74
Sh ort 1 Carole earns a salary of $39 600 per year and is paid weekly. Calculate her weekly pay.
AnS WEr
2 Neil earns a salary of $67 400 per year and is paid fortnightly. Calculate his fortnightly pay.
3 Lainie earns a salary of $1326 per month. Calculate her annual salary.
4 Paul earns a salary of $51 000 per annum and works an average of 44 hours per week. Calculate the
hourly rate to which Paul’s annual salary is equivalent.
5 Calculate the weekly wage of each of the following people.
a Sandra, who works 36 hours at $14.50 per hour
b Darren, who works 38 hours at $15.65 per hour
c Melissa, who works 43 hours at $13.68 per hour
6 Bartenders earn a standard rate of $12.30 per hour. Casual bartenders receive a casual rate of
$13.80 per hour.
a Kevin is a full-time bartender who works a 36-hour week. Calculate his weekly wage.
b Len is a casual bartender who works 16 hours a week. Calculate Len’s weekly wage.

7 Charlotte works 36 hours for a wage of $410.40. Calculate her hourly rate of pay.
8 Brian earns $11.83 per hour. Calculate the number of hours that Brian would need to work in a week if
he wanted to earn $500.
9 Renee is a furniture salesperson who is paid 8% commission on all her sales. Calculate Renee’s pay in
a week where her sales total $4940.
10 Daryl is a car salesman who is paid $275 per week plus 1.5% commission on all sales. Calculate
Daryl’s pay in a week where his sales total $34 900.
11 Felicity sells cosmetics and is paid $150 per week plus 15% commission on all sales in excess of
$1000. Calculate Felicity’s commission in a week where her sales total $3560.
12 Hong has an after-school job detailing cars. Hong is paid $11.75 for every car that he details. Calculate
what Hong is paid for detailing 29 cars.
13 Svetlana delivers brochures to the local neighbourhood and is paid $17.50 for every 1000 brochures
delivered. Calculate what Svetlana will earn for delivering 5600 brochures.
14 Beatrice earns $14.20 per hour. Calculate what she will earn per hour:
a on Saturdays, when she is paid time and a half
b on Sundays, when she is paid double time.
15 Nicholas is a storeman who is paid a normal rate of $10.90 per hour. Calculate what Nicholas will
earn for:
a 6 hours work at time and a half
b 5 hours work at double time.
16 A photographic chemicals firm pays its factory workers $9.70 per hour. Calculate what each of the
following employees earns in a week where:
a Chao-ping works 38 normal hours
b Elizabeth works 38 normal hours and 4 hours at time and a half
c Phillip works 38 normal hours and 3 hours double time
d Charlie works 38 normal hours, 4 hours time and a half and
3 hours double time.
17 Eddie works as a shop assistant and is paid an ordinary rate of
$10.54 per hour for a 36-hour working week. Eddie is paid time and
a half for the first 4 hours overtime worked and double time for any
hours beyond that. Calculate Eddy’s wage in a week where he works
47 hours.
18 Use the table on page 19 to find the amount of youth allowance
paid to:
a Terry, who is 17 years old, single with no children, lives at home
and is seeking a job. Terry is not subject to an income or assets test.
b Kerry, who is 22 years old, an apprentice chef earning
$328.60 per fortnight. Kerry lives away from home and is
single with no children.
19 Marella works as a seamstress and receives a gross wage of
$439.00 per week. From her pay, $73.85 is deducted for tax,
$4.80 for union fees, $39.51 for superannuation and $9.20 for health
insurance. Calculate Marella’s net wage.
20 Anne works as a shop assistant. Her annual union fees are
$210.60. Anne has her union fees deducted from her pay weekly.
Calculate the size of Anne’s weekly deduction.
21 Harold earns a salary of $48 250 per annum and is paid fortnightly.
a Calculate Harold’s fortnightly pay.
b Harold pays 9.5% of his gross fortnightly pay into a
superannuation fund. Calculate the size of Harold’s fortnightly

22 Lance is paid $14.86 per hour and works 38 hours at normal time and 3 hours overtime for which he is
paid time and a half.
a Calculate Lance’s gross weekly pay.
b Lance has his private health cover deducted from his gross pay. The annual contribution
is $689.40. Calculate the amount deducted weekly from Lance’s pay.
c Lance pays 11.5% of his gross pay into superannuation. Calculate the amount of Lance’s
d If Lance also pays $140.30 in tax, calculate Lance’s net wage.
23 Ruth has a net income of $700 per week. She has expenses of $190 for her mortgage, $90 for her bills,
$80 for entertainment, $50 for car running costs, $125 for groceries and $30 for medical needs.
Calculate the amount that Ruth can allocate for savings in her budget.
24 Amy has to budget for the following bills.
Insurance $62.50 per month
Rates $1050 per year
Calculate the amount that Amy should budget for each week to pay all of these bills.
E x t EnDED 1 Ken works as a pest inspector. Ken is paid a wage of $15.40 per hour.
r E SponS E
a If Ken works a normal 36-hour week, calculate his wage.
b Calculate Ken’s wage for a week if, in addition to his normal hours, he works 3 hours at time and
a half and 2 hours at double time.
c Ken receives an allowance of 79c per hour for working in confined spaces. Calculate Ken’s wage
in a week if he works his normal 36 hours, but 23 of those hours are spent working in confined
spaces.
d Calculate the total amount which Ken will receive for his 4 weeks annual leave if he is paid an
1
annual leave loading of 17 2 %.
2 Danielle is a preschool teacher who receives a salary of $47 600 per annum.
a Calculate the amount that she will receive each fortnight.
b Danielle pays 9% of her gross salary in superannuation. Calculate her fortnightly superannuation
DiGitAl DoC contribution.
Test Yourself
doc-10309 c If Danielle also has $485.38 in tax, $45.80 for health insurance and $15.60 in union dues
Chapter 1 deducted from her pay, calculate her net fortnightly pay.

ICT activities
1A Calculating salary payments 1G Additions to and deductions from
DiGitAl DoC gross pay
• Spreadsheet (doc-1439): Payroll calculations (page 2) DiGitAl DoCS
• Spreadsheet (doc-1452): Wages_3 (page 26)
1B Calculating wages • Spreadsheet (doc-1453): Wages template (page 26)
DiGitAl DoCS
• Spreadsheet (doc-1439): Payroll calculations (page 5) 1h Budgeting
• Spreadsheet (doc-1440): Wages_1 (page 7) DiGitAl DoCS
• Spreadsheet (doc-1455): Budgets (page 29)
1C Commission and royalties • WorkSHEET 1.2 (doc-10308): Perform calculations about earning
money and budgeting. (page 34)
DiGitAl DoC
• Spreadsheet (doc-1443): Calculations with percentages (page 10)
Chapter review
1D • Test Yourself Chapter 1 (doc-10309): Take the end-of-chapter test to
payment by piece
check your progress. (page 38)
DiGitAl DoC
• WorkSHEET 1.1 (doc-10307): Perform calculations related to earning
To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
money. (page 14)
1E Working overtime
DiGitAl DoC
• Spreadsheet (doc-1448): Wages_2 (page 18)

Answers CHAPTER 1
EArninG MonEY 9 14 a $390 b $490
Hours Hourly c $649
Exercise 1A Calculating salary payments
Name Wage worked rate 15 B
1 $1700 2 $960
16 a $400 b $500
3 $4500 A. White $416.16 36 $11.56
c $8000 d $8125
4 a $745 B. Black $538.80 40 $13.47 17 $625
b $1490 C. Green $369.63 37 $9.99 18 a $300 b $345
c $3228.33
D. Brown $813.96 42 $19.38 c $406.80
5 $1653.85
E. Scarlet $231.30 15 $15.42 19 D
6
20 a $462.50 b $372.50
F. Grey $776.72 38 $20.44
Annual Weekly Fortnightly Monthly c Bonito ($705)
salary pay pay pay 10 $12.54 11 C 12 D 21 a Package C
13 $422.62 14 $548.80 b $2 080 000
$30 000 $576.92 $1153.85 $2500.00 15 a $349.65 b 43 hours c 43 hours
$39 500 $759.62 $1519.23 $3291.67 16 a $471.20 b $11.78 d She has an incentive to sell more.
17 a $1666 b $4.52 22 a J. L. Booker — $625. Roy Black — $250
$42 250 $812.50 $1625.00 $3520.83 18 $120.83 19 $103.67 b J. L. Booker — $1250, Roy Black — $1500
20 a $25.98 b 44.4 hours c $400 000
$54 350 $1045.19 $2090.38 $4529.17
21 a 38 hours 23 a 2% b 2.6%
$86 475 $1662.98 $3325.96 $7206.25 b John will earn $1.28 less each week. 24 $15 625 25 $350
Current pay = $510.40,
7 $23 920 8 $32 500 new pay = $509.12 Exercise 1D payment by piece
9 $69 600 22 a 40 × $18.49 = $739.60 1 $75.95
10 C 11 $14.28 b The employer figure is 2 a $103.50 b $94.50
12 a $634.62 $18.49 × 1.05 = $19.4145 rounded down c $85.50 d $81
b $17.63 to $19.41. Tracey’s figure 3 $175
13 a $688 $739.60 × 1.05 = $776.58 4 $135
b Karina ($16.38 per hour) c $776.40 5 $325.50
14 45 hours d $19.4145 — it is possible to pay this 6 $327
15 $2166.67 amount by multiplying this hourly rate 7 a $92 b $138
16 Compare the annual salaries. Dan’s by the number of hours worked and c $87.40 d $114.08
equivalent monthly salary is found by rounding to the nearest cent after the 8 a $57.75 b $125.13
multiplying by 26 and dividing by 12, calculation not before the calculation. c $103.95
giving $2264.17, $164.17 per month more e Tracey is correct as under the 9 $22.80
than Brian. employer’s plan the pay rise is less than 10 a $11 b $27.80
17 a $88 312.50 5%. c $19.32
b Not necessarily correct. It is possible 23 a $566.96 b $15.5019 11 a $134.40 b $16.80
that Sandra works more efficiently than c 42 hours. 12 a $174 b $21.75/h
Stephanie, completing the same or more c $29.00/h
Exercise 1C Commission and royalties
work in a shorter period of time. 13 a $117.60 b $177.60
18 $2100 per fortnight 1 $2000
c $234.00
19 $1871.35 2 a $260 b $327
14 a $266 b $512
20 a $39 816.40 c $568.79
c $1200
b $330 476.12 3 a $400 b $1200
15 a $98 b 3572
c $1360
Exercise 1B Calculating wages c $8.00/h
4 $1425 5 $4140
1 $518 16 a $70 b $15.56/h
6 B
2 17 a The wage
7 a $1425 b $110 000
b The piecework
Hourly Hours 8 a 4.5% b $693
c 635 boxes
Name rate worked Wage c $18 000
18 C
9 C 10 $8125
A. Smith $14.52 40 $580.80 11 $800 Exercise 1E Working overtime
B. Brown $16.45 38 $625.10 12 a $4125 b $5375 1 $16.95 2 $22.84
c $16 875 3 $28.70 4 $142.56
N. Tran $15.95 37.5 $598.13 13 $950 5 $157.20
A. Milosevic $20.10 41 $824.10 6
Ordinary Overtime Hours
L. McTavish $18.04 36 $649.44 Name rate rate worked Pay
A. Nguyen $8.90 Time and a half 4 $53.40
3 a $424.80 b $566.40
c $501.50 M. Donnell $9.35 Double time 6 $112.20
4 a $432 b $499.50
F. Milosevic $11.56 Time and a half 7 $121.38
c $600.75
5 a $17.34 b $225.42 J. Carides $13.86 Time and a half 6.5 $135.14
6 D 7 $9.68
Y. Robinson $22.60 Double time 5.5 $248.60
8 39

7C 8 A 9 B 10 a $198.17 b $60.70
10 $543.52 11 $721.60 12 $596.25 c 55 d 1753
e 10 000 f 58 552
13 Time and a Double 11 a $143.75 b 72 days
Name Ord. rate Normal hours half hours time hours Total pay c 1.24c/MJ d 161
W. Clark $8.60 38 4 $492.50 12 a $1007.70 b $90 000
c $91.50 d 4, $251.90
A. Hurst $9.85 37 6 $732.25
13 a $163.20 b 18.38%
S. Gannon $14.50 38 5 2 $717.75 14 $17.32
G. Dymock $16.23 37.5 4 1.5 $754.70 15 The HBF offer will give a total cost of
$2869.60.
D. Colley $24.90 36 6 8.5 $1543.80 16 a Mortgage — 36.4%, bills — 27.3%
14 C 15 A 5 $7.58 b Mortgage — 35.3%, Bills — 29.6%
16 $595.20 6 $56.02 17 a 35.35%
17 a $705.28 b $788.80 7 a $511.10 b $5.11 b Increase of 3.25%
c $928 c $407.26 18 4.29% loss of income
18 $455.78 8 a $2153.85 b $44.84
19 a 45 hours b $16.47 c $1448.41 ChAptEr rEViEW
20 41 hours 9 $56.12 MUltiplE ChoiCE
21 a $574.20 10 $167.26 1 B 2 C 3 B
b Jack will earn less by taking the 11 a $422.56 b $44.37 4 B 5 B 6 D
permanent job. c $310.01
22 $15.88 23 52 hours 12 a $0 b $4350 Short AnSWEr
24 43.2 hours c $5786.90 d $11 396.48 1 $761.54 2 $2592.31
Exercise 1F Government allowances 13 a $2884.62 b $367.79 3 $15 912 4 $22.29/hr
1 a $265 b $228 c $4875 5 a $522 b $594.70
2 $380.70 $187.50 c $588.24
3 $442.10 d Union fees = $18.69; 6 a $442.80 b $220.80
4 a $236 b $616.67 health insurance = $50.91 7 $11.40/hr 8 43 hours
5 a No e $625.26 9 $395.20
b A further $367 14 a $516.80 b $2428.96 10 $798.50 11 $534
6 $302.70 15 a $880.77 b $4139.61 12 $340.75
7 a $220.40 b $195.15 16 a $466.20 b $81.59 13 $98
c $45.12 d $189.55 c $464.55 14 a $21.30 b $28.40
e $236.22 f $293.70 17 a $5269.23 b $922.12 15 a $98.10 b $109
g $141.10 h $261.25 c $96.15 d $4315.28 16 a $368.60 b $426.80
8 a $402.70 b $481.75 18 a $444.46 b 2.0% c $426.80 d $485
c $301.45 d $290.82 19 1.35% 17 $590.24
9 a No b $318.70 20 $74 774.06 18 a $220.40 b $355.14
10 C 11 D 21 90.67% 19 $311.64
12 a $265 b $236 22 a $54 720 b $2160 20 $4.05
c $691 23 a $10 315.20 b $45 807.50 21 a $1855.77
13 a $402.70 b $638.70 c $540.12/month b $176.30
22 a $631.55
Exercise 1G Additions to and deductions Exercise 1h Budgeting
b $13.26
from gross pay 1 $8.42 2 $52.31
c $72.63
1 $360.90 3 $8.00
d $405.36
2
Gross pay Deductions Net pay 4 $346.15 5 $59.78
23 $135
6 $484.19 24 $57.12
$345.00 $89.45 $255.55 7 a $240
b Check with your teacher. ExtEnDED rESponSE
$563.68 $165.40 $398.28
8 a $120.77 b $415.38 1 a $554.40
$765.90 $231.85 $534.05 c $378.85 b $685.30
$1175.60 $429.56 $746.04 d Check with your teacher. c $572.57
9 a $181.60 d $2605.68
$2500.00 $765.40 $1734.60 b 5 Oct. to 4 Jan. 2 a $1830.77
3 $360.45 c $29.35 b $164.77
4 a $2519.23 b $1434.08 d $14 c $1119.22

ChapTer 2
Investing money
ChapTer ConTenTs
2a Calculation of simple interest
2B Graphing simple interest functions
2C Calculation of compound interest
2d Calculating compound interest from a table of compounded values
2e Share dividends
2F Graphing share performance
2G Inflation and appreciation
2a Calculation of simple interest

When you deposit money in a bank, building society, or other financial institution you are actually
lending them your money. Since you are lending them money you expect to receive your money back,
plus an extra amount commonly known as interest. Similarly, if you borrow money from an institution,
you must pay back the original sum, together with interest.
A measure of the interest paid is called the interest rate. The interest rate
is a percentage of the amount of money invested or borrowed and is paid each
year. Even though all interest rates are expressed in the same way, interest
can be calculated by using several different methods. Whether depositing or
borrowing, it is important that you understand how the interest is calculated.
The simplest method of interest calculation is called simple interest.
Interest is calculated as a percentage of the initial deposit or borrowing (called
the principal) and multiplied by the period the money was invested.
The formula used to calculate simple interest is:
I = Prn
where I = simple interest
P = initial quantity
r = percentage interest rate per period, expressed as a decimal
n = number of periods
Worked example 1
Calculate the simple interest earned on an investment of $5000 at 4% p.a. for 3 years.
Think WriTe
1 Write down the simple interest formula. I = Prn

2 Write down the values of P, r (converting the P = $5000
percentage to a decimal) and n. r = 0.04
n=3
3 Substitute into the formula. I = $5000 × 0.04 × 3
4 Calculate. = $600
ChapTer 2 • Investing money 43

The total amount (A) that your deposit or debt has become after interest is added can be found using the
formula:
A=P+I
where A = total amount at the end of the term
I = simple interest
Worked Example 2
$12 000 is invested for 5 years at 9.5% p.a. simple interest. Calculate the value of this investment at
the end of the term.
Think Write/display
Method 1
1 Write down the formula for simple interest. I = Prn
2 Write down the value of P, r and n. P = $12 000, r = 0.095, n = 5
3 Substitute the values into the given formula. I = $12 000 × 0.095 × 5
4 Calculate the simple interest. = $5700
5 Write down the formula for the total amount. A=P+I
6 Substitute the values into the given formula. = $12 000 + $5700
7 Calculate. = $17 700
Method 2
1 From the MENU select TVM.
2 Press 1 to select Simple Interest.
3 The calculator has two modes of calculating

interest: 360 day mode or 365 day mode.
You need to make sure that it is on 365 day
mode. If not, press ! SET UP, highlight
DATE MODE and press 1 for 365.
4 Press w to return to the previous screen and
enter the data for Worked example 2.
n = 3 × 365 (as n is in days)
I% = 4
PV = −5000
(Principal or present value is entered as a
negative.)
5 The calculator gives you two options.
1: SI is simple interest.
2: SFV is future value, in other words the
principal plus interest.
In this example, as we want the simple interest,
we press 1 for SI.

Care must be taken with simple interest questions when the length of the investment is not given in
years. If the investment is given as months, it must be converted to years by writing the number of
months as a fraction over 12, for example,
18 1
18 months = 12 = 1 2 years.
Worked example 3
Calculate the simple interest earned on an investment of $7600 at 5.2% p.a. for 9 months.
Think WriTe

3
2 Write down the value of P, r and n (converting P = $7600, r = 0.052, n = 4
9 3
9 months to 12 = 4 year).
3
3 Substitute the values into the given formula. I = $7600 × 0.052 × 4
4 Calculate the simple interest. = $296.40
Some examples will ask you to calculate the length of time for which money must be invested in order to
earn a given amount of interest.
Worked example 4
How long, to the nearest month, will it take to earn $650 simple interest if $8375 is invested at
6.25% p.a.?
Think WriTe

2 Write down the value of I, P and r. I = $650, P = $8375, r = 0.0625
3 Substitute the values into the given formula. $650 = $8375 × 0.0625 × n
4 Simplify the RHS of the equation. = $523.4375 × n
$650
5 Make n the subject of the equation. n=
$523.4375
6 Calculate the value of n in years. = 1.2418 years
7 Convert 0.2418 years to months by multiplying ≈ 15 months
the decimal by 12.
8 Answer the question. It will take approximately 1 year and 3 months to
earn $650 in simple interest.
inVesTiGaTe: Costs of banking
There are many different reasons why most people need to maintain at least one bank account. Different
accounts are designed by the banks to meet people’s needs. The most frequent of these are:
1 Transactional accounts — these are accounts that people use to have their pay deposited into, and for
regular withdrawals and shopping using EFTPOS.
2 Savings accounts — accounts where people make regular deposits and save towards a specific target. A
Christmas club account is an example of this type of account.
3 Investment accounts — accounts where money is locked away, usually at a higher rate of interest, for a
fixed period of time.

Bank accounts pay interest on the amount of money in these accounts, but may also charge fees which
can be calculated in different ways.
Find an example of each of the types of accounts listed above and answer the questions below.
1 What is the interest rate payable on this account?
2 Is there a minimum balance that must be maintained in the account?
3 What are the features of this account? (For example, do you get an ATM card or a cheque book?)
4 What are the fees on the account? (For example, the account may have a monthly fee or a fee based on
the number and type of transactions.)
5 Are the fees applied differently to deposits and withdrawals? Are they levied differently for over-the-
counter, ATM and EFTPOS transactions?
Examples of investments involving simple interest include investment bonds and debentures.
Investment bonds are offered by the government, either State or Federal, and larger organisations such
as Telstra.
Interest earned on investment bonds can be paid at varying intervals, for example monthly, quarterly,
every six months (semi-annually) or yearly. Bonds are traded on financial markets. That is, they can be
bought or sold prior to the term expiry date (also known as bond maturity).
Debentures are similar to investment bonds but are issued by private companies to investors to raise
capital. At the end of the term, the principal (or face value) is returned to the investor, while the interest
earned is again paid at varying intervals.
exercise 2a Calculation of simple interest

1 We1 Veronica invests $4000 for 3 years at 5% p.a. Calculate the simple interest earned.
2 In each of the following, calculate the amount of simple interest earned.
a $1200 for 1 year at 10% p.a.
diGiTal doC
GC program — Casio b $2460 for 5 years at 5% p.a.
doc-1544 c $126 000 for 2 years at 8.5% p.a.
interest
d $9862 for 6 years at 11.25% p.a.
1
e $1000 for 1 2 years at 6% p.a.
1
f $1750 for 5 4 years at 7.45% p.a.
diGiTal doC 3 Julie has $40 000 to invest. She invests it for 5 years in a State Government bond that pays 5.6% p.a.
GC program — TI interest. Calculate the simple interest that Julie will earn:
doc-1545 a each year
interest
b for the whole 5 years of the investment.
4 We2 Brian has a $10 000 inheritance that he wants to invest. He invests his money in government
bonds for 3 years at 8% p.a. Calculate:
a the simple interest earned
diGiTal doC b the value of his investment on maturity.
Spreadsheet 5 Karelle invests $7600 in a debenture that pays 6.9% p.a. for investments over 2 years. Calculate the
doc-1546
interest total value of Karelle’s investment on maturity.
6 Frank is 7 years old and starts a savings account with the local bank. He has $140 with which to start
the account.
3
a If the interest rate is 3 4 %, calculate the amount of interest Frank will receive after one year.
b What will be the balance of Frank’s bank account after one year?
7 Loretta invests $7540 at 5.95% p.a.
a Calculate the simple interest that Loretta will earn in her first year.
b Loretta receives two interest payments per year. Calculate the size of each payment.
1
c Find the total value of the investment after 4 2 years.
8 We3 Kath invests $9450 in a government bond that pays 6% p.a. simple interest for an 18 month
investment. Calculate the simple interest earned on this investment.
9 mC The simple interest paid on an investment of $5750 at 4.6% p.a. for 2 years is:
a $529.00 B $541.17
C $6291.17 d $6279.00

10 MC The total value of an investment of $3500 after 2 years and 6 months if simple interest is paid at
the rate of 5% per annum, is:
A $437.50 B $826.25
C $3937.50 D $3975.50
11 Calculate the simple interest that has to be paid, if $4650 is invested on a term deposit for 180 days at
5.75% p.a. (Hint: Write 180 days as a fraction of 1 year.)
12 WE4 How long, to the nearest month, will it take to earn $2400 simple interest, if $16 410 is invested
at 9.75% p.a.?
13 A debenture offers to pay 8% p.a. interest on a 4 year investment. Janine wants to earn $2000 interest.
What principal will Janine need to invest?
14 MC What sum, to the nearest dollar, must be invested for one year at 6% per annum simple interest, in
order to earn $1200 interest?
A $2000 B $12 200
C $20 000 D $21 200
15 Sue and Harry invested $14 500 in State Government bonds at 8.65% p.a. The investment is for
10 years and the interest is paid semi-annually (that is, every six months). Calculate how much interest:
a they receive every payment
b will be received in total.
16 Mrs Williams invested $60 000 in government bonds at 7.5% p.a. with interest paid semi-annually (that
is, every 6 months).
a How much interest is she paid each 6 months?
b How much interest is she paid over 3 years?
c How long would the money need to be invested to earn a total of $33 750 in interest?
17 Mr and Mrs Tyquin donate money for a scholarship at the local high school. The value of the
scholarship is $1500. They invest a sum of money at 8% p.a. so that each year $1500 in interest is
earned. How much will Mr and Mrs Tyquin need to invest?
Further development
3
18 Silvia invested $15 000 that she won in Lotto into a government bond that pays 8 4 % simple interest
provided she keeps the bond for 5 years. What is the total value of Silvia’s bond at the end of 5 years?
19 Silvia’s bond allows her to withdraw part of the money invested during the term of the loan but will
only pay 5.5% on the funds that were withdrawn over the time it was invested. After 2 years Silvia
withdraws $3000 to buy a big screen TV. Calculate the interest earned on the entire investment.
Chapter 2 • Investing money 47

20 Mandy invested $12 000 in a fund paying 9.5% p.a. simple interest over a 4 year period.
a Calculate the interest that Mandy has earned.
b Martin earned the same amount of interest as Mandy but did so at 9% p.a. in only three years.
Calculate the amount that Martin invested.
21 Carly has $3000 to invest. Her aim is to earn $630 in interest. Given that she earns 4.5% simple interest
paid monthly, for what period of time will she need to invest the money?
22 Ted claims that if simple interest is paid, it makes no difference to the final financial outcome how often
interest is paid. Is Ted correct? Explain your answer.
23 Chris has a sum of money invested at 5% p.a. simple interest. Chris believes if he can invest his money
at 10% p.a. he will have twice as much money at the maturity of the investment. Is Chris correct?
Explain your answer.
2B Graphing simple interest functions

Suppose that we invest $10 000 at 5% p.a. simple interest. The table below shows the amount of interest
that we will receive over various lengths of time.
No. of years 1 2 3 4 5 3000
Interest ($)
Interest $500 $1000 $1500 $2000 $2500 2000
The amount of interest earned can be graphed by the linear 1000
function at right. 0
Note that the gradient of this graph is 500, which is the amount of 0 1 2 3 4 5
Years
one year’s interest, or 5% of the principal.
Worked Example 5
$6000 is invested at 4% p.a.

a Complete the table below to calculate the interest that will have been earned over 5 years.
No. of years 1 2 3 4 5
Interest
b Graph the interest earned against the number of years the money is invested.
Think Write/draw
Method 1
a Use the simple interest formula to a No. of years 1 2 3 4 5
calculate the interest earned on $6000 at
4% p.a. for 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years. Interest $240 $480 $720 $960 $1200
b Draw the graph with Years on the horizontal b 1500

Interest ($)
axis and Interest on the vertical axis.

1000
500
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Years
Method 2
1 Write the simple interest formula. I = Prn
2 Substitute the known values of P = $6000 I = 6000 × 0.04 × n
and r = 0.04. Simplify the expression. = 240n
3 From the MENU select GRAPH.

4 Delete any existing function and enter
Y1 = 240X.
5 To draw up the axes press ! 3 for

V‑Window and enter the setting shown at
right.
6 Press w to return to the previous screen

and then press 6 to DRAW the graph.
We are able to compare the interest that is earned by an investment at varying interest rates by graphing
the interest earned at varying rates on the one set of axes.
Worked Example 6
Kylie has $12 000 to invest. Three different banks offer interest rates of 4%, 5% and 6%.
a Complete the table below to show the interest that she would earn over 5 years.
Interest (4%)
Interest (5%)
Interest (6%)
b Show this information in graph form.

Think Write/draw
a 1 Use the simple interest formula a

to calculate the interest earned on
$12 000 at 4% p.a. for 1, 2, 3, 4
and 5 years.
2 Use the simple interest formula
to calculate the interest earned on Interest (4%) $480 $960 $1440 $1920 $2400
$12 000 at 5% p.a. for 1, 2, 3, 4 Interest (5%) $600 $1200 $1800 $2400 $3000
and 5 years.
Interest (6%) $720 $1440 $2160 $2880 $3600
3 Use the simple interest formula
to calculate the interest earned on
$12 000 at 6% p.a. for 1, 2, 3, 4
and 5 years.
b Draw a line graph for each investment. b
4000
Interest ($)
3000 Interest (6%)

Interest (5%)
2000 Interest (4%)
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Years

exercise 2B Graphing simple interest functions
1 We5 $8000 is invested at 5% p.a.
a Copy and complete the table below to calculate the interest over 5 years.
Interest
b Draw a graph of the interest earned against the length of the investment.
2 $20 000 is to be invested at 8% p.a.
a Copy and complete the table below to calculate the interest for various lengths of time.
Interest
c What is the gradient of the linear graph drawn?
d Use your graph to find the amount of interest that would have been earned after 10 years.
3 Draw a graph to represent the interest earned by each of the following investments over 5 years.
a $15 000 at 7% p.a. b $2000 at 10% p.a.
c $8600 at 7.5% p.a. d $50 000 at 8.2% p.a.
4 A graph can be drawn to show the interest earned on $6000 at 4.8% p.a. for various
lengths of time. Without drawing the graph, state the gradient.
5 Darren invests $3200 at 2.5% p.a. for 5 years.
a Graph the amount of interest that Darren would
have earned at the end of each year for the
5 years.
b Graph the total value of Darren’s investment
at the end of each year.
6 We6 Julieanne has $25 000 to invest at 5%, 6% or 8%.
a Complete the table below to show the interest that she would earn over 5 years.
Interest (5%)
Interest (6%)
Interest (8%)

7 Theo has $50 000 to invest. Theo investigates the website www.whichbank.com.au, which has an
interactive component. Theo enters the figure $50 000 and the following graph is displayed.
The Whichbank advantage
40 000
35 000
30 000
Interest ($)
25 000
Whichbank
20 000 Eastpac
15 000 NZA bank
10 000
5000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Years
a Find the amount of simple interest earned after 10 years by investing with each of the three banks
listed.
b Use your answer to a to calculate the interest rate paid by each of the three banks.

8 The graph below shows the interest earned on an investment of $10 000 with two different banks.
3500
3000
2500
Interest ($)
Bank A
2000 Bank B
1500
1000
500
0
1 2 3 4 5
Number of years
Which bank pays the higher rate of interest? Explain how you know this.
9 Mark has $5500 to invest at 3%, 3.5% or 3.75%.
a Complete the table below to show the interest that he would earn over various lengths of time.
Interest (3%)
Interest (3.5%)
Interest (3.75%)

10 Draw a graph to show the interest earned on an investment of $12 500 at 4.5% p.a., 5% p.a. and
5.2% p.a. Use the graph to find:
a the amount of interest earned by each investment after 8 years
b how much more the investment at 5.2% p.a. is worth after 10 years than the 4.5% p.a.
investment.
11 Three banks offer $4000 debentures at rates of 5.2% p.a., 5.8% p.a. and 6.2% p.a. Draw a graph of the
value of the debentures at maturity against the number of years of the debenture.
Further development
12 The graph below right shows the interest earned under a simple interest investment.
a Find the gradient of this line. I (interest)
b How does this relate to the investment? $500 (5, 480)
c Given that the interest rate is 6% p.a. calculate
$400
the amount of the initial investment.
$300
$200
$100
0
1 2 3 4 5 n (years)
13 The graph below right shows the growth of an investment under simple interest.
a What was the amount of money invested? A (amount $)
b What is the interest rate earned? 5000
c Find the value of the investment after
4000
8 years.
3000
(5, 300)
2000
1000
0
1 2 3 4 5 n (years)

14 ‘When graphing interest earned and the value of the investment on maturity on the same axes the lines
will be parallel.’ Is this statement correct? Explain your answer.
15 $5000 is to be invested at 5% p.a. simple interest. A graph of the investment at maturity (A) is to be
drawn against the number of years of the investment (n).
a What will be the vertical intercept?
b What will be the gradient?
c Write the equation of the line.
16 Find the growth equation of an investment of $4000 at 7% p.a. simple interest.
17 Sandra says that when graphing interest, the graph is a direct variation.
a Is Sandra correct?
b Will a growth equation be a direct variation? Explain your answer.
Computer Application 1 simple interest

spreadsheets
Throughout this chapter we will use some spreadsheets that allow us to track the growing value of an
investment over time.
1. From the Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General ebook open the spreadsheet ‘Interest’.
diGiTal doC
Spreadsheet
doc-1546
interest
2. The spreadsheet ‘Simple Interest’ (Sheet 1) models an investment of $10 000 at 5% p.a.
3. Use the graphing function on your spreadsheet to draw a line graph for the amount of interest earned
each year and the value of the investment after each year.
4. Change the amount of the principal and the interest rate, and note the change in the figures displayed
and the chart.
5. Use this function to check your answers to Exercise 2B.
6. Save the spreadsheet as Simple Interest.

2C Calculation of compound interest
In practice, most investments are not calculated using simple interest. If you have a bank account, you inTeraCTiViTy
would know that when interest is paid the balance of your account grows and it is on this new balance int-0810
that your next interest payment is calculated. Compound interest
When interest is added to the principal and this new balance is used to calculate the next interest
payment, this is called compound interest. We can calculate compound interest by calculating
simple interest one period at a time. The amount to which the initial investment grows is called the
compounded value or future value.
Worked example 7
Calculate the future value of an investment of $10 000 at 10% p.a. for 3 years with interest paid at
the end of each year, by calculating the simple interest for each year separately.
Think WriTe
1 Write the initial principal. Initial principal = $10 000

2 Calculate the interest for the 1st year. 1st year’s interest = 10% of $10 000
= $1000
3 Calculate the 2nd year’s principal by adding the 2nd year’s principal = $10 000 + $1000
1st year’s interest to the initial principal. = $11 000
4 Calculate the 2nd year’s interest. 2nd year’s interest = 10% of $11 000
= $1100
5 Calculate the 3rd year’s principal by adding the 3rd year’s principal = $11 000 + $1100
2nd year’s interest to the 2nd year’s principal. = $12 100
6 Calculate the 3rd year’s interest. 3rd year’s interest = 10% of $12 100
= $1210
7 Calculate the future value of the investment by Future value = $12 100 + $1210
adding the 3rd year’s interest to the 3rd year’s = $13 310
principal.
To calculate the actual amount of interest received, we subtract the initial principal from the future value.
In the example above CI = $13 310 − $10 000
= $3310
To compare this with simple interest earnings at the same rate.
I = Prn
= $10 000 × 0.1 × 3
= $3000
The table below shows a comparison between the value of an investment of $10 000 earning 10% p.a.
at both simple interest and compound interest.
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Simple interest $1000 $2000 $3000 $4000 $5000 $6000 $7000 $8000
Compound interest $1000 $2100 $3310 $4641 $6105 $7716 $9487 $11 436
We can develop a formula for the future value of an investment rather than do each example by repeated
use of simple interest. Consider Worked example 7. Let the compounded value after each year be An.
After 1 year A1 = 10 000 × 1.1 (increasing $10 000 by 10%)
After 2 years A2 = A1 × (1.1)
= 10 000 × 1.1 × 1.1 (substituting the value of A1)
= 10 000 × 1.12

After 3 years A3 = A2 × 1.1
= 10 000 × 1.12 × 1.1
= 10 000 × 1.13
The pattern then continues such that the value of the investment after n years equals:
$10 000 × 1.1n
We can generalise this example to any investment.
A = P(1 + r)n
where A = final balance
r = percentage interest rate per compounding period, expressed as a decimal
n = number of compounding periods.
In the financial world, the terms future value (FV ) and present value (PV ) are sometimes used instead
of amount and principal.
Worked example 8
Calculate the future value of an investment of $12 000 at 7% p.a. for 5 years, where interest is
compounded annually.
Think WriTe
1 Write down the formula for the future value. A = P(1 + r)n
2 Write down the value of P, r (as a decimal) and n. P = $12 000, r = 0.07, n = 5
3 Substitute into the formula. A = $12 000 × 1.075
4 Calculate. = $16 830.62
In the above example, interest is paid annually; however, this

is not always the case. In many cases interest is paid more
often. It may be paid six-monthly, quarterly, monthly or even
daily. This is called the compounding period. If interest is
paid more often than annually, the value of n is the number of
compounding periods during the investment. The interest rate
then needs to be converted from a rate per annum to a rate per
compounding period.
For example, consider an investment of $6000 at 8% p.a.
for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly. Interest
is paid four times per year and therefore eight times in
2 years. Therefore n = 8. The interest rate must be calculated
per quarter. This is done by dividing the annual rate by four.
Therefore, in this example the rate is 2% per quarter, hence
r = 0.02.
Worked example 9
Calculate the future value of an investment of $6000 at 8% p.a. for 2 years with interest
compounded quarterly.
Think WriTe
1 Write down the formula for the future value. A = P(1 + r)n
2 Write down the value of P, r (as a decimal) and n. P = $6000, r = 0.02, n = 8
3 Substitute into the formula. A = $6000 × 1.028
4 Calculate. = $7029.96

exercise 2C Calculation of compound interest
1 We7 Ray has $5000 to invest. He invests it for 3 years at 10% p.a. with interest paid annually.
Calculate the future value of the investment by calculating the simple interest on each year separately.
2 Suzanne is to invest $15 000 for 2 years at 7% p.a. with interest paid annually. diGiTal doC
a Calculate the future value of the investment by calculating the simple interest for each year Spreadsheet
separately. doc-1552
Compound interest
b Find the amount of interest earned.
3 We8 Kiri has $2000 to invest. She invests the money at 8% p.a. for 5 years with interest compounded
annually. Use the formula A = P(1 + r)n to calculate the future value of Kiri’s investment.
4 Use the compound interest formula to calculate the future value of each of the following investments
with interest compounded annually.
a $4000 at 5% p.a. for 3 years
b $8000 at 3% p.a. for 5 years
c $18 000 at 8% p.a. for 4 years
d $11 500 at 5.5% p.a. for 3 years
e $8750 at 6.25% p.a. for 6 years
5 We9 Carla is to invest $45 000 at 9.2% p.a. for 5 years with interest compounded six-monthly.
Calculate the future value of the investment.
6 A passbook savings account pays interest of 0.2% p.a. Luke has $500 in such an account. Calculate the
future value of the account after 2 years, if interest is compounded quarterly.
7 Noel is to invest $12 000 at 8% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly. Calculate the
amount of interest earned.
8 Vicky invests $30 000 in a one-year fixed deposit at an interest rate of 6% p.a. with interest
compounding monthly.
a Convert the interest rate of 6% p.a. to a rate per month.
b Calculate the future value of the investment upon maturity.
9 Calculate the compounded value of each of the following investments.
a $960 for 1 year at 4.50% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly.
1
b $7500 for 3 2 years at 5.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly.
1
c $152 000 for 2 2 years at 7.2% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly.
d $14 000 for 4 years at 9% p.a. with interest compounded monthly.
e $120 000 for 20 years at 11.95% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly.
10 mC A sum of $5000 is invested for 2 years at the rate of 4.75% p.a., compounded quarterly. The
interest paid on this investment, to the nearest dollar, is:
a $475 B $495 C $5475 d $5495
11 mC After selling their house Mr and Mrs Dengate have $61 800. They plan to invest it at 6% p.a.,
with interest compounded annually. The value of their investment will first exceed $100 000 after:
a 8 years B 9 years C 10 years d 11 years

12 mC Warren wishes to invest $10 000 for a period of 5 years. The following investment alternatives are
suggested to him. The best investment would be:
a simple interest at 9% p.a.
B compound interest at 8% p.a. with interest compounded annually
C compound interest at 7.8% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
d compound interest at 7.2% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly
13 mC An investment of a sum of money is made over a 6 year term at an interest rate of 8% p.a.
compounded six-monthly. The future value of the investment is $15 049.70. The initial principal (the
sum of money invested) is
a $900 B $8500
C $9400 d $11 000
14 Brittany has $13 500 to invest. An investment over a 2-year term will pay interest of 8% p.a. Calculate
the compounded value of Brittany’s investment if the compounding period is:
a one year b six months
c three months d monthly.
15 Kerry invests $100 000 at 8% p.a. for a one-year term. For such large investments interest is
compounded daily.
a Calculate the daily percentage interest rate, correct to 4 decimal places.
b Calculate the compounded value of Kerry’s investment on maturity.
c Calculate the amount of interest paid on this investment.
d Calculate the extra amount of interest earned, compared with the interest calculated at the end of
the year.
16 Simon invests $4000 for 3 years at 6% p.a. simple interest. Monica also invests $4000 for 3 years, but
her interest rate is 5.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly.
a Calculate the value of Simon’s investment on maturity.
b Show that the compounded value of Monica’s investment is greater than Simon’s investment.
c Explain why Monica’s investment is worth more than Simon’s, despite receiving a lower rate of
interest.
17 An investment has a future value of $25 000 after 3 years at 8% p.a. with interest compounded
annually. Find the initial principal.
Further development
18 mC The greatest return on a compound interest investment will be made if interest is compounded:
a monthly B quarterly
C six-monthly d annually
19 Find the amount at maturity for each of the following investments under compound interest.
a $3000 at 8% p.a. for 2 years interest compounded quarterly
b $2000 at 6% p.a. for 5 years interest compounded six-monthly
c $5000 invested at 12% p.a. for 4 years interest compounded monthly
d $6800 invested at 9% p.a. for 6 years interest compounded quarterly
20 Andrea invests $2050 for 4 years. For the first two years of the investment the interest rate is 6% p.a.
and for the second two years the interest rate rises to 8% p.a. Given that interest is paid quarterly,
calculate the value of Andrea’s investment at maturity.
21 Lily wishes to have $24 000 in her bank account after 6 years. If Lily can invest at 15.5% p.a.
with interest compounded quarterly, calculate the amount of money that she needs to place in the
investment.
22 Rita invests $10 000 at 8% p.a. simple interest. Shaun invests $9000 at 8% p.a. with interest
compounded annually.
a Which investment is worth more at the end of 5 years and by how much?
b Find the number of whole years taken for the value of Shaun’s investment to exceed Rita’s.
23 Michelle and Jack each invest $15 000 at 7.2% p.a. Michelle earns simple interest, Jack earns
compound interest.
a Create a table to show the value of each investment at 5 year intervals for 30 years.
diGiTal doC
WorkSHEET 2.1 b Find the amount of interest earned by each person in the 1st and 30th year.
doc-10310 c Compare the growth in the value of each investment over the 30 year period.

Computer Application 2 Compound interest
spreadsheets
Earlier we wrote a spreadsheet to show the growth of an investment over a number of years. We will now
write a similar spreadsheet to show the growth under compound interest.
1. From the Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General ebook open the spreadsheet ‘Interest’.
diGiTal doC
Spreadsheet
doc-1552
Compound interest
2. Select Sheet 2, ‘Compound Interest’. This spreadsheet models a $10 000 investment at 5% p.a. interest
with interest compounded annually (one compounding period per year).
3. Use the graphing function to draw a graph showing the growth of this investment over 10 years.
Compare this graph with the graph drawn for the corresponding simple interest investment.
4. Change the number of compounding periods per year to see the change in the value of the investment.
Your graph should change as you change the information.
5. Change other information, such as the principal and interest rate, to see the change in your graph.
6. Save this spreadsheet as Compound Interest.
2d Calculating compound interest from

a table of compounded values
So far we have looked at the calculation of compounded values and the amount of compound interest
paid. Suppose we have $10 000 saved for a world holiday, which is going to cost $15 000. The best
interest rate for investing the money is at 8%, compounded quarterly. We want to know how long we
need to invest the $10 000, so that it will have a compounded value of $15 000.
To solve this example we need to calculate the value of n, having been given the values of CV, PV
and r. The best way to do this is to use a table showing the compound value interest factor for various
investments.
A compound value interest factor (CVIF) is the compounded value that $1 will amount to under a
certain investment. For example, if $1 were invested at 5% p.a. for 4 years, compounded annually, its
compounded value would be $1.216. We can use this to calculate the value of other amounts of money
under the same investment pattern.

For example, if $7600 were invested at 5% p.a. for 4 years, to calculate the compounded value of the
investment we multiply $7600 by the CVIF which is 1.216.
Therefore CV = $7600 × 1.216
= $9241.60
In this example $7600 is the present value (PV ) of the investment and $9241.60 is the compounded
value (CV).
We can therefore use the formula:
CV = PV × CVIF
This formula simply states: compounded value = present value × interest factor.
The CVIF table below shows the interest factors.
Interest rate per period
Periods 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10%
1 1.010 1.020 1.030 1.040 1.050 1.060 1.070 1.080 1.090 1.100
2 1.020 1.040 1.061 1.082 1.103 1.124 1.145 1.166 1.188 1.210
3 1.030 1.061 1.093 1.125 1.158 1.191 1.225 1.260 1.295 1.331
4 1.041 1.082 1.126 1.170 1.216 1.262 1.311 1.360 1.412 1.464
5 1.051 1.104 1.159 1.217 1.276 1.338 1.403 1.469 1.539 1.611
6 1.062 1.126 1.194 1.265 1.340 1.419 1.501 1.587 1.677 1.772
7 1.072 1.149 1.230 1.316 1.407 1.504 1.606 1.714 1.828 1.949
8 1.083 1.172 1.267 1.369 1.477 1.594 1.718 1.851 1.993 2.144
9 1.094 1.195 1.305 1.423 1.551 1.689 1.838 1.999 2.172 2.358
10 1.105 1.219 1.344 1.480 1.629 1.791 1.967 2.159 2.367 2.594
We can now use this table to solve compound interest problems.
Worked Example 10
Use the CVIF table to find the compounded value of $4560 invested at 8% p.a. for 2 years with
interest compounded six-monthly.
Think Write
1 Calculate the interest rate per period and Interest rate per period = 4%
number of interest periods. Interest periods = 4
2 Look up the CVIF for 4% with 4 interest CVIF = 1.170
periods.
3 Write the formula. CV = PV × CVIF
4 Substitute the PV and the CVIF. = $4560 × 1.170
5 Calculate. = $5335.20
This table can also be used to help us calculate the present value of an investment that is required to
produce a given compounded value.
This is done using the same formula; however, you will need to solve the equation to find the value
of PV.

Worked example 11
Liz is 16 years old. She hopes to have $3000 in 3 years to buy a used car. She finds an investment
of 6% p.a. with interest compounded six‑monthly. Calculate the amount of money that Liz must
invest to generate a compounded value of $3000 in 3 years.
Think WriTe
1 Calculate the interest rate per period and Interest rate per period = 3%
number of interest periods. Interest periods = 6
2 Look up the CVIF for 3% with 6 interest CVIF = 1.194

periods.
4 Substitute for CV and CVIF. $3000 = PV × 1.194

$3000
5 Make PV the subject of the equation (by PV =
dividing by 1.194). 1.194
6 Calculate. = $2512.56
7 Give a written answer. Liz will need to invest $2512.56 to generate

$3000 in 3 years.
We can also use the table to determine the length of time that a given present value will take to reach a
certain compounded value. This is done by calculating the required CVIF and looking for the first CVIF
in the table, at the given interest rate, greater than that required.
Worked example 12
How long will it take $2500 to grow to $3200 when invested at 8% p.a. with interest compounded
six‑monthly?
Think WriTe
1 Calculate the interest rate per period. Interest rate per period = 4%
2 Write the value of PV and CV. PV = $2500, CV = $3200
4 Substitute the values of PV and CV. $3200 = $2500 × CVIF
$3200
5 Make CVIF the subject of the formula. CVIF =
$2500
6 Calculate the value of CVIF. = 1.28
7 Look at the 4% column of the CVIF table. The Seven interest periods will be required.
first CVIF greater than 1.28 (that is, 1.316) will
be the minimum number of interest periods
required to produce the required growth.
8 Calculate the length of time for seven interest It will take 3 12 years for $2500 to grow to $3200.
periods.

Calculating compound interest from a
exercise 2d
table of compounded values
1 We10 Toshika has $10 000 to invest for 4 years. The bank offers her 7% p.a. with interest
compounded annually. Use the CVIF table on page 248 to calculate the compounded value of Toshika’s
investment.
inTeraCTiViTy
int-2400 2 Greg has $8500 to invest for 5 years. A building society offers 8% p.a. with interest compounded twice
simple and compound a year
interest
a Use the CVIF table to calculate the compounded value of Greg’s investment.
b Find the amount of interest earned.
3 Marlene invests $40 000 for 2 years at 8% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly. Use the CVIF table
to calculate the compounded value of Marlene’s investment.
4 Roger invests $2400 for 2 years in an ‘at call’ account, which pays 4% p.a. interest with interest paid
quarterly. Use the CVIF table to calculate the future value of this investment.
5 Use the CVIF table to calculate the interest earned on each of the following investments.
a $5000 at 9% p.a. for 6 years with interest compounded annually
b $6700 at 10% p.a. for 4 years with interest compounded six-monthly
c $250 at 6% p.a. for 5 years with interest compounded six-monthly
d $23 670 at 4% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly
e $13 250 at 8% p.a. for 18 months with interest compounded quarterly
f $115 000 at 12% p.a. for 6 months with interest compounded monthly
6 Use the formula A = P(1 + r)n to calculate the CVIF, correct to 3 decimal places, for an investment at
2.5% for:
a 1 interest period b 2 interest periods c 3 interest periods
d 4 interest periods e 6 interest periods f 8 interest periods.
7 Using the CVIFs found in question 6 will allow you to calculate each of the compounded values of the
following investments.
a $900 at 2.5% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded annually
c $7200 at 10% p.a. for 1 year with interest compounded quarterly
d $11 000 at 10% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly
e $5750 at 10% p.a. for 1 12 years with interest compounded quarterly
8 mC One dollar invested at 3.5% for 5 interest periods amounts to:
a 0.175 B 1.035 C 1.175 d 1.188
9 mC For a certain investment the CVIF = 2.147. If the present value of the investment is $32 546, the
compounded value, correct to the nearest dollar, will be:
a $15 158 B $15 159 C $69 876 d $69 877
10 We11 Jason wants to save for a car in 3 years. He needs to have $10 000. Use the CVIF table to
calculate the amount of money that he will need to invest at 5% p.a. with interest compounded
annually, to have $10 000 in 3 years. Give your answer correct to the nearest dollar.

11 WE12 How long will it take $2000 to grow to $2500 when invested at 8% p.a. with interest
compounded six-monthly?
12 Calculate the length of time that it will take:
a $1000 to grow to $1100 at 10% p.a. with interest paid annually
b $1000 to grow to $1500 at 7% p.a. with interest paid annually
c $3000 to grow to $4000 at 6% p.a. with interest paid six-monthly
d $9000 to grow to $10 000 at 8% p.a. with interest paid quarterly
e $12 000 to grow to $17 500 at 10% p.a. with interest paid six-monthly.
13 Calculate the interest rate required for $1000 to grow to $1300 in 2 years, if interest is compounded
quarterly. (Hint: Find the CVIF required and use the table for 8 interest periods.)
14 Use the CVIF table to calculate the interest rate, to the nearest whole number, required for each of the
following investments.
a $1000 to grow to $1200 in 3 years with interest compounded annually
b $2000 to grow to $2600 in 4 years with interest compounded six-monthly
c $500 to grow to $650 in 1 year with interest compounded quarterly
d $10 000 to grow to $20 000 in 8 years with interest compounded annually
e $3500 to grow to $6000 in 5 years with interest compounded six-monthly
15 Bruce, Keith and Max each have $10 000 to invest over
a 5-year term.
a Bruce invests at 10% p.a. simple interest. Calculate
the value of Bruce’s investment at maturity.
b Keith invests at 10% p.a. with interest
compounded annually. Calculate the value of
Keith’s investment at maturity, using the
CVIF table.
c Max invests at 10% p.a. with interest
compounded six-monthly. Calculate the
value of Max’s investment at maturity,
using the CVIF table.
d Calculate the total amount of interest each
man received.
e Write down the amount of interest each
received as a percentage of their original
investment.
Further development
16 Use the compound interest formula to find the value of $1 invested at 12% for 1 to 10 interest periods.
Give each answer correct to 3 decimal places.
17 Use your answers to question 16 to answer each of the following questions.
Find the value of an investment of:
b $7560 at 12% p.a. for 8 years with interest compounded annually
c $12 500 at 24% p.a. for 4 years with interest compounded six-monthly.
18 Use your answers to question 16 to determine the number of interest periods required for an investment
to double in value at an interest rate of 12% per interest period.
19 Use the table on page 58 to determine which will give the greatest amount on maturity. An investment
at 7% for 5 interest periods OR an investment at 5% for 7 interest periods. Explain your choice of
answer.
20 Consider an investment at 4% per interest period. The CVIF table on page 58 gives the values for up
to 10 interest periods. Calculate the CVIF values for 11 to 20 periods giving each answer correct to
3 decimal places.
21 Use your answer to question 20 to find:
a the value of an investment of $4500 at 4% p.a. for 12 years
b the interest earned on an investment of $6250 at 16% p.a. for 5 years with interest
c the number of interest periods for an investment to double at 4% per interest period.

2e share dividends
Investing money in banks and similar financial institutions is the most common type of investment, as it
is safe and the return can be calculated in advance.
An alternative to investing in a bank is to purchase shares. Shares have a risk associated with them
and there is no fixed return; however, they have the potential to return more money to the investor than
through a bank.
When buying shares you are purchasing a share of the company. In other words, you become a part
owner of that company. You can earn money from shares in two ways:
1. The profit made by a company will be paid to the company’s owners (the shareholders). That part of
the profit distributed to shareholders is called a dividend.
2. The value of shares changes daily. People invest in the share market with the expectation that the
value of shares will rise and they can be sold at a profit. The risk is that the shares may fall in value.
Once or twice a year the directors of a company calculate the company’s profit. A certain proportion of
the profit may be spent on developing the company, the remainder being distributed to the shareholders as
dividends.
A dividend is calculated by dividing the profit that is to be distributed by the number of shares in the
company. The dividend is then declared on a per-share basis.
Worked example 13
A company has an after‑tax profit of $34.2 million. There are 90 million shares in the company.
What dividend will the company declare if all the profits are distributed to the shareholders?
Think WriTe
1 The dividend is calculated by dividing the Dividend = $34 200 000 ÷ 90 000 000
profit by the number of shares. = $0.38
2 Give a written answer. The dividend is 38c per share.
We can’t accurately compare the values of investments from the dividend alone. We need to consider the
money that was invested in order to earn that dividend. A 38c dividend paid by a company with a share
value of $12.00 is a lower return than a company that pays a 15c dividend and has a share value of $2.50.
To compare the true return from any investment, we need to calculate that return as a percentage of
the amount invested. For the income part of a share investment, this percentage is called the dividend
yield. To calculate the dividend yield for any share, we calculate the dividend as a percentage of the
share price.
Worked example 14
A company with a share price of $5.42 declares a dividend of 25c. Calculate the dividend yield,
correct to 2 decimal places.
Think WriTe
0.25
Write 0.25 (the dividend) over $5.42 (the share Dividend yield = 5.42
× 100%
price) and multiply by 100%.
= 4.61%
exercise 2e share dividends

Unless stated otherwise, for the calculations in this exercise, assume that companies distribute all their
profits as dividends.
1 We13 A company has issued 20 million shares and makes an after-tax profit of $5 million. Calculate
the dividend to be declared by the company.
2 A company that has 2 million shares makes a profit of $3 million. Calculate the dividend that will be
declared.

3 A company makes an after-tax profit of $150 000. If there are 2.5 million shares in the company,
calculate the dividend that the company will declare.
4 A company with an after-tax profit of $1.2 million consists of 4.1 million shares. Calculate the dividend
the company will declare, in cents, correct to 2 decimal places.
5 A company makes a before-tax (gross) profit of $3.4 million.
a If the company is taxed at the rate of 36%, calculate the amount of tax it must pay.
b What will be the after-tax profit of the company?
c If there are 5 million shares in the company, calculate the dividend that the company will declare.
6 A company makes a gross profit of $14.5 million and there are 8 million shares in the company.
a Calculate the after-tax profit if company tax is paid at the rate of 36%.
b If $3.2 million is to be reinvested in the company, calculate the amount of money that is to be
distributed to the shareholders.
c Calculate the dividend that this company will declare.
7 A company with 42 million shares has a gross profit of $72.4 million.
a Find the net profit given that the company pays tax at a rate of 36%.
b The company decides to keep 25% of the net profit for future projects and distributes the rest to
the shareholders. Calculate the dividend per share in cents correct to 1 decimal place.
8 A company declares a dividend of 14 cents per share and there are 23.4 million shares in the company.
a Find the net profit of the company.
b Given that the company paid tax at the rate of 36% find the gross profit of the company.
9 A company declares a dividend of 78c. If there are 4.2 million shares in the company, calculate the
after-tax profit of the company.
10 WE14 A company with a share price of $10.50 declares a dividend of 48c per share. Calculate the
dividend yield for this company.
11 Copy and complete, correct to 1 decimal place, the table below.
Dividend Share price Dividend yield (%)

$0.56 $8.40
$0.78 $7.40
$1.20 $23.40
$1.09 $15.76
$0.04 $0.76
12 Hsiang purchased shares in a company for $3.78 per share. The company paid Hsiang a dividend of
11c per share. Calculate the dividend yield, correct to 2 decimal places.
13 MC Which of the following companies paid the highest dividend yield?
a Company A has a share value of $4.56 and pays a dividend of 35c/share.
b Company B has a share value of $6.30 and pays a dividend of 62c/share.
c Company C has a share value of $12.40 and pays a dividend of $1.10/share.
d Company D has a share value of 85c and pays a dividend of 7.65c/share.
14 George bought $5600 worth of shares in a company.
The dividend yield for that company was 6.5%. Calculate
the amount that George receives in dividends.
Further development
15 Rank each of the following share performances in order
from best to worst.
A 23c per share dividend at a share price of $3.46
B 71c per share dividend at a share price of $8.29
C $1.23 per share dividend at a share price of $12.39
D $2.30 per share dividend at a share price of $19.49

16 Jerry buys 1000 shares in Cannington Ltd at $5.60 each. The company pays a dividend of 57 cents per
share. He also buys 500 shares in Warragul Ltd at $23.45 which pays a dividend of $1.98 per share.
a Calculate the dividend yield for Cannington Ltd.
b Calculate the dividend yield for Warragul Ltd.
c Calculate the overall dividend yield for Jerry’s investment.
17 Andrea bought shares in a company for $11.50 each. The company paid a dividend of 76c/share.
a Calculate the dividend yield for this company.
b One year later the share value is $12.12. The company then has a dividend yield of 8.75%.
Calculate the dividend per share.
18 A company’s prospectus predicts that the dividend yield for the coming year will be 6.7%. Its share
price is $21.50.
a Calculate the dividend paid if the dividend yield in the prospectus is paid.
b If there are 5.2 million shares in the company, calculate the after-tax profit of the company.
19 Janice buys shares in a company at $5.76. The company pays a dividend in July of 22.7c and a
dividend in February of 26.4c. Calculate the dividend yield for the whole financial year (July to the
following June).
20 The dividend paid by a company for the 2008–09 financial year was 5.6c/share, with a share price
of $9.50.
a Calculate the dividend yield for 2008–09.
b In the 2009–10 financial year the share price rose by 12%. Calculate the share price for this year.
c In 2009–10 the dividend paid to shareholders increased by 15%. Calculate the dividend paid, in
cents, correct to 1 decimal place.
d Calculate the dividend yield for 2009–10.
21 A company that has 18.6 million shares has an after tax profit of $25.7 million.
a Calculate the dividend paid to the shareholders.
b Calculate the dividend yield given that the share price is $10.60.
c To raise funds the company issue another two million shares. Given that the company increases its
profit by 10% in the next year calculate the dividend yield.
22 Explain why the dividend yield is a better indicator of share performance than the actual amount of
the dividend.
2F Graphing share performance

Because shares offer no guaranteed returns, we can only use the past performance of a share to try to
predict its future performance. This is done by graphing the value of the share at regular intervals and
then drawing a line of best fit to try to monitor the trend.
By continuing the line of best fit you can make a prediction for future share prices. This is called
extrapolating information from the graph. Interpolate is the opposite of extrapolate and occurs when
drawing a graph using data found at the end points.
Worked Example 15
The graph shows the share price of a company over a 3-month period.
a On the graph draw a line of best fit.
b Use your line of best fit to estimate the share price after another three months.
4.40
Share price ($)
4.20
4.00
3.80
3.60
pt
ct
ov
ec
O
Se
D
N
1
1
1
1
Month

Think WriTe/draW
a Draw a line on the graph, which best a

4.80
fits between the points marked.
4.60
Share price ($)

4.40
4.20
4.00
3.80
3.60
ar
pt
b
Oc
De
No
Ja
Fe
M
Se
1–
1–
1–
1–
1–
1–
1–
Month
b Extend the line of best fit for three b The predicted share price is $4.80.
months and read the predicted
share price.
You should be able to produce your own graph to answer this type of question from a set of data that you
have been given or have researched.
Worked example 16
Below is the share price of a company taken on the first day of the month for one year.
Month Share price Month Share price
January $10.34 July $10.98
February $10.54 August $11.56
March $10.65 September $11.34
April $10.89 October $11.23
May $10.72 November $11.48
June $11.10 December $11.72
a On a set of axes plot the share price for each month and draw a line of best fit.
b Predict the share price in June of the following year.
Think WriTe/draW
a 1 Draw up a set of axes and plot a 12.40

the data. 12.20
12.00
Share price ($)
11.80
11.60
11.40
11.20
11.00
10.80
10.60
10.40
10.20
1– n
1– b
1– ar
1– pr
1– ay
1– n
1– ul
1– g
1– p
1– ct
1– v
1– c
1– n
1– b
1– ar
1– pr
1– ay
n
De
No
Ja
Fe
Ju
Au
Se
Ja
Fe
Ju
O
M
M
A
A
M
M
1–
Month

2 Draw a straight line on the graph
12.40
that best fits in with the marked 12.20
points. 12.00
Share price ($)

11.80
11.60
11.40
11.20
11.00
10.80
10.60
10.40
10.20
1– n
1– b
1– ar
1– pr
1– ay
1– n
1– ul
1– g
1– p
1– ct
1– v
1– c
1– n
1– b
1– ar
1– pr
1– ay
n
De
No
Ja
Fe
Ju
Au
Se
Ja
Fe
Ju
O
M
M
A
A
M
M
1–
Month
b 1 Extend the line of best fit for six b
months.
2 Predict the share price by reading The predicted share price is $12.35.
from the line of best fit.
exercise 2F Graphing share performance

1 We15 The graph at right shows the movement in a share price 6.50
Share price ($)

over a 2-month period.
a Copy the graph into your book and on it draw a line of 6.30
best fit. 6.10
b Use your graph to predict the value of the share on 5.90
1 November.
5.70
ay
l
Ju
Ju
M
1–
1–
1–
Month
2 The graph at right shows the movement in a share price over
4.50
a 6-month period.
Share price ($)
a Copy the graph into your book and on it draw a line of 4.00
best fit. 3.50
b Use your graph to predict the value of the share on
3.00
1 February.
2.50
1– y
n
1– l
1– g
1– t
1– t
1– v
c
Ju
p
Oc
De
No
a
Ju
Au
Se
M
1–
1–
Month
3 The graph at right shows the movement in a share

1.14
price over a 9-month period.
a Copy the graph into your book and on it draw a 1.12
Share price ($)
line of best fit. 1.10

b Use your graph to predict the value of the share
1.08
after a further 12 months.
1.06
1.04
1.02
n
1– b
1– r
1– r
1– y
n
1– l
1– g
1– t
t
Ju
p
a
Ap
Oc
Ja
Fe
a
Ju
Au
M
Se
M
1–
1–
1–
Month

4 WE16 The table below shows the share price of a large multinational company over a 12-month
period.

a Plot the share prices on a set of axes and on your graph draw a line of best fit.
b Use your graph to predict the value of the share after a further 6 months.
5 The table below shows the share price of BigCorp Productions Ltd over a period of one year.

a Graph the share price for each month and show a line of best fit.
b Use your line of best fit to predict the share price in December of the next year.
Further development
6 Shares are considered by most people to be a riskier investment than putting money in the bank.
a Suggest a reason why this may be the case.
b How is this demonstrated by the share graphs?
7 Explain why predictions are made about future share performance by using a line of best fit.
8 When drawing a line of best fit:
a What type of line is normally drawn?
b Is this type of graph necessarily the best? Explain your answer.
9 A share price has lost value over a period of years. A line of best fit is drawn on the graph of the
declining price.
a How will the vertical intercept relate to the share price?
b What do you know of the gradient of the line of best fit?
10 The graph below shows the fluctuating share price over a five year period.
a Find the equivalent simple interest rate to the growth in share price.
b Find the equivalent compound interest rate to the growth in share price.
$20
(5, $20)
$10
0 5

INVESTIGATE: Researching share prices
1 Choose three companies from the business section of the newspaper.

2 Determine the movement of each share over the past year using financial journals, the newspaper or the
Internet.
3 Graph the information on the share price that you have found. Include the highest and lowest point of the
share price over the past year.
4 On your graph, draw a line of best fit to find the overall trend in the movement of the share price.
5 Try to predict the share price in six months from now by extending the line of best fit.
6 Find the share price each week for six months and see if your line of best fit accurately predicts the
share price.
2G Inflation and appreciation

One of the measures of how an economy is performing is the rate of inflation. Inflation is the rise in
prices within an economy and is generally measured as a percentage. In Australia this percentage is
called the Consumer Price Index (CPI). By looking at the inflation rate, we can estimate what the cost of
various goods and services will be at some time in the future.
To estimate the future price of an item one year ahead, we increase the price of an item by the rate of
inflation.
Worked Example 17
The cost of a new car is $35 000. If the inflation rate is 5%, estimate the price of the car after
one year.
Think Write
Increase $35 000 by 5%. Future price = 105% of $35 000

= 105 ÷ 100 × $35 000
= $36 750
When calculating the future cost of an item several years ahead, the method of calculation is the same as
for compound interest. This is because we are adding a percentage of the cost to the cost each year.
Remember the compound interest formula is A = P(1 + r)n and so in these examples P is the original
price, r is the inflation rate expressed as a decimal and n is the number of years.
Worked Example 18
The cost of a television set is $800. If the average inflation rate is 4%, estimate the cost of the
television set after 5 years.
Think Write
1 Write the values of P, r and n. P = $800, r = 0.04, n = 5

2 Write down the compound interest formula. A = P(1 + r)n
3 Substitute the values of P, r and n. = $800 × (1.04)5
4 Calculate. = $973.32
A similar calculation can be made to anticipate the future value of collectable items, such as stamp
collections and memorabilia from special occasions. This type of item increases in value over time if
it becomes rare, and rises at a much greater rate than inflation. The amount by which an item grows in
value over time is known as appreciation.

Worked example 19
Jeremy purchases a rare stamp for $250. It is anticipated that the

value of the stamp will rise by 20% per year. Calculate the value
of the stamp after 10 years, correct to the nearest $10.
Think WriTe
1 Write the values of P, r and n. P = $250,

r = 0.2,
n = 10
2 Write down the compound interest formula. A = P(1 + r)n
3 Substitute the values of P, r and n. = $250 × (1.2)10
4 Calculate and round off to the nearest $10. = $1550
exercise 2G inflation and appreciation

1 We17 The cost of a motorcycle is $20 000. If the inflation rate is 4%, estimate the cost of the
motorcycle after one year.
2 For each of the following, estimate the cost of the item after one year, with the given inflation rate.
a An MP3 player costing $600 with an inflation rate of 3%
b A toaster costing $45 with inflation at 7%
c A loaf of bread costing $1.80 with inflation at 6%
d An airline ticket costing $560 with inflation at 3.5%
e A washing machine costing $925 with inflation at 0.8%
3 An electric guitar is priced at $850 at the beginning of 2008.
a If the inflation rate is 3.3% p.a., estimate the cost of the guitar at the beginning of 2009.
b The government predicts inflation will fall to 2.7% in 2009. Estimate the cost of the guitar at the
beginning of 2010.
4 When the Wilson family go shopping, the
weekly basket of groceries costs $112.50. The
inflation rate is predicted to be 4.8% for the
next year. How much should the Wilson’s
budget per week be for groceries for the next
year?
5 We18 The cost of a lawnmower is $550. If
the average inflation rate is predicted to be
3%, estimate the cost of the lawnmower after
4 years.
6 The cost of a litre of milk is $1.70. If the
inflation rate is an average 4%, estimate the
cost of a litre of milk after 10 years.
7 A daily newspaper costs $1.00. With an
average inflation rate of 3.4%, estimate the
cost of a newspaper after 5 years (to the
nearest 5c).

8 If a basket of groceries costs $98.50 in 2008, what would the estimated cost of the groceries be in 2015
if the average inflation rate for that period is 3.2%?
9 MC A bottle of soft drink costs $2.50. If the inflation rate is predicted to average 2% for the next
five years, the cost of the soft drink in five years will be:
A $2.60
B $2.70
c $2.75
d $2.76
10 WE19 Veronica bought a shirt signed by the Australian cricket team after it won the 2007 World Cup
for $200. If the value of the shirt increases by 20% per annum for the next 5 years, calculate the value
of the shirt (to the nearest $10).
11 Ken purchased a rare bottle of wine for $350. If the value of the wine is predicted to increase at
10% per annum, estimate the value of the wine in 20 years (to the nearest $10).
12 The 1968 Australian 2c piece is very rare. If a coin collector purchased one in 2012 for $400 and the
value of the coin increases by 15% per year, calculate its value in 2025 (to the nearest $10).
13 Inflation figures are generally released every quarter. If the average inflation rate is 0.9% per quarter,
find the cost of each of the following items after 3 years.
a A newspaper that now costs $1.10.
b A loaf of bread that now costs $3.20
c A pair of jeans that now costs $86
d A television that now costs $1650
e A house that now costs $350 000
14 The inflation rate is predicted to average 2.3% p.a. for 2 years and then 3.5% for 3 years. Given that the
price of an iPod is $250 today estimate the cost of the iPod at the end of the 5 year period.
Further development
15 During a severe recession the economy goes into a state of deflation. This is where average prices fall.
If, over a 2 year period the deflation average is 0.2% per quarter, find the price of a new car that was
priced at $35 000 at the beginning of the period.
16 At the beginning of 2011 the average wage was $745 per week and the average basket of groceries cost
$143.50.
a What percentage of the average wage was the cost of the average basket of groceries?
b Over the next three years inflation is expected to be 4.1% p.a. Estimate the cost of the average
basket of groceries at the end of the three years.
c Over the same period of time wages are expected to rise by only 3% p.a. Estimate the average
wage at the end of the three year period.
d Economists say that wages over the three years have dropped ‘in real terms’. By comparing the
cost of an average basket of groceries and wages at the beginning and end of the three year period
explain what the economists mean.

17 Eddie has $15 000 to invest. In three years he wants to buy a car that currently costs $18 000. Eddie
invests his money at 4.8% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly. Over the same period inflation is
expected to average 0.85% per quarter.
a How much more money does Eddie need to purchase the car at the beginning of the three year
period?
b Calculate how far short Eddie is of the money needed to purchase the car at the end of the
three years.
18 Consider an investment of $1000 at 5% p.a. for one year in a period where inflation is running at
3.5% p.a.
a What will the $1000 investment be worth after one year?
b What will the cost of $1000 worth of goods be after one year?
c Write the value of the investment after one year as a percentage of the cost of $1000 worth of
diGiTal doC
goods after one year. WorkSHEET 2.2
d By what percentage has the investment grown in real terms? doc-10311

Summary
simple interest • Simple interest is interest paid where the interest is not added to the principal before the next
interest calculation.
• It is calculated using the formula:
I = Prn
where P is the initial quantity, r is the percentage interest rate per annum expressed as a decimal
and n is the number of periods.
• It can be graphed as a linear function.
Compound interest • Compound interest is the interest added to the principal before the next interest calculation is made.
• It can be calculated by using the formula:
A = P(1 + r)n
where A is the final balance, P is the initial quantity, r is the percentage interest rate per interest
period expressed as a decimal and n is the number of compounding periods.
• The amount of compound interest paid is found by subtracting the principal from the future value
of the investment.
• Compound interest can be calculated by using a table of compounded values of $1.
shares • When you buy shares you purchase a share in the company. There is no guaranteed return with
shares, although there is a greater potential for profit than with investments such as banking and
property, but with that comes a higher risk.
• Profit can be made from buying shares in two ways:
(a) The value of the share could rise over time.
(b) The company may pay a dividend to its shareholders. The dividend when written as a
percentage of the share price is called the dividend yield.
• To try to predict the future movement in share prices, we can graph the past movement in the share
price and draw a line of best fit on the graph. This line of best fit can be extrapolated to estimate
the future price.
inflation and • The price of goods and services rise from year to year. To predict the future price of an item, we
appreciation can use the compound interest formula taking the rate of inflation to be r.
• The same method is used to predict the future value of collectables and of memorabilia, which tend
to rise at a rate greater than inflation.

Chapter review
1 The simple interest paid on $5600 at 5.6% for 3 years is:
m U lTip l e
a $940.80 B $994.46 C ho iC e
C $6540.80 d $6594.47
2 The compound interest paid on $5600 at 5.6% for 3 years with interest compounded annually is:
a $940.80 B $994.46
C $6540.80 d $6594.47
3 A share is valued at $23.40. Greg buys 4000 shares and, at the end of the financial year, Greg receives a
dividend of $4212. The dividend yield on Greg’s investment is:
a 0.55% B 1.053%
C 4.5% d 5.3%
4 In 2013, a basket of groceries costs $67.50. If the inflation rate is predicted to be 2.9% for the next year,
by how much can we expect the cost of the basket of groceries to rise?
a $1.95 B $1.96
C $69.45 d $69.46
1 Calculate the simple interest earned on an investment of $5000 at 4% p.a. for 5 years. s ho rT
a n s W er
2 Calculate the simple interest earned on each of the following investments.
a $3600 at 9% p.a. for 4 years
b $23 500 at 6% p.a. for 2 years
c $840 at 2.5% p.a. for 2 years
d $1350 at 0.2% p.a. for 18 months
1
e $45 820 at 4.75% p.a. for 3 2 years
3 Dion invests $32 500 in a debenture paying 5.6% simple interest for 4 years.
a Calculate the interest earned by Dion.
b Calculate the total value of Dion’s investment after 4 years.
c If the debenture paid Dion in quarterly instalments, calculate the value of each interest payment.
4 Bradley invests $15 000 for a period of 4 years. Calculate the simple interest rate, given that Bradley
earned a total of $3900 interest.
5 Kerry invests $23 500 at a simple interest rate of 4.6% p.a. If he earned $1351.25 in interest, calculate
the length of time for which the money was invested.
6 An amount of $7500 is to be invested at 6% p.a.
a Copy and complete the table below to calculate the simple interest over 5 years.
Interest
c What is the gradient of the linear graph drawn?
d Use your graph to find the amount of interest that would have been earned after 10 years.
7 Vicky invests $2400 at 5% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded annually. Calculate the
compounded value of the investment at the end of the term.
8 Barry has an investment with a present value of $4500. The investment is made at 6% p.a. with interest
compounded six-monthly. Calculate the value of the investment in 4 years.
9 Calculate the compounded value of each of the following investments.
c $11 400 at 8% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded quarterly
d $21 450 at 7.2% p.a. for 18 months with interest compounded six-monthly
1
e $5000 at 2.6% p.a. for 2 2 years with interest compounded quarterly
10 Dermott invested $11 500 at 3.2% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly. Calculate the
total amount of interest paid on this investment.

11 Kim and Glenn each invest $7500 for a period of 5 years.
a Kim invests her money at 9.9% p.a. with interest compounded annually. Calculate the compounded
value of Kim’s investment.
b Glenn invests his money at 9.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly. Calculate the compounded
value of Glenn’s investment.
c Explain why Glenn’s investment has a greater compounded value than Kim’s.
12 Use the table of CVIF values on page 58 to calculate the compounded value of each of the following
investments.
b $7230 at 9% p.a. for 7 years with interest compounded annually
c $3695 at 6% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded six-monthly
d $12 400 at 10% p.a. for 5 years with interest compounded six-monthly
e $2400 at 4% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly
13 A company that has 10.9 million shares makes a profit of $21 million. If this entire amount is distributed
among the shareholders, calculate the dividend that will be declared.
14 A company that has an after-tax profit of $2.3 billion distributes this among its 156 million shares.
Calculate the dividend that this company will declare.
15 A company has a share price of $8.62. It declares a dividend of 45c per share. Calculate the dividend
yield on this share.
16 A company with a share price of 45c declares a dividend of 0.7c per share. Calculate the dividend yield
on this investment.
17 The dividend yield from a share valued at $19.48 is 4.2%. Calculate the dividend paid by the company,
correct to the nearest cent.
18 The table below shows the fluctuations in a share price over a period of 1 year.
Month Share price

January $15.76
February $16.04
March $16.27
April $16.12
May $16.49
June $16.39
July $16.60
August $16.77
September $16.51
October $16.71
November $16.69
December $16.98
a On a set of axes plot the share price for each month.

b Draw a line of best fit on your graph and use your line to predict the share price after a further year.
19 A MP3 player is currently priced at $80. If the current inflation rate is 4.3%, estimate the price of the
MP3 player after one year.
20 It is predicted that the average inflation rate for the next five years will be 3.7%. If a skateboard
currently costs $125, estimate the cost of the skateboard after five years.
21 In 1985, Cherie bought a limited edition photograph autographed by Sir Donald Bradman for $120. If
the photograph appreciates in value by 15% per annum, calculate the value of the photograph in 2015
(to the nearest $100).

1 Jaclyn has $7500 saved for a holiday that she plans to take in two years time. e x Ten d ed
a If Jaclyn invests the money in a debenture that pays 4.2% p.a. simple interest, calculate the res p o n s e
amount of money that Jaclyn will have after two years.
b An alternative investment for Jaclyn would be to invest her money at 4% p.a. for two years with
interest compounding quarterly. Would this be a better investment? Explain your answer.
c Jaclyn finally decided to buy 1500 shares in a company at $5.00 each. For the past year the
dividend yield for this company was 5.1%. Is this a safe investment for Jaclyn?
d After two years, the average dividend yield for this company was 4.8% p.a. of Jaclyn’s initial
investment and the shares were valued at $5.75 each. Calculate the total value of Jaclyn’s
investment.
e Calculate Jaclyn’s profit as a percentage of her initial investment.
2 Frank has saved $30 000 to buy a new car. He decides to try to get another two years use out of his
old car and in the meantime invest the money he has saved.
a If Frank invests the $30 000 at 3.5% p.a. for two years with interest compounded annually,
calculate the money that Frank has at the end of the investment.
b Over the two years that Frank has invested his money, the inflation rate has averaged 4.2% p.a.
Calculate the cost of the car at the end of this two years if the price rose at the same rate as diGiTal doC
Test Yourself
inflation (to the nearest $100). doc-10312
c How much more money does Frank now need to buy the new car? Chapter 2

ICT activities
2a Calculation of simple interest 2d Calculating compound interest from a table of
diGiTal doCs compounded values
• GC program — Casio (doc-1544): Interest (page 46) inTeraCTiViTy
• GC program — TI (doc-1545): Interest (page 46) • int-2400: Simple and compound interest (page 60)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1546): Interest (page 46)
2G inflation and appreciation
2B Graphing simple interest functions diGiTal doC
diGiTal doC • WorkSHEET 2.2 (doc-10311): Apply knowledge of interest and
• Spreadsheet (doc-1546): Interest (page 52) inflation rates to problems. (page 71)
2C Calculation of compound interest Chapter review

diGiTal doCs diGiTal doC
• Spreadsheet (doc-1552): Compound interest (pages 55, 57) • Test Yourself Chapter 2 (doc-10312): Take the end-of-chapter test to
• WorkSHEET 2.1 (doc-10310): Apply knowledge of interest calculations check your progress. (page 75)
to questions. (page 56)
inTeraCTiViTy To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
• int-0810: Compound interest (page 53)

Answers CHAPTER 2
inVesTinG money 3 a
6000
b
10 000 8%
Interest ($)
Interest ($)
6%
exercise 2a Calculation of simple 4000 5%
interest 5000
2000
1 $600
2 a $120 b $615 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
c $21 420 d $6656.85 Years Years
e $90 f $684.47 b 7 a Whichbank = $37 500,
3 a $2240 b $11 200 1000
Eastpac = $35 000,
4 a $2400 b $12 400 800 NZA bank = $30 000
5 $8648.80
Interest ($)
b Whichbank = 7.5%, Eastpac = 7%,
6 a $5.25 b $145.25 600
NZA bank = 6%
7 a $448.63 b $224.32 400 8 Bank B as the investment grows quicker
c $9558.84 9 a
200
8 $850.50
9A 10 C 0 No. of Interest Interest Interest
11 $131.86 12 18 months 0 1 2 3 4 5 years (3%) (3.5%) (3.75%)
Years
13 $6250 14 C
c
15 a $627.13 b $12 542.50 4000 1 $165.00 $192.50 $206.25
16 a $2250 b $13 500
Interest ($)
1 3000
c 7 years 2 $330.00 $385.00 $412.50
2
2000
17 $18 750 18 $21 562.50
3 $495.00 $577.50 $618.75
19 $5580 1000
20 a $4560 b $16 888.89 0 4 $660.00 $770.00 $825.00
21 4 years and 8 months 0 1 2 3 4 5
22 Ted is correct because interest is calculated Years
d
5 $825.00 $962.50 $1031.25
only upon the principal and interest paid
20 000
earns no interest.
b
Interest ($)
23 Chris is incorrect. If the interest rate 15 000 1500 3.75%
Interest ($)
doubles the amount of interest paid will 3.5%
10 000 1000 3%
double, but the principal will remain the 5000
same. 500
0 0
exercise 2B Graphing simple interest 0 1 2 3 4 5
Years 0 1 2 3 4 5
functions Years
1 a 4 288
10 a $4500, $5000, $5200
No. of 5 a b $875
400
1 2 3 4 5
years 11
Interest ($)
300
5000
Interest $400 $800 $1200 $1600 $2000 200
Interest ($)
6.2%
b 100 4500 5.8%
2000 5.2%
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Interest ($)
1500 4000
Years
1000
b 0
4000 0 1 2 3 4 5
500
Investment ($)
3000 Years
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 2000 12 a 96
Years
b The interest earned each year
2 a 1000
c $1600
No. of 13 a $2000
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
years b 10% p.a.
Years c $3600
Interest $1600 $3200 $4800 $6400 $8000 6 a 14 This statement is correct as the amount
b being added in both cases is the annual
16 000 No. of Interest Interest Interest
14 000 interest.
years (5%) (6%) (8%)
Interest ($)
12 000 15 a 5000
10 000 b 250
8000 1 $1250 $1500 $2000
6000 c A = 250n + 5000
4000 2 $2500 $3000 $4000 16 A = 280n + 4000
2000
0 3 $3750 $4500 $6000 17 a This is correct as the number of years is
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 multiplied by the amount of interest per
Years
4 $5000 $6000 $8000 year.
c 1600 b This is not a direct variation as the graph
5 $6250 $7500 $10 000
d $16 000 does not pass through (0, 0).

exercise 2C Calculation of compound exercise 2d Calculating compound 5 a $1.224 million
interest interest from a table of compounded b $2.176 million
1 $6655 values c 43.52c/share
2 a $17 173.50 1 $13 110 6 a $9.28 million
b $2173.50 2 a $12 580 b $6.08 million
3 $2938.66 b $4080 c $0.76/share
4 a $4630.50 3 $46 800 7 a $46.336 million
b $9274.19 4 $2599.20 b 82.7c
c $24 488.80 5 a $3385 8 a $3.276 million
d $13 503.78 b $3195.90 b $5.118 75 million
e $12 588.72 c $86 9 $3.276 million
5 $70 555.25 d $1964.61 10 4.57%
6 $502 e $1669.50 11
Share Dividend
7 $2059.91 f $7130
Dividend price yield
8 a 0.5% 6 a 1.025
b $31 850.33 b 1.051 $0.56 $8.40 6.7%
9 a $1003.69 c 1.077
b $9111.56 d 1.104 $0.78 $7.40 10.5%
c $181 402.12 e 1.160
$1.20 $23.40 5.1%
d $20 039.67 f 1.218
e $1 264 568.95 7 a $969.30 $1.09 $15.76 6.9%
10 B b $2583.36
11 B c $7948.80 $0.04 $0.76 5.3%
12 B d $13 398
13 C e $6670 12 2.91%
14 a $15 746.40 8 D 13 B
b $15 793.09 9 C 14 $364
c $15 817.40 10 $8636 15 D–C–B–A
d $15 833.99 11 3 years 16 a 10.2%
15 a 0.0219% 12 a 1 year b 8.4%
b $108 320.72 b 6 years c 9%
c $8320.72 c 5 years 17 a 6.6% b $1.06/share
d $320.72 d 18 months 18 a $1.44 b $7.4906 million
16 a $4720 e 4 years 19 8.5%
b $4726.24 13 16% 20 a 0.59% b $10.64
c Compounding interest 14 a 7% c 6.4c/share d 0.61%
17 $19 845.81 b 8% 21 a $1.38/share b 13%
18 A c 28% c 12.9%
19 a $3514.98 d 10% 22 Because the dividend yield expresses the
b $2687.83 e 12% share market dividend as a percentage
c $8061.13 15 a $15 000 of the share price hence making it
d $11 599.22 b $16 110 comparable to other shares and other
20 $2705.72 c $16 290 forms of investment.
21 $9637 d Bruce $5000, Keith $6110, exercise 2F Graphing share
22 a Rita’s by $776.05 Max $6290 performance
b 8 years e Bruce 50%, Keith 61.1%, Max 62.9% 1 a
23 a 16 1.120, 1.254, 1.405, 1.574, 1.762, 1.974, 7.30
Share price ($)
Years Michelle (SI) Jack (CI) 7.10

2.211, 2.476, 2.773, 3.106 6.90
6.70
17 a $4722 6.50
0 $15 000 $15 000 b $18 718.56 6.30
6.10
c $30 950 5.90
5 $20 400 $21 235.63 5.70
18 7 interest periods
ay
pt
t
Ju
Oc
Ju
Au
Se
19 5% for 7 interest periods has a greater

M
1–
1–
1–
1–
1–
1–
10 $25 800 $30 063.47 CVIF value. Month

20 1.539, 1.601, 1.665, 1.732, 1.801, 1.873, b Approximately $7.60
15 $31 200 $42 561.12 1.948, 2.026, 2.107, 2.191 2 a
21 a $7204.50 4.50
20 $36 600 $60 254.15
Share price ($)
b $7443.75 4.00
c 18 interest periods
25 $42 000 $85 302.33 3.50
exercise 2e share dividends 3.00
30 $47 400 $120 763.26 1 25c/share 2.50
2 $1.50/share
1– n
1– ul
1– ug
1– pt
1– ct
1– ov
1– c
1– n
1– b
1– ar
1– pr
ay
e
Ju
Ja
Fe
O
J
Se
M
A
D
M
N
A
1–
b $1080, $1080; $1080, $8110.97 3 6c/share

c $32 400; $105 763.26. 4 29.27c/share b Approximately $2.00

3 a 2.04 17 a $3000
2.02 b $2615.89
2.00 18 a $1050 b $1035
1.18 c 101.45% d 1.45%
Share price ($)
1.16
1.14
1.12 ChapTer reVieW
1.10 mUlTiple ChoiCe
1.08
1.06 1 A 2 B
1.04 3 C 4 B
1.02
shorT ansWer
1.00
1 $1000
1– ay
1– ay
1– ug
1– pt
1– v
1– ug
1– pt
1– ar
1– ar
1– ec
1– pr
1– pr
1– eb
1– eb
1– ct
t
1– un
1– un
1– an
1– an
1– Jul
1– Jul
Oc
No
O
Se
Se
M
M
A
A
D
M
M
F
F
J
J
A
A
J
J
2 a $1296 b $2820 c $42
1–
Month
d $4.05 e $7617.58
b Approximately $1.20 3 a $7280 b $39 780 c $455
4 a 4 6.5%
Share price ($)
16.00
5 15 months
14.00
6 a
12.00 No. of years 1 2 3 4 5
10.00
Interest $450 $900 $1350 $1800 $2250
1– n
1– b
1– c
1– ar
1– pr
1– ay
1– n
1– ul
1– g
1– p
1– ct
1– v
1– n
1– b
1– ar
1– pr
1– ay
n
De
No
Ja
Fe
Ju
Au
Se
Ja
Fe
Ju
O
M
M
A
A
M
M
1–
Month b
4500
4000
b Approximately $15.00
Interest ($)
3500
5 a 3000
14.50 2500
Share price ($)
2000
14.00 1500
1000
13.50 500
13.00 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
12.50 Years
12.00 c 450
1– n
1– eb
1– ar
1– pr
1– ay
1– n
1– ul
1– g
1– pt
1– ct
1– v
c
d $4500
De
No
Ja
Ju
Au
O
M
Se
A
F
M
1–
Month 7 $2778.30
8 $5700.47
b $14.50
9 a $3932.39 b $12 596.90 c $14 457.96
6 a Because share prices go up and down.
d $23 851.00 e $5334.67
b The graph of the share price is irregular reflecting the rises and
10 $756.94
falls. 11 a $12 024.02
7 The line of best fit is the average trend over a period of time. b $12 052.04
8 a Straight line c Compounding interest
b Not always as the growth may be exponential (the same shape as 12 a $7866 b $13 216.44 c $4411.83
a compound interest graph) d $20 199.60 e $2599.20
9 a The purchase price 13 $1.93/share
b It will be negative. 14 $14.74/share
10 a 20% 15 5.22%
b 14.87% 16 1.6%
17 0.82c/share
exercise 2G inflation and appreciation 18 a
Share price ($)
17.00
1 $20 800
16.50
2 a $618 b $48.15 c $1.91
d $579.60 e $932.40 16.00
3 a $878.05 b $901.76 15.50
1– n
1– b
1– ar
1– pr
1– ay
1– n
1– ul
1– g
1– pt
1– ct
1– v
c
4 $117.90 5 $619
De
No
Ja
Fe
Ju
Au
O
M
Se
A
M
1–
6 $2.52 7 $1.20 Month

8 $122.80 9 D
b Approximately $18.00
10 $500 11 $2350
19 $83.44
12 $2460
20 $149.90
13 a $1.22 b $3.56 c $95.76 21 $7900
d $1837.29 e $389 728.38
14 $290.07 exTended response
15 $34 443.90 1 a $8130
16 a 19.26% b $161.88 c $814.08 b No. The investment will be worth only $8121.43.
d The average basket of groceries now takes up 19.88% of the c No. Jaclyn could lose the money she has saved for her holiday.
average wage, a greater proportion, hence the wage at the end d $9345
of the period has less purchasing power than at the beginning e 24.6%
of the period. 2 a $32 136.75 b $32 600 c $436.17

ChapTer 3
Taxation
ChapTer ConTenTS
3a Calculating allowable deductions
3B Taxable income
3C Medicare levy
3d Calculating tax
3e Calculating GST and VAT
3F Graphing tax functions
3a Calculating allowable deductions

The government collects taxes in order to pay for government services. There are several different ways
in which the government collects these taxes. The one with which we are most familiar is income tax;
however, there are several other forms of tax used by the government to collect money. In this chapter,
we look at how taxes are calculated and collected.
In Chapter 1, we looked at earning money. We learned that the gross pay was the wage or salary
paid by the employer. Before the employee receives this money, deductions are taken out. The amount
actually received by the worker is called the net pay. There may be several payments taken out of a
person’s gross pay, but for most people the largest deduction is income tax.
Everyone who earns over a certain amount must pay income tax. Income tax is paid on an increasing
scale, depending on the amount you earn. Most people pay income tax in each pay period. This is called
Pay As You Go tax (PAYG tax). At the end of each financial year, which runs from July 1 of one year
to June 30 the following year, people who earn income must submit a tax return. A tax return is used to
calculate the amount of tax that should have been paid and compares this with the amount of PAYG tax
paid. The taxpayer then either receives a refund or must pay the amount owing.
The amount of tax paid is calculated using your taxable income. Taxable income is your gross pay
less any allowable tax deductions.
Deductions are allowed for expenses incurred while earning an income. For example, a builder is allowed
a tax deduction for the cost of tools, or a bank teller who wears a uniform may be allowed a deduction for the
dry-cleaning of that uniform. Deductions are also allowed for donations to charity over $2.
Worked example 1
A large company employs Ken as a plumber. Ken claims deductions of $1400 to buy tools, $25 for
gumboots, $200 for two pairs of work overalls, $5 per week for dry-cleaning the overalls and $1.50
per week for work-related telephone calls. Calculate Ken’s total deductions.
Think WriTe
1 Calculate Ken’s total dry-cleaning and Dry-cleaning = $5 × 52
telephone deductions. = $260
Telephone = $1.50 × 52
= $78
2 Add up all of Ken’s deductions. Deductions = $1400 + $25 + $200 + $260 + $78
= $1963
ChapTer 3 • Taxation 81
People who use their own car for work are entitled to claim a portion of the running costs as a deduction.
The amount of the deduction is based on the size of the engine and the number of kilometres travelled.
The tax deduction covers the cost of the fuel and a portion of the long-term costs of running a car such
as registration, insurance, depreciation and maintenance.
Worked Example 2
Raylene is a computer programmer. As part of her job she uses her own car to travel to visit
clients and to attend training seminars. Raylene’s car is a 2.4 litre Mitsubishi Lancer, for which
she is allowed a deduction of 74 c/km. Calculate the size of the tax deduction in a year where she
travels 2547 km on work-related matters.
Think Write
Multiply the number of kilometres (2547) by the Travel deduction = 2547 × 0.74
rate per kilometre (0.519). Be sure to convert the = $1884.78
rate in cents to dollars.
Tax deductions are also allowed for the depreciation of major equipment. For example, a teacher may
own a home computer that is used to prepare lessons and store marks. The computer loses value as it
becomes older and so a tax deduction is allowed for this.
Worked Example 3
Trevor is an accountant who works from home. He owns a personal computer that is used as part
of his job. Trevor bought a new computer on 1 July 2010 for $3200. Each year he is allowed a 33%
deduction for the depreciation of the computer. Calculate the tax deduction allowed in:
a the 2010–11 financial year
b the 2011–12 financial year.
Think Write
a The depreciation was 33% of the purchase price. a Tax deduction = 33% of $3200
= 0.33 × $3200
= $1056
b 1 Calculate the value of the computer at the b Computer value = $3200 − $1056
beginning of 2008–09, by subtracting the = $2144
depreciation from the purchase price.
2 The depreciation was 33% of its value at the Tax deduction = 33% of $2144
end of the last financial year. = 0.33 × $2144
= $707.52
Another form of tax deduction comes for the cost of property needed while working. If you run a
business from a shop or house, the cost of these premises is tax deductible. This includes expenses such
as rent, interest on a loan if buying the property, rates, electricity and telephone. If the business is run
from the family home, then a percentage of these expenses is allowed.
Worked Example 4
Wendy runs a confectionery shop in a shopping centre. She pays rent of $400 per week, has an
electricity bill of $326 per quarter and a telephone bill of $276 per month. Calculate the deduction
that Wendy is entitled to.
Think Write
1 Calculate the amount of rent that Wendy pays Rent = $400 × 52

for a year. = $20 800

2 Calculate Wendy’s annual electricity bill. Electricity = $326 × 4
= $1304
3 Calculate Wendy’s annual telephone bill. Telephone = $276 × 12
= $3312
4 Add these expenses to calculate the tax Total tax deduction = $20 800 + $1304 + $3312
deduction allowed. = $25 416
Exercise 3A Calculating allowable deductions

1 Ki-Yeong has a gross annual income of $39 650 and allowable tax deductions of $934. Calculate
Ki-Yeong’s taxable income.
2 Trevor has a gross annual income of $55 000. Trevor also earned $435 from other investments and has
allowable deductions of $1326. Calculate Trevor’s taxable income.
3 WE1 Darren is a pest exterminator. He
is allowed tax deductions for three sets of
protective clothing at $167.50 each, two pairs of
goggles at $34 each and four face masks at
$13.60 each. He also uses a spray tank costing
$269 and pays $5 per week to have his clothing
professionally cleaned. Calculate Darren’s total
tax deductions.
4 Jasmine is a dressmaker. Jasmine claims a tax
deduction for the cost of her sewing machine
($560), an overlocker ($320), needles and
cotton ($134.75) and $349.80 for dress patterns.
Jasmine also claims to make $5 worth of work-
related telephone calls per week. Calculate
Jasmine’s total tax deductions.
5 Kevin works as a waiter. Kevin must wear a white
shirt with black pants, belt and bow tie. Kevin
buys three shirts at $45.00 each, two pairs of pants
at $76.90 each, a belt for $15 and a bow tie for $14.90. Kevin’s uniform must be dry-cleaned each week at a
cost of $5.70. Kevin has other tax deductions of $345 for union fees, $60 for having his tax return prepared
by an accountant and makes $50 in charity donations. Calculate Kevin’s total tax deductions.
6 Matt works as a sports journalist. He claims $60 per week for telephone calls, $600 for a pair of
binoculars, $25 per week for admittance to sporting events and $1250 for travel. Calculate Matt’s total
tax deductions.
Chapter 3 • Taxation 83
7 WE 2 Rajid uses his car as part of his job as an insurance assessor. He has a 1.6 L Nissan Tiida for
which he is allowed a deduction of 63 c/km. Calculate the tax deduction Rajid is allowed in a year
where he claims 3176 km in work-related travel.
8 The table below shows the rate per kilometre allowed as a tax deduction for travel in a private vehicle
(for cars using up to 5000 km/year on work-related travel).
Engine capacity Allowable deduction
Up to 1.6 L 63 c/km
More than 1.6 L and up to 2.6 L 74 c/km
More than 2.6 L 75 c/km
Calculate the total tax deduction allowed for a person who claims:
a 2000 km in a Mazda-2 with a 1.3 L engine
b 2645 km in a Toyota Corolla with a 1.8 L engine
c 1564 km in a Ford Focus with a 2.5 L engine
d 2900 km in a Holden Commodore with a 3.6 L engine.
9 Briony uses her car for work related matters. During the year she changed cars. Briony did 2943 km in
her 1.4 litre Mazda 3 before upgrading to a 2.2 litre. She then did 1854 km in the new car. Find the total
amount of Briony’s tax deduction for travel.
10 Calculate the difference in tax deductions allowed for 2700 km of travel between a 1.6 L vehicle and a
2.6 L vehicle.
11 WE 3 Bruce is a teacher with a home computer that he purchased for $2500. If a 40% tax deduction is
allowed for depreciation, calculate the tax deduction that Bruce is allowed in:
a the first financial year
b the second financial year
c the third financial year.
12 Jeff is a builder. At the end of the 2006–07
financial year Jeff’s building equipment was valued at
$12 350. If Jeff is allowed a tax deduction of 25% for
depreciation of his equipment, calculate his deduction.
13 Mr and Mrs Williams own a farm. Their capital
equipment, which includes items such as tractors, trucks
etc. is valued at $75 000 at the beginning of the 2013–14
financial year. Each year they are allowed a 40% tax
deduction for depreciation of capital equipment.
a Calculate the tax deduction allowed for the:
i 2013–14 financial year
ii 2014–15 financial year
iii 2015–16 financial year.
b When the value of the capital equipment falls
below $5000, the entire balance can be tax
deducted and the equipment is said to be ‘written
off’. In what financial year will this occur?
14 Catherine is a fashion designer who uses a computer to
assist her with drawing. Catherine buys a new computer
on 1 November for $3600. She therefore owned the
8
computer for only 12 of the financial year. A deduction of 40% p.a. is allowed for depreciation of the
computer, but Catherine can claim only 8 of this. Calculate Catherine’s allowable tax deduction for the
12
computer.
15 WE 4 Gabrielle owns a small boutique in a shopping mall. Her operational expenses are:
• $325 per week rent
• $280 per quarter in electricity
• $185 per quarter in telephone bills.
Calculate the total allowed in tax deductions for running this business.

Further development
16 Greg is a graphic designer who works from home. He has set up one room in the house as his office. In
one financial year his household bills are:
• $4500 in interest on the home mortgage
• $1200 in council rates
• electricity bills of $129, $187, $165 and $119
• telephone bills of $98.50, $110.60, $128.30 and $106.90
• $378.40 for building and contents insurance.
As Greg’s office is 10% of the area of the house, he can claim 10% of all these bills as deductions.
Calculate Greg’s tax deduction.
17 Henry is a motor mechanic who runs his own
garage. Henry has the following work-related
expenses:
• $350 per week for rent on the garage
• $590 per quarter for the electricity bill
• $260 per quarter for the telephone bill
• $75 per month for his mobile telephone
plan.
Henry also has $85 000 in capital equipment
that he depreciates at a rate of 27.5% p.a.
He travels 2750 km on work-related trips in
his van, which has a 3.0 L engine. Calculate
Henry’s total tax deductions.
18 John has a 2.6 litre car which he uses for
work purposes. John does 4850 km travel in
his car during the financial year. His total car
expenses for the year are $10 325. He has the
choice of using the cents per kilometre method
of claiming his tax deduction, or one-third
of his total expenses. (Refer to the table in
question 8 on page 84.)
a Which method should John choose?
b What tax deduction will this give John?
19 When travelling more than 5000 km each
year, the one-third of all expenses method
must be used to calculate the tax deduction.
Len has a new Toyota Aurion that cost
$40 000 and is allowed 15% depreciation
in his expenses.
a Calculate the depreciation that Len is allowed to claim.
b If Len’s other expenses amount to $5850 calculate the total amount of Len’s tax deduction.
20 Explain what is meant by the term tax deduction.
3B Taxable income

A person’s taxable income is the income on which their tax is calculated. Most people have PAYG tax
deducted from their wage or salary throughout the year. The amount of PAYG tax deducted each week or
fortnight is the amount that would be paid, if this amount was earned each week for the entire financial
year.
When calculating the amount of PAYG tax to deduct from an employee’s pay, the employer makes no
consideration of possible tax deductions or other sources of income.
When a taxpayer completes a tax return at the end of the financial year, the amount of tax that should
have been paid is calculated based on their taxable income. Taxable income is the gross income earned
from all sources less any tax deductions.
When calculating total income you must include your income from all sources. This means that you
include any job for which you received payment throughout the year and other incomes such as interest,
profits from shares, rental income etc.
Worked Example 5
Michael is a carpet layer who earned a gross pay of $34 500 during the 2010–11 financial year.
Michael also earned $278.50 for working as a polling officer during a State election and received
$148.63 in interest from his bank accounts. Michael’s total tax deductions for the year were
$1846.30. Calculate Michael’s taxable income.
Think Write
1 Calculate the total gross income. Total income = $34 500 + $278.50 + $148.63
= $34 927.13
2 Calculate the taxable income by subtracting Taxable income = $34 927.63 − $1846.30

tax deductions from gross income. = $33 081.33
In order to calculate a person’s taxable income, you may need to calculate their income from a variety of
sources and make a number of calculations about tax deductions.
Worked Example 6
Murray works as a full-time jackeroo and plays two evenings per week in a band. Murray earns
$471.52 per week from his full-time job and $118.53 per week from playing in the band. During
the year Murray also earned $87.52 in interest from his bank accounts.
a Calculate Murray’s total gross income.
b It is 15 km from the property where Murray works to the club where he plays. When
someone has two jobs, the cost of travel between jobs is tax deductible. If Murray is
allowed a tax deduction of 45.7 c/km for travel, calculate the travel deduction that he is
entitled to claim.
c If Murray has other tax deductions of $948.50, calculate his taxable income.
Think Write
a 1 Multiply Murray’s weekly earnings in each a Jackeroo earnings = $471.52 × 52

job by 52 to calculate the yearly total. = $24 519.04
Band earnings = $118.53 × 52
= $6163.56
2 Add the total of each job with the interest Total earnings = $24 519.04 + $6163.56 + $87.52
earned to calculate total earnings. = $30 770.12
b 1 Calculate the total number of trips made b Number of trips = 2 × 52

between jobs. = 104
2 Calculate the total kilometres travelled. Total km = 104 × 15

= 1560 km
3 Calculate the deduction by multiplying Travel deduction = 1560 × 0.457

kilometres travelled by the allowable rate. = $712.92
c 1 Calculate the total tax deduction. c Total deduction = $948.50 + $712.92

= $1661.42
2 Calculate the taxable income by subtracting Taxable income = $30 770.12 − $1661.42

the tax deductions from the total income. = $29 108.70

Exercise 3B Taxable income
1 WE5 Fernando earns a gross salary of $45 900 per year. His tax deductions total $2145.75. Calculate
Fernando’s taxable income.
2 Tony’s gross fortnightly pay is $649.20.
a Calculate Tony’s gross yearly pay.
b If Tony’s tax deductions total $1142.70, calculate his taxable income.
3 During the last financial year Janelle had a gross income of $45 670 from her job as a physiotherapist.
Janelle also earned $238.79 in interest from her bank accounts. She also had tax deductions totalling
$2340.45. Calculate Janelle’s taxable income.
4 Paula worked as a receptionist and earned a gross wage of $418.50 per week. Paula also earned $45 per
week from a second job conducting telephone surveys. Paula had a bank account that paid her $117.40
in interest.
a Calculate Paula’s total income.
b If Paula had tax deductions totalling $1956.80, calculate her taxable income.
5 Janine has two part-time jobs. For one job she is paid $196.50 per week and for the other she is paid
$395.60 per fortnight.
a Calculate Janine’s gross annual income.
b If Janine claims tax deductions of $428.40, calculate her taxable income.
6 Tavit is a telephone salesman. He is paid a commission of 5% of all sales. Over the year, Tavit makes
sales that total $850 000.
a Calculate the gross commission that Tavit earned.
b Tavit makes $10 worth of phone calls that are tax deductable per day (5 days per week). Calculate
the tax deduction that he will claim.
c If Tavit has no other tax deductions, calculate his taxable income.
7 WE6 Stefan worked as a hairdresser and earned a gross wage of $537.90 per week.
He also worked part-time at TAFE for a wage of $112.80 per week. Stefan’s income
from various investments was $425.90 for the year.
a Calculate Stefan’s gross annual income.
b Stefan travelled 12 km between the hairdressing salon and TAFE, 80 times during
the year. If he is allowed a tax deduction of 74 c/km for travel, calculate the amount
that Stefan will claim.
c If Stefan has other tax deductions totalling $1560, calculate Stefan’s taxable income.
8 MC Wayne’s gross fortnightly pay is $1156.60. He has tax deductions of $5 per week
for dry-cleaning his work uniform, $50 per month in work-related travel expenses and
$348 per year in union dues. Wayne’s taxable income is:
A $28 863.60 B $29 653 C $29 668.60 D $60 143.20
9 Garry has a net annual income of $45 670 after tax deductions of $7450. Find Garry’s
gross income.
Further development
10 Nicole has a gross income of $48 730 and a net income of $34 970. Calculate the amount that Nicole
has in tax deductions.
11 Andrew earns a gross annual salary of $65 700. He also earns $165 per week from a rental property that
he owns in Newcastle.
a Calculate Andrew’s gross annual income.
b Andrew travels 320 km to Newcastle and back four times a year to inspect his property and is
allowed a tax deduction of 63 c/km. Andrew is also entitled to a deduction of $1200 for the
council rates, $4325 in interest on his loan for the property and $287.50 for insurance. Andrew
claims $2340 in other deductions associated with his work. Calculate his total deductions.
c Calculate Andrew’s taxable income.
12 Sandra works from home as an editor for a book company. Sandra is paid $986.50 per fortnight.
a Calculate Sandra’s annual gross income.
b Sandra has one room of her house set up as an office. This room is 15% of the area of the house.
If Sandra’s total household expenses are $9800 per year, calculate the deduction that she can
claim for her home office.
c Sandra bought a $3850 computer. If Sandra claims 40% of this value as a tax deduction for
depreciation, calculate the amount claimed.
d Sandra is allowed to claim travel expenses from her home to the book company’s office once a
week. If the distance is 50 km and Sandra is allowed a deduction at the rate of 51.9 c/km, calculate
the amount that Sandra can claim for a travel deduction.
e Calculate Sandra’s taxable income.
13 Georgia earns $13.40 per hour in her
job as a waitress. Georgia works a
38 hour week.
a Calculate Georgia’s gross weekly
wage.
b Calculate Georgia’s gross annual wage
given that she took 4 weeks holiday
and was paid a holiday loading of
17.5% during that period.
c Georgia had tax deductions of $12 per
week for having her uniform cleaned
and $175 for union fees. Calculate
Georgia’s taxable income.
14 Ian is a telephone salesperson who is paid 15% commission on all sales in addition to a $250 per week
retainer.
a Calculate Ian’s gross income given that his annual sales are $185 750.
b Ian has the following tax deductions, $120 per week for the telephone, 10% of his household
bills of $8750 for his home office and 780 km in travel at 74 cents per kilometre. Calculate Ian’s
taxable income.
15 Explain what is meant by the terms:
a gross income
b taxable income.
Computer Application 1 Calculating

taxable income
We are going to use a prepared spreadsheet to calculate a person’s taxable income.
diGiTal doC
Spreadsheet
doc-1608
Tax calculator

1. From your Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General eBookPLUS, open the spreadsheet
‘Tax Calculator’.
Enter the following data for income into Sheet 1, ‘Taxable Income’:
salary $44 500, casual work $1258.50 and interest $258.50. You should now see a total income of
$46 017.
2. The spreadsheet has a section that calculates the size of various deductions. Scroll down to row 23,
where you will see calculation areas for travel, home office and depreciation.
(a) In cell B24 enter 2200 for the kilometres travelled and in B25 enter 3 for the engine capacity of
the car.
(b) We will now do a similar calculation to find the home office deduction. Enter the following data
for home office.
Home Office Calculator
House area (m2) 170
Office area (m2) 17
Interest/rent $4500.00
Rates $1150.00
Telephone $600.00
Electricity $800.00
Gas
Insurance $350.00
Other
(c) The final section we will include is a depreciation calculator. Enter the following data for
depreciation.
Depreciation Calculator
Item Value Rate Amount
Computer $4000 40%
Car
Capital equipment $5000 25%
Other $500 25%
3. Scroll up to the top of your spreadsheet. The results appear in the main calculation section. For Union
fees enter $352, for Charity donations enter $90 and for Other enter $125. You should now see the total
of all allowable deductions and the taxable income.
3c Medicare levy
Medicare is Australia’s national health care scheme. As part of our tax, we pay the Medicare levy. In
return for this, Medicare pays for basic health care services, such as visits to your local doctor, x-rays
and pathology.
The basic Medicare levy is 1.5% of taxable income. This is the rate that the majority of people pay. People
who are on low incomes do not pay any Medicare levy or pay the levy at a reduced rate.
Worked Example 7
Calculate the Medicare levy for a person with an annual taxable income of $44 300.
Think Write
Calculate 1.5% of $44 300. Medicare levy = 1.5% of $44 300

= 0.015 × $44 300
= $664.50
In Australia the government encourages people to take out private health insurance in addition to
Medicare. This is to take the pressure off the public health system. They encourage people to do this in
two ways.
1. The government provides a 30% rebate (refund) on the cost of the private health insurance.
2. People on higher incomes who do not have private health insurance are charged the Medicare levy
surcharge. This surcharge is a further 1% of taxable income. The income threshold upon which
families are charged the Medicare levy surcharge is shown by the table below.
Number of dependent children Surcharge income threshold

0–1 $100 000
2 $101 500
3 $103 000
4 $104 500
More than 4 dependent children $104 500 plus $1500 for each additional child
For a single person the surcharge applies if their income exceeds $50 000 per annum.
Worked Example 8
Calculate the total Medicare levy (including surcharge) paid by a person who has two children, no
private health insurance and a taxable income of $164 000 per annum.
Think Write
1 Calculate the regular Medicare levy. Medicare levy = 1.5% of $164 000

= 0.015 × $164 000
= $2460
2 Decide if the person must pay the Medicare This person’s income is over the $101 500 threshold
levy surcharge. for a person with two children.
3 Calculate the Medicare levy surcharge. Surcharge = 1% of $164 000
= $1640
4 Calculate the total Medicare levy by adding Total Medicare levy = $2460 + $1640
the surcharge to the regular levy. = $4100
Exercise 3C Medicare levy

1 WE7 Calculate the Medicare levy for a person whose taxable income is $39 870.
2 Calculate the Medicare levy for a person with a taxable income of:
a $43 250 b $56 745 c $94 000.

3 Simon has a gross weekly wage of $451.75.
a Calculate Simon’s gross annual wage.
b Calculate the amount of Medicare levy that Simon pays annually.
4 mC Which of the following families do not have to pay the Medicare levy surcharge, assuming that
none of them have private health insurance?
a Income of $100 000 with no children
B Income of $101 000 with one child
C Income of $102 000 with two children
d Income of $104 000 with four children
5 Mr and Mrs Wyatt have five children. What is the threshold for the Medicare levy surcharge for this
family?
6 We8 Calculate the total Medicare levy (including surcharge) paid by a person who has three children,
no private health insurance and a taxable income of $184 000 per annum.
7 Calculate the total Medicare levy (including surcharge) paid by a person who has eight children, no
private health insurance and a taxable income of $140 000 per annum.
8 James has an annual income of $250 000 and is single with no children. The cost of private health
diGiTal doC
insurance for James would be $950 per year. Calculate how much James would save each year by WorkSHEET 3.1
joining a private health fund as opposed to having to pay the Medicare levy surcharge. doc-10313
Further development
9 James pays $597 in Medicare levy. Calculate his taxable income.
10 Tim has a gross income of $51 000 per year. He does not have private health insurance.
a Calculate the Medicare levy that Tim must pay including the 1% surcharge.
b Tim is able to find $1500 in tax deductions. This brings his income below the threshold for the
surcharge. Calculate the amount by which the Medicate levy is reduced.
11 What is the difference in the Medicare levy between a single person who earns $49 900 and someone
who earns $50 100?
12 Explain what the Medicare levy is.
inVeSTiGaTe: medicare levy
1 At the time of writing, the Medicare levy was 1.5% of gross income. This is reviewed each year in the
federal budget. Find out the current Medicare levy.
2 What is the lower income threshold at which no Medicare levy is paid?
3d Calculating tax
The amount of PAYG tax payable is based on a table that shows the annual tax payable in 2011–12. This
annual amount is then divided into a weekly or fortnightly amount.
Taxable income is broken into five tax brackets. As you earn more money the rate of tax increases,
as shown in the table below. The table is based on whole dollar amounts and so any cents earned are
ignored for the purposes of calculating tax.
Note that we do not round off when ignoring cents; we always round down. For example, a person
who earns $35 956.90 has their tax calculated on $35 956.
Taxable income Tax on this income

0–$6000 Nil
$6001–$37 000 15c for each $1 over $6000
$37 001–$80 000 $4650 plus 30c for each $1 over $37 000
$80 001–$180 000 $17 550 plus 37c for each $1 over $80 000
$180 001 and over $54 550 plus 45c for each $1 over $180 000
From the 2011–12 taxation rate table above we can see that there are five tax brackets:
Bracket 1: People who earn less than $6000 per year pay no tax.
Bracket 2: People who earn between $6001 and $37 000 pay 15c for every dollar over $6000.
Bracket 3: People who earn between $37 001 and $80 000 pay $4650 plus 30c for every dollar over
$37 000.
Bracket 4: People who earn between $80 001 and $180 000 pay $17 550 plus 37c for every dollar over
$80 000.
Bracket 5: People who earn over $180 000 pay $54 550 plus 45c for every dollar over $180 000.
To calculate the amount of PAYG tax that should be deducted from a person’s income, we need to see
what tax bracket they are in and then apply the appropriate rule.
Worked Example 9
Calculate the annual tax payable on a taxable income of $39 600.

Think Write
1 $39 600 is in the $37 001 to $80 000 tax bracket.
2 Tax payable is $4650 plus 30c (0.3) for each $1 over

$37 000.
3 Calculate the amount over $37 000 by subtracting $39 600 − $37 000 = $2600

$37 000 from $39 600.
4 Apply the rule $4650 plus 30c for each $1 over $37 000. Tax payable = $4650 + 0.3 × $2600
5 Calculate. = $5430
When calculating the total amount of tax payable, this income tax must be added to the Medicare levy.
Worked Example 10
Christian has a taxable income of $85 000 per year.

a Calculate the income tax that Christian must pay.
b Calculate the Medicare levy for Christian if he is in a private health fund.
c Calculate Christian’s total tax for the year.
Think Write
a 1 $85 000 is in the $80 001 to $180 000 tax bracket. a
2 Subtract $80 000 from $85 000 to calculate the $85 000 − $80 000 = $5000

amount over $80 000.
3 Apply the rule $17 550 plus 37c for every dollar over Income tax = $17 550 + 0.37 × $5000
$80 000. = $19 400
b Calculate the Medicare levy as 1.5% of $85 000. b Medicare levy = 1.5% of $85 000
= 0.015 × $85 000
= $1275
c Add the Medicare levy to the income tax to find the total c Total tax = $19 400 + $1275
tax payable. = $20 675
When calculating the weekly tax payable, it is assumed that the gross amount earned that week is earned
for the whole year, without consideration of tax deductions. The Medicare levy is taken out as part of
PAYG tax. The yearly amount of tax is then calculated using this amount, then divided into a weekly
payment.

Worked example 11
Trevor earns a gross wage of $772.70 per week. Calculate the amount of PAYG tax that is deducted
by his employer.
Think WriTe
1 Calculate $772.70 per week as an annual amount by $772.70 per week = $40 180 per year
multiplying by 52 (ignore any cents).
2 $40 180 is in the $37 001 to $80 000 tax bracket.
3 Calculate the amount over $37 000 by subtracting $40 180 − $37 000 = $3180
$37 000 from $40 180.
4 Apply the appropriate rule to calculate the tax payable. Annual tax = $4650 + 0.3 × $3180
= $5604
5 Calculate the Medicare levy as 1.5% of $40 180. Medicare levy = 1.5% of $40 180
= 0.015 × $40 180
= $602.70
6 Calculate the total tax payable for the year. Total yearly tax = $5604 + $602.70
= $6206.70
7 Divide the yearly tax into weekly instalments by Weekly tax = $6206.70 ÷ 52
dividing by 52. = $119.36
PAYG tax taken out by an employer is based on the pay being the employee’s only source of income
without tax deductions. In most cases this means that the amount of tax paid by the end of the year will
not be correct. For this reason, every taxpayer must complete a tax return.
Before completing a tax return the taxpayer must collect a payment summary from each of their
employers. A payment summary is a statement of gross earnings and the amount of PAYG tax that has
been deducted from those earnings.
In a tax return, all payment summaries are collected to find the total gross income and total PAYG
tax already paid. All allowable deductions are then subtracted to calculate taxable income. The correct
amount of tax is then calculated. Based on this calculation, the taxpayer will then either receive a refund
or pay the difference.
Worked example 12
Catherine’s gross annual salary as a veterinarian’s assistant is $44 500. She has paid $7567.70
in PAYG tax. Catherine has also earned $560.40 in interest from an investment and has tax
deductions totalling $2345.
a Calculate Catherine’s taxable income.
b Calculate the tax payable on Catherine’s taxable income, including the Medicare levy.
c Calculate the amount that Catherine should receive as a tax refund or the amount of
Catherine’s tax debt.
Think WriTe
a 1 Calculate taxable income by adding all a Taxable income = $44 500 + $560.40 − $2345
incomes and subtracting any tax deductions. = $42 715.40
2 Ignore cents in stating the taxable income. Taxable income = $42 715
b 1 $42 715 is in the $37 001 to $80 000 tax b
bracket.
2 Subtract $37 000 from $42 715 to calculate the $42 715 − $37 000 = $5715
amount earned over $37 000.
3 Apply the appropriate rule to find the tax Income tax = $4650 + 0.3 × $5715
payable. = $6364.50
4 Calculate the Medicare levy. Medicare levy = 1.5% of $42 715
= 0.015 × $42 715
= $640.73
5 Calculate the total tax payable by adding the Total tax = $6364.50 + $640.73
income tax and the Medicare levy. = $7005.23
c 1 Catherine has paid more tax than she needed to c
so she gets a refund.
2 Calculate the size of the refund by subtracting $7567.70 − $7005.23 = $562.47
the amount she should pay ($7005.23) from the
amount paid ($7567.70).
3 Give a written answer. Catherine receives a refund of $562.47.
The Federal Labor Government, led by Prime Minister Julia Gillard, introduced a carbon tax
which took effect from 1 July 2012. While this tax was to be paid by big businesses, households were
compensated from any resulting price increases through the application of new taxation rates.
The following rates for 2012–13 apply from 1 July 2012.
Taxable income Tax on this income

0–$18 200 Nil
$18 201–$37 000 19c for each $1 over $18 200
$37 001–$80 000 $3572 plus 32.5c for each $1 over $37 000
$80 001–$180 000 $17 547 plus 37c for each $1 over $80 000
$180 001 and over $54 547 plus 45c for each $1 over $180 000
The above rates do not include the Medicare levy of 1.5%.
exercise 3d Calculating tax

1 We 9 Use the income tax table on page 91 to calculate the income tax payable on an annual taxable
income of $35 450.
2 Calculate the income tax payable on each of the following taxable incomes.
a $5500 b $18 675 c $31 250
d $44 320 e $92 850 f $208 000
3 Julie receives a gross pay of $627.68 per week.
a Calculate Julie’s gross annual pay (remember to ignore cents).
b Calculate the annual amount of tax that Julie must pay, based on this amount (remember to ignore
cents).

4 Gregory earns a gross pay of $1963.80 per fortnight. Calculate the annual amount of tax that Gregory
must pay, based on this amount.
5 Brett earns $860.75 per week.
a What is the gross annual amount?
b Calculate the tax payable on that amount.
6 WE10 Johann has an annual taxable income of $35 600.
a Calculate the amount of income tax Johann must pay.
b Johann is married with one child. Calculate the Medicare levy for Johann.
c Calculate the total amount of tax that Johann must pay for the year.
7 For each of the following taxpayers, calculate the total amount of tax that they must pay (assume each
must pay the 1.5% Medicare levy).
a Andre, whose taxable income is $23 500
b Brianna, whose taxable income is $72 000
c Catelyn, whose taxable income is $106 000
8 Kerry is a television executive who earns $349 000 per year.
a What is Kerry’s gross weekly pay?
b What is the annual amount of PAYG tax that Kerry must pay?
c Calculate Kerry’s Medicare levy.
d Calculate the amount of Kerry’s net weekly pay.
9 WE11 Sandy earns a gross weekly pay of $478.60. Calculate the amount of PAYG tax deducted each
week by her employer (including Medicare levy).
10 Ashley earns a gross fortnightly pay of $2174.35. Calculate the amount of PAYG tax that Ashley’s
employer should deduct each fortnight.
11 MC Frieda’s taxable income is $50 000 per year. The total amount of tax that she should pay for the
year, including the Medicare levy is:
a $4650
b $7500
c $8250
d $9300
12 MC Henry earns a gross pay of $1295.60 per fortnight. The amount of PAYG tax including the
Medicare levy that will be deducted from Henry’s pay over a full year will be:
a $4152.84
b $4658.12
c $10 105.68
d $33 685.60
13 MC Ian receives a gross pay of $822.50 per week. The only deduction that Ian has taken from his
gross pay is tax including Medicare levy. Ian’s net weekly pay will be:
a $122.72
b $135.05
c $687.45
d $699.78
14 Natasha has a gross monthly salary of $6780. Calculate the amount of tax that Natalie has deducted
from her salary each month including the Medicare levy.
15 WE12 At right is a payment summary for Wendell Hancock. PAYMENT SUMMARY
Wendell has also earned $372.10 in interest from
Wendell Hancock
an investment and has tax deductions totalling $1298.
a Calculate Wendell’s taxable income. Gross income: $39 600.00
b Calculate the tax payable on Wendell’s taxable PAYG tax deducted: $6024.00
income, including the Medicare levy.
c Calculate the amount that Wendell should receive as a tax
refund or what he must pay in tax.
16 Raymond earns a gross weekly pay of $1748.90.
a Calculate Raymond’s gross annual pay.
b Calculate the amount of PAYG tax including the Medicare levy that would be deducted from
Raymond’s pay each week.
c During the year Raymond earned $45.15 in bank interest and had tax deductions totalling $1296.
Calculate the amount of tax that Raymond should pay for the year, including the Medicare levy
based on his annual taxable income.
d Calculate his refund or tax debt.
Further development
17 Vonda Flockhart is employed by day as a journalist and by night as a radio announcer. Her payment
summaries are shown below.
Job 1 Job 2
PAYMENT SUMMARY PAYMENT SUMMARY
Vonda Flockhart Vonda Flockhart

Journalist Radio announcer
Gross income: $35 000.00 Gross income: $9605.00
PAYG tax deducted: $4875.00 PAYG tax deducted: $4322.25
a Calculate Vonda’s gross annual pay from both jobs and the total amount of PAYG tax that Vonda
has paid.
b Vonda earned $184.40 in interest from bank accounts and had $3276 worth of tax deductions for
the year. Calculate Vonda’s taxable income.
c Calculate the amount of tax that Vonda should have paid throughout the year, including the
Medicare levy.
d Calculate the tax refund that Vonda is owed.
18 Jelena receives a gross weekly pay of $1350.52.
a Calculate the amount of PAYG tax, including the Medicare levy, that Jelena should have deducted
from her pay for the year.
b If at the end of the financial year Jelena earned $11 274.56 from other sources and had tax
deductions totalling $3650, calculate Jelena’s tax refund or tax debt.
19 Lois has a gross annual income from her job as a journalist of $78 600.
a Calculate the PAYG tax including Medicare levy that Lois should have deducted from her pay
over the year.
b Lois has income of $400 per week from a property that she rents, but her expenses in running
that property total $23 500 per annum. Calculate Lois’ taxable income.
Note: When expenses exceed the income this is called negative gearing.
c Calculate the amount of tax including Medicare levy that Lois should pay.
d Calculate the amount of tax refund that Lois should receive.
20 Clark is also a journalist and receives $68 600 per annum.
a Calculate the PAYG tax including Medicare levy that Clark should have deducted from his pay
over the year.
b Clark also has a part time job as a super hero. For this he is paid $175 per week but has not paid
any tax on this amount. Clark has a deduction of 4590 km in travel between jobs at a rate of
75 cents per kilometre. Calculate Clark’s taxable income.
c Calculate the tax including Medicare levy that Clark should pay.
d Calculate the amount of Clark’s tax refund or tax debt.
21 Jimmy is a photographer and has a gross salary of $x and has had the correct amount of tax deducted
from his fortnightly pay. At the end of the financial year Jimmy has deductions of $1340 but has earned
$976 in interest from some investments. Explain whether Jimmy will receive a tax refund or have to
pay a tax debt.
22 Explain what is meant by each of the following terms:
a PAYG tax b tax return c tax refund.
diGiTal doC
Spreadsheet
doc-1608
Computer Application 2 Tax calculation
Tax calculator We are now going to continue our tax calculation spreadsheet. In the previous computer application we
used the spreadsheet to calculate a person’s taxable income. We will now use it to calculate income tax
and the Medicare levy.

1. From your Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General ebookPLUS, open the spreadsheet ‘Tax
Calculator’.
If you saved your information from the taxable income, then the second spreadsheet, ‘Income Tax’,
reads the taxable income and does the appropriate calculations for income tax and the Medicare levy.
2. The formula in cell B7 calculates the Medicare levy by taking 1.5% of the taxable income.
3. The income tax is calculated by making a calculation for the appropriate tax bracket only. This figure
is then transferred to the top of the spreadsheet and added with the Medicare levy to calculate the total
tax payable.
3e Calculating GST and VAT

When you purchase most items you must pay the GST on that item. GST stands for Goods and Services
Tax. The GST is a tax amounting to 10% of the purchase price of that item. Some items are exempt from
the GST. These include fresh food, some educational costs and some medical costs.
The GST is an example of an indirect tax. This is because the individual does not pay the tax directly
to the government and there is no record kept of who is paying the tax. The tax is collected at the point
of sale.
To calculate the amount of GST payable on an item, we simply calculate 10% of the purchase price.
Worked Example 13
A cricket bat has a pre-GST price of $127.50. Calculate the GST payable on the purchase of the
bat.
Think Write
Calculate 10% of $127.50. GST payable = 10% of $127.50

= 0.1 × $127.50
= $12.75
When calculating the amount required to purchase an item, you will need to add the GST to the pre-tax price.
The quickest way to do this will be to calculate 110% of the pre-tax price. By using this method we add the
10% GST to 100%, which represents the cost of the item. In this way there is only one calculation to make.
Worked Example 14
The Besenko family goes to McDonald’s for lunch. The cost of the meal before GST is $19.80. How
much will the Besenkos have to pay for the meal, including the GST?
Think Write
1 Calculate 110% of $19.80. Total cost = 110% of $19.80

= 1.1 × $19.80
= $21.78
2 Give a written answer, rounding your answer The cost of the meal will be $21.80.
to the nearest 5c.
When we are given the total cost of an item including GST, we need to reverse the above process to
calculate the pre-tax price of the item. This means that we need to divide the total cost by 110%, written
as a decimal.
Worked Example 15
Calculate the pre-tax price of a car that costs $31 350, including GST.
Think Write
1 Total cost is 110% of the price.

2 Price is total cost divided by 1.1. Price = $31 350 ÷ 1.1
= $28 500
Taxes similar to the GST apply in many countries. These taxes are levied at different percentages in
different countries and in many cases are called value added tax (VAT). The methods used to calculate
the amount of VAT are the same as for Australia’s GST; however, the rate must be checked for each
question.
Worked Example 16
New Zealand has a VAT levied at a rate of 12.5%. Vanessa goes on holidays to New Zealand and
rents a car for five days at a rate of NZ$56.50 per day (before VAT). Calculate the total cost of
renting the car including the VAT.
Think Write
1 Calculate the cost of the car by multiplying Cost = $56.50 × 5

the daily rate by the number of days. = $282.50
2 Add the VAT by calculating 112.5% of the Total cost = 112.5% of $282.50
cost. = $317.81
Note that in other countries there may be 1c and 2c pieces and so we do not take the answer to the
nearest 5c.
Exercise 3E Calculating GST and VAT

1 WE13 Calculate the GST payable on a book that has a pre-tax price of $35.60.
2 Calculate the GST payable on each of the following items (prices given are pre-tax):
a a bottle of dishwashing liquid at $2.30
b a basketball at $68.90
c a pair of cargo pants at $98.50
d a bus fare at $1.30
e a restaurant meal for which the bill totals $89.90.

3 Calculate the GST payable on each of the following items (correct to the nearest cent):
a a barbecued chicken with a pre-tax price of $7.99
b a tin of shoe polish with a pre-tax price of $4.81
c a tin of dog food with a pre-tax price of 93c
d a pack of toilet rolls with a pre-tax price of $6.25
e a pack of frozen pies with a pre-tax price of $3.36.
4 WE14 A pair of sports shoes that cost $112.50 has 10% GST added to the cost. Calculate the total cost
of the sports shoes.
5 Calculate the total cost of each of the following items after the 10% GST has been added (prices given
are pre-tax):
a a football jersey priced at $114.90
b a CD priced at $29.90
c a bunch of flowers priced at $14.70
d a birthday card priced at $4.95
e a jar of coffee priced at $5.88.
6 Jia travels to New Zealand where the VAT is set at 12.5%. Calculate the amount of tax payable on each
of the following items:
a a camera priced at $240

b a bus fare for $7.50
c a whitewater rafting tour costing $376
d a ski lift ticket costing $23.50
e a new suitcase priced at $78.90.
7 WE15 A restaurant bill totals
$108.35 including the 10% GST.
Calculate the actual price of the meal
before the GST was added.
8 A bus fare was $2.09 including the
10% GST. Calculate:
a the bus fare without the GST
b how much GST was paid.
9 WE16 Austin travels to the USA. In
the state of Utah a VAT is levied at
11%. Calculate what Austin will pay
for four nights accommodation in a
hotel that charges $78.40 per night
before VAT.
10 Nancy travels to the USA. In
California, the VAT is 7.5% of the
price of the item. Calculate what
Nancy will pay for each of the
following items:
a a postcard that has a ticketed
price of $1
b Disneyland entry that is $75
c two nights accommodation at a
hotel for $89.90 per night
d a restaurant meal for which the
bill totals $45.78
e a taxi fare that costs $6.46.
11 Sachin decides to purchase a
new car. The pre-tax cost for
the basic model of the car is $30 500. It is an extra $1200 for an automatic car, an extra $1600
for airconditioning, $1000 for power steering, $600 for a CD player and $450 for alloy wheels.
Calculate the cost of each of the following cars, after the 10% GST has been added:
a the basic model car
b an automatic car with airconditioning
c a car with a CD player and alloy wheels
d a car with all of the above added extras.
Further development
12 When overseas tourists leave Australia they are entitled to a refund of GST charged on their purchases.
Calculate the amount of GST refund due for purchases totalling $5674.
13 Under a similar arrangement when Australians travel to the UK they are entitled to a refund of the VAT
which is levied at 15%. Judy has receipts that total £1856.
a Calculate the amount of Judy’s refund in £.
b Given that £1 = $A0.45 calculate Judy’s refund in $A.
14 Jason has been to the USA where the VAT is levied at different rates in different states. On leaving the
USA he has receipts for goods US$750 where the VAT was levied at 10%, US$450 where the VAT was
levied at 11% and US$1677 from where the VAT was 7%.
a Calculate the amount of Jason’s VAT refund in US$.
b Given that A$1 = US$0.80 calculate the refund in A$.
15 An alcohol product has a wholesale price of $23.67. It is then subject to a 35% tax. After this tax a
retail mark up of 15% is added before the 10% GST is added. Find the final retail price of the alcohol.
16 An item is priced at $220 on the shelf. Keith says that the 10% GST on the item is $22, while Maxine
says that it is $20. Who is correct? Explain the reasoning.
17 GST stands for Goods and Services Tax. Explain what the difference between a ‘Good’ and a
‘Service’ is.

3F Graphing tax functions
We can draw linear graphs to display the tax payable. This is possible for both the GST and income tax. inTeraCTiViTY
int-2404
paYG tax graph
exercise 3F Graphing tax functions
1 Draw a set of axes with the price on the horizontal axis and GST on the vertical axis, as shown.
50
40
GST ($)
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Price ($)
a Calculate the GST payable on items that cost:
i $100 ii $200 iii $500.
b Join these points with a straight line to show the GST function.
2 Draw a set of axes with ‘Income’ on the horizontal axis and ‘Income tax’ on the vertical axis, as shown
below.
80
75
70
65
Income tax (× $1000)
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
195
200
Income (× $1000)
a What is the tax payable on gross incomes up to $6000? Show this on the axes.
b Calculate the tax payable on a gross income of:
i $10 000 ii $34 000.
This is the second tax bracket. Mark these points on the axes and join these points with a straight
line.
c Calculate the tax payable on a gross income of:
i $37 500 ii $50 000 iii $80 000.
This is the third tax bracket. Mark these points on the axes and join these points with a straight
line.
d Calculate the tax payable on a gross income of:
i $100 000 ii $180 000.
This is the fourth tax bracket. Mark these points on the axes and join these points with a straight
line.
e Calculate the tax payable on a gross income of:
i $180 500 ii $190 000 iii $200 000.
This is the fifth tax bracket. Mark these points on the axes and join these points with a
straight line.

Further development
3 A nation has a two-tiered GST system. For the first $1000 of any item GST is levied at 5% and any
amount over $1000 is levied at 15%.
a Draw a graph of this GST function.
b Find the GST levied on an item costing:
i $450 ii $1000 iii $3250.
c Find the cost of an item for which the GST is:
i $20 ii $100 iii $355.
4 A nation has the following tax system.
Income Tax
0–$10 000 Nil
$10 000–$50 000 Nil plus 25 cents for every $1 over $10 000
diGiTal doC Over $50 000 $10 000 plus 40 cents for every $1 over $50 000
WorkSHEET 3.2
doc-10314 Draw a graph of this taxation system.

Summary
Calculating allowable • Allowable tax deductions are amounts that are deducted from gross income, as they are not
deductions taxable.
• Deductions are allowed for work-related expenses and other items such as charity donations.
Taxable income • Taxable income is the income on which income tax is assessed.
• Taxable income is calculated by subtracting any allowable deductions from gross income.
medicare levy • The Medicare levy is part of the tax system that funds basic health care services.
• For most people the Medicare levy is 1.5% of gross income.
• People on low incomes either pay no Medicare levy or pay it at a reduced rate.
• People on high incomes with no private health insurance must pay a Medicare levy surcharge of an
extra 1% of taxable income.
Calculating tax • Pay As You Go (PAYG) tax is deducted from your gross pay each week or fortnight.
• Tax is calculated on the taxpayer’s gross annual income. This is then divided into weekly or
fortnightly amounts.
• At the end of the financial year the taxpayer submits a tax return.
• In a tax return the correct amount of tax for the year is calculated. The taxpayer then either receives
a tax refund or pays a tax debt.
Calculating GST • The most common indirect tax is the GST, which began in Australia on 1 July 2000.
and VaT • The GST is a 10% tax paid on the cost of all goods and services with the exception of some basic
foods.
• Some other countries have a value added tax (VAT), which is similar to the GST but levied at
different rates.

Chapter review
1 Slavisa is a nurse with a gross annual income of $45 675. He has earned $136.50 in interest from his
m U lT ip l e
C h oiCe bank accounts and has allowable deductions of $680. Slavisa’s taxable income is:
a $44 858.50 B $45 131.50 C $46 218.50 d $46 491.50
2 Allan’s taxable income is $48 000. Allan’s tax for the year is (use the PAYG tax table on page 91
(including Medicare levy)):
a $720 B $4200 C $8400 d $9120
3 Bradley receives a bill for $489.50 for car repairs, which includes GST. The cost of the repairs without
the tax was:
a $440.55 B $445.00 C $489.50 d $538.45
Sh orT 1 Tony is employed as a motor mechanic. Tony claims deductions of $1800 to buy tools, $225 for three
anS Wer
pairs of work overalls, $5 per week for dry-cleaning of these overalls and $2.50 per week for work-
related telephone calls. Calculate Tony’s total tax deductions.
2 Catherine is a computer consultant who uses her own vehicle for work. Each week she must make
several visits to businesses that use her computer systems. Catherine travelled 4523 km on work-related
trips during the year. Calculate the tax deduction that Catherine can claim if she is entitled to claim at
the rate of 63c per kilometre.
3 Brian runs a small bakery and has equipment in his bakery to the value of $45 000 at the beginning of
the 2012–13 financial year. For tax purposes he depreciates these items at a rate of 28% p.a. Calculate
the tax deduction that Brian can claim for depreciation in:
a 2013–14 b 2014–15 c 2015–16.
4 If a $5000 computer can be depreciated at a rate of 33% p.a., how many years will it take for its value
to fall below $500?
5 Verity is employed as a vet. Verity has the following tax deductions.
• $1500 for appropriate clothing
• $5 per week for dry-cleaning
• $2590 for new equipment
• 28% depreciation on major equipment currently valued at $65 000
• 3287 km in travelling expenses (at a rate of 74 c/km)
• $127.45 per month in telephone calls
• $318 per quarter for electricity
Calculate Verity’s total tax deductions.
6 Eddie has a gross annual salary of $46 000 and has tax deductions that total $2117. Calculate Eddie’s
taxable income.
7 From her job as a journalist, Jana earns a gross annual salary of $72 000. Jana also earns $3540 per year
from her investments. If Jana has tax deductions totalling $5120, calculate her taxable income.
8 Allison’s gross weekly wage is $539.50. Allison also earned $107.40 per quarter in interest from a fixed
term deposit. Calculate:
a Allison’s total earnings for the year
b Allison’s taxable income, given that she had deductions that total $2018.
9 Raymond has two jobs. One earns him $938.50 per fortnight and the other $190.60 per week. He also
earned $97.10 in interest throughout the year.
a Calculate Raymond’s gross annual income.
b In travelling between jobs, Raymond made 104 trips at 23 km per trip. For this he was entitled to
claim a tax deduction at the rate of 63 c/km. Raymond had other tax deductions totalling $950.
Calculate Raymond’s taxable income for the year.
10 The Medicare levy is paid at a rate of 1.5% of taxable income. Calculate the Medicare levy that must be
paid by a person whose taxable income is $39 000 per year.
11 Calculate the amount of Medicare levy that is payable by each of the people below.
a Tanya has a taxable income of $15 500.
b Sam has a taxable income of $29 000.

c Emma has a taxable income of $47 500.
d Gavin has a taxable income of $83 507 and is in a private health fund.
e Holly has a taxable income of $99 000 and is in a private health fund.
12 Use the table on page 90 to determine the Medicare levy paid by a family with 3 children, no private
health insurance and a taxable income of:
a $87 600 b $101 000 c $156 000.
13 Use the tax table on page 91 to calculate the tax payable on a taxable income of $44 500.
14 Use the tax table on page 91 to calculate the tax payable on an income of:
a $5000 b $19 357 c $35 670
d $89 562 e $278 000.
15 Brett earns a gross weekly wage of $653.60.
a Calculate Brett’s gross annual pay.
b Calculate annual tax that would be payable on this annual amount.
c Calculate the Medicare levy payable on this annual amount.
d Calculate the total annual tax payable.
e Calculate the weekly PAYG tax that would be deducted from Brett’s wages.
16 Fiona has a gross fortnightly salary of $3367.90. Calculate the amount of PAYG tax that would be
deducted from Fiona’s pay each fortnight.
17 Neville has a gross annual salary of $43 750. He has tax deductions totalling $3495. During the year
Neville has had $7331.25 deducted in PAYG tax.
a Calculate Neville’s taxable income.
b Calculate the total tax payable on this amount, including the Medicare levy.
c Calculate the tax refund that Neville should receive.
18 An electric guitar has a pre-tax price of $990. Calculate the amount of GST payable on the guitar.
19 Calculate the amount of GST payable on each of the following items (prices given are pre-tax):
a a takeaway meal at $11.30
b a lawnmower at $369.00
c a bus fare costing $1.20
d a hair style priced at $37.50
e a $12.50 movie ticket.
20 A round of golf costs $20 before tax. Calculate the total cost of the game after the 10% GST is added.
21 The total cost of a restaurant meal was $123.75, including GST. Calculate the actual cost of the meal
without the tax.
1 Lleyton is employed as a forklift driver and receives a gross weekly wage of $970. ex Ten d ed
r eS p o n S e
a Calculate Lleyton’s gross annual wage.
b If Lleyton has tax deductions totalling $1194 and has earned $75.80 from other sources, calculate
Lleyton’s taxable income.
c Calculate the Medicare levy for Lleyton.
d Use the table on page 91 to calculate the income tax due for Lleyton.
e If Lleyton’s employer has deducted $9438.60 in PAYG tax through the year, calculate Lleyton’s
tax refund or tax debt.
2 Vicky goes to a travel agent to enquire about a holiday in New Zealand. The cost of accommodation in
a New Zealand hotel is A$75 per night.
a If Vicky books this at the travel agent she must pay the 10% GST on the cost of the
accommodation. Calculate the total cost of four nights in Australian dollars.
b If Vicky flies to New Zealand and books the hotel on arrival, the cost is NZ$80 per night. If there
is a 12.5% VAT on the hotel room, calculate the total cost of four nights in New Zealand dollars. diGiTal doC
Test Yourself
c A$1 = NZ$1.12. What is the cheapest way to book the accommodation and by how much is it doc-10315
cheaper? Chapter 3

ICT activities
3B Taxable income 3F Graphing tax functions
diGiTal doC inTeraCTiViTY
• Spreadsheet (doc-1608): Tax calculator (page 88) • int-2404: PAYG tax graph (page 101)
diGiTal doC
3C medicare levy • WorkSHEET 3.2 (doc-10314): Answer questions about taxation.
diGiTal doC (page 102)
• WorkSHEET 3.1 (doc-10313): Answer questions involving tax
calculations. (page 91) Chapter review
• Test Yourself Chapter 3 (doc-10315): Take the end-of-chapter test to
3d Calculating tax check your progress. (page 105)
diGiTal doC
• Spreadsheet (doc-1608): Tax calculator (page 96)

Answers CHAPTER 3
TaxaTion 14 a $40 862.50 18 a $15 671.51
exercise 3a Calculating allowable
b $33 170.30 b $2401.56 debt
15 a The amount of money earned without 19 a $18 309 b $75 900
deductions
any deductions c $17 458.50 d $850.50
1 $38 716
b That remaining after tax deductions 20 a $15 159 b $74 257
2 $54 109
have been subtracted from gross income c $16 940.96 d $1781.96
3 $1153.90
21 Jimmy will get a tax refund as his
4 $1624.55 exercise 3C medicare levy
deductions are greater than his additional
5 $1070.10 1 $598.05
income. This means that his taxable
6 $6270 2 a $648.75
income will be less than the gross income.
7 $2000.88 b $851.18
22 a PAYG (Pay As You Go) is the tax that is
8 a $1260 c $1410
paid at each pay period.
b $1957.30 3 a $23 491
b Tax return is where all income and
c $1157.36 b $352.37
PAYG tax is calculated at the end of the
d $2175 4 D
final year.
9 $3226.05 5 $106 000
c Tax refund is the balance paid to the
10 $324 6 $4600
taxpayer when more PAYG tax has been
11 a $1000 7 $3500
paid through the year than the amount
b $600 8 $1550
calculated in the tax return.
c $360 9 $39 800
12 $3087.50 10 a $1275 exercise 3e Calculating GST and VaT
13 a i $30 000 b $532.50 1 $3.56
ii $18 000 11 $504 2 a 23c b $6.89
iii $10 800 12 A tax to pay for Australia’s public medical c $9.85 d 13c
b 2013–14 system e $8.99
14 $960 3 a 80c b 48c
exercise 3d Calculating tax
15 $18 760 c 9c d 63c
1 $4417.50
16 $712.27 e 34c
2 a $0
17 $47 937.50 4 $123.75
b $1901.25
18 a Cents per kilometre 5 a $126.39 b $32.89
c $3787.50
b $3589 c $16.17 d $5.45
d $6846
19 a $6000 e $6.47
e $22 304.50
b $3950 6 a $30.00 b $0.94
f $67 150
20 A tax deduction is subtracted from the c $47.00 d $2.94
3 a $32 639
gross income before any tax calculations e $9.86
b $3995.90
are made. 7 $98.50
4 $8867.40
exercise 3B Taxable income 8 a $1.90
5 a $44 759
1 $43 754.25 b 19c
b $6977.70
2 a $16 879.20 9 $348.10
6 a $4440
b $15 736.50 10 a $1.08 b $80.63
b $534
3 $43 568.34 c $193.29 d $49.21
c $4974
4 a $24 219.40 e $6.95
7 a $2977.50
b $22 262.60 11 a $33 550 b $36 630
b $16 230
5 a $20 503.60 c $28 760 c $34 705 d $38 885
b $20 075.20 8 a $6711.54 12 $515.82
6 a $42 500 b $130 600 13 a £242.09
b $2600 c $5235 b $537.98
c $39 900 d $4099.33 14 a $US222.48
7 a $34 262.30 9 $61.66 b $278.10
b $710.40 10 $404.23 15 $40.42
c $31 992.00 11 D 16 Maxine is correct as the GST is added on
8A 12 B the wholesale price meaning that the retail
9 $53 120 13 C price needs to be divided by 11.
10 $13 760 14 $1606.13 17 A ‘Good’ is an item where a ‘Service’ is
11 a $74 280 15 a $38 674 something that people do for the customer.
b $8958.90 b $5732.31 exercise 3F Graphing tax functions
c $65 321.10 c $291.69
1 a i $10 ii $20 iii $50
12 a $25 649 16 a $90 942 50
b
b $1470 b $441.60 40
c $1540 c $22 481.04
GST ($)
30
d $1349.40 d Refund $481.94 20
e $21 289.60 17 a $44 605, $9197.25 10
13 a $509.20 b $41 513 0
b $26 834.84 c $6626.60 0 50 00 50 00 50 00 50 00 50 00
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
c $26 083.84 d $2570.65 Price ($)

2
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
Income tax ($' 000)
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
Income ($' 000)
a Nil ShorT anSWer

b i $600 ii $4200 1 $2415
c i $4800 ii $9000 iii $18 000 2 $2849.49
d i $26 600 ii $58 000 3 a $12 600 b $9072
e i $58 000 ii $62 500 iii $67 000 c $6531.84
3 a 4 6 years
250
5 $27 783.78
200 6 $43 883
7 $70 420
GST ($)
150
8 a $28 483.60 b $26 465.60
100 9 a $34 409.30 b $31 952.34
10 $585
50
11 a $232.50 b $435
0 c $712.50 d $1252.61
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 e $1485
Amount ($)
12 a $1314 b $1515
c $3900
b i $22.50 ii $50 iii $387.50
13 $6900
c i $400 ii $1333.33 iii $3033.33
14 a Nil b $2003.55
4
35 000 c $4450.50 d $21 087.94
e $98 650
30 000
15 a $33 987.20 b $4198.08
25 000 c $509.81 d $4707.89
e $90.54
Tax ($)
20 000 16 $833.18
15 000 17 a $40 225 b $6220.88
c $1550.92
10 000 18 $99
19 a $1.13 b $36.90
5000
c 12c d $3.75
0 e $1.25
20 $22 21 $112.50
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
10
exTended reSponSe
Income ($)
1 a $50 440 b $49 321.80
c $739.82 d $8346.30
ChapTer reVieW
e $352.48 refund
mUlTiple ChoiCe 2 a $330 b $360
1 B 2 D 3 B c NZ$9.60 cheaper to pay on arrival in New Zealand

Chapter 4
Statistics and society, data
collection and sampling
Chapter Contents
4a Statistical processes
4B Target populations and sampling
4C Population characteristics
4d Types of data
4e Bias
4a statistical processes
There are many cases in society where data needs to be analysed. Governments and businesses have data
analysed regularly to try to make accurate predictions about future trends.
Consider the case of a government department such as the Roads and Traffic Authority. This
department needs to gather data about places where accidents occur. These sets of data are analysed
and decisions made about what areas need to have road works and what places need greater police
supervision.
Data are also analysed in areas such as business and sport. Shops will look at sales figures to
determine stock and staffing requirements, while in sport player performances are measured statistically
by coaches and the media.
The purpose of completing a statistical enquiry is to turn raw data into meaningful information. Data
are sets of facts that are collected, but limited data alone can have very little meaning. When lots of data
are collected and presented and conclusions are drawn, the data becomes more useful information.
There are six stages to completing a statistical investigation.
Stage 1: Posing questions
This first stage of the statistical process is to determine the final information required, then writing
questions that will give us the answer and also allow for easy collation of findings and presentation of
results.
Consider the case where you represent the local council. Your job is to investigate what sporting
facilities are needed in your local area. You will need to pose questions that accurately determine the
needs of an area.
Questions need to target specific needs and not be too vague.
‘What sporting facilities do you think are needed in this area?’ is
open ended and is based only on opinion. The question invites a Please rank the following
sporting needs in this area.
range of responses that may be difficult to tabulate. The question
does not analyse if the respondent would even use the facilities that
Cricket nets
they believe are needed.
Tennis courts
More relevant questions would be
Golf course
1. Do you currently use the sporting facilities in the district?
Netball courts
2. How many hours of sport do you play each week?
Soccer field
3. What sports do you currently play?
Other
4. For the sports that you currently play, are the existing facilities
adequate?
5. Rank the following sporting needs in this area.
A survey form
Chapter 4 • Statistics and society, data collection and sampling 109

Stage 2: Collecting data
Data can be collected using either internal or external sources. To collect data from an external source
means that the data is obtained by doing research. For example, if you are researching data on share
prices you might seek this information from the Australian Stock Exchange.
If the data is not available from an external source you will need to generate the data yourself. This is
called using internal sources. There are two methods of acquiring data internally.
1. Observation — this is data that does not require a response from people. This may, for example, be
observing the number of students who attend the school canteen at lunchtime.
2. Questioning — this is where the data is obtained by getting a response from people; for example,
investigating the sporting facilities needed in the local area.
Worked exaMple 1
Brendon is planning a skiing trip and needs to investigate the best places and best times to travel.
Would he use internal or external sources to obtain this information?
thInk WrIte
Brendon would obtain his information from the Brendon would use an external source.
Bureau of Meteorology.
Stage 3: Organising data

Once data have been collected they need to be put into an organised form. This involves tallying the
responses to a questionnaire, accurately recording your observations or tabulating the results of your
research.
This task is usually made easier if the questionnaire is designed with ease of tabulation in mind.
Worked exaMple 2
A Year 11 class was surveyed on their weekly income. The responses are shown below.
$75 $115 $60 $54 $88 $0 $98 $102
$56 $45 $83 $71 $40 $37 $87 $117
$43 $79 $58 $89 $70 $105 $99 $55
Complete the table below.
Income Tally Frequency
$0–$20
$21–$40
$41–$60
$61–$80
$81–$100
$101–$120
thInk WrIte
Count the number of responses within each

Income Tally Frequency
category and put a tally mark in the column.
$0–$20 | 1
$21–$40 || 2
$41–$60 |||| || 7
$61–$80 |||| 4
$81–$100 |||| | 6
$101–$120 |||| 4

Stage 4: Displaying data
The most common way for displaying data is by using a graph. Different graphs have different purposes,
which we will look at in chapter 5. For now we will look specifically at column graphs and sector
graphs.
Worked exaMple 3
The table below shows the results of a survey on favourite sports.
Sport Frequency
AFL 6
Basketball 2
Cricket 7
Netball 2
Rugby League 3
Rugby Union 1
Soccer 2
Tennis 1
Show this information in:
a a column graph b a sector graph.
thInk WrIte
a 1 Draw the horizontal axis showing each a

sport. 8
7
2 Draw a vertical axis to show frequencies
Frequency
6
up to 7. 5
4
3 Draw the columns. 3
2
1
0
l t l e n r s
FL tbal cke tbal agu nio cce nni
A i e
e r e
sk C N y L by
e U So T
Ba b
g u g
Ru R
Sport
6 2
b 1 Calculate each angle as a fraction of 360°. b AFL = 24
× 360° Basketball = 24
× 360°
= 90° = 30°
7 2
Cricket = 24 × 360° Netball = 24 × 360°
= 105° = 30°
3
Rugby League = 24
× 360°
= 45°
1
Rugby Union = 24 × 360°
= 15°
2 1
Soccer = 24
× 360° Tennis = 24
× 360°
= 30° = 15°

2 Draw the graph. Sport
AFL
Basketball
Cricket
Netball
Rugby League
Rugby Union
Soccer
Tennis
Stage 5: Analysing data and drawing conclusions

Once the data have been organised and displayed, they need to be studied and conclusions drawn. It is at
this stage of the statistical inquiry that the results can be reflected on and conclusions made.
Stage 6: Writing the report
The final stage is to collate all the earlier stages into a written report. The written report should:
1. Pose the questions that the statistical analysis is examining.
2. Explain how the data was collected, what type of data was collected and from what sources.
3. Include all tables used.
4. Use appropriate graphs to display the data.
5. Contain conclusions and recommendations, and reasons why these conclusions were reached.
exercise 4a statistical processes

1 For each of the following, state whether the data source would be internal or external.
a The number of cars stolen in NSW each year
b The rise or fall in a share price over the past year
c The number of people who rode bikes to school today
d The number of people who voted in the last federal election
e Who people intend to vote for in the next federal election
f The most popular band among Year 11 students at your school
g The number of Holden cars sold each week in Australia
h The batting average of each player in the Australian cricket team
2 For each of the following, state whether an internal or external source has been used.
a A football coaching assistant records the number of tackles made by each player in a match.
b To analyse immigration trends, a researcher obtains records of the nations from which immigrants
dIgItal doC
Spreadsheet
have come.
doc-1505 c Attendance records at the Royal Easter Show are gathered to plan the required number of trains
Frequency tables for each day of the next Show.
d The Deputy Principal of a school collects records on the number of siblings each student at the
school has.
3 For each of the following, state whether the data would be gathered using observation or questioning.
a The number of sets of traffic lights in a country town
b The number of students in Year 11 at your school who started high school at a different school

c The most popular football team in Year 11
d The football team that attracts the largest crowds
e The number of students in your class with a learner’s permit
f The number of trees in your school grounds
g The average weekly income of Year 11 students
h The number of people who speed through an intersection
4 WE 1 Rewrite the following open-ended questions so that the responses will be easier to tabulate.
a Where is your favourite holiday destination?
b What is your weekly income?
c How many movies have you seen at the cinema this year?
d Who is your favourite singer or group?
e How many hours study do you do each week?
5 WE 2 A class of students was asked to identify the make of car their family owned. Their responses are
shown below.
Holden Ford Nissan Mazda Toyota Holden
Ford Holden Ford Mitsubishi Toyota Toyota
Nissan Holden Holden Ford Toyota Mazda
Mazda Toyota Ford Holden Holden Ford
Mitsubishi Toyota Holden Ford Ford Toyota
Put these results into a table.
6 Display the following golf scores in an appropriate table.
70 70 67 72 67 71 73 66 72 69
71 66 73 70 69 70 66 66 71 71
72 70 70 69 72 70 71 70 71 72
69 72 72 71 70 73 69 73 70 68
7 WE 3 The marks scored on a Maths exam, out of 100, by 25 Year 11 students are shown below.
87 44 95 66 78 69 66 92 78
54 60 66 69 66 77 79 66 71
71 83 74 81 69 70 57
8 The data below show the number of customers that entered a shop each day in a certain month.
114 195 175 163 180 120 204 199
178 216 200 147 168 173 102 150
169 185 173 164 130 119 158 163
141 155 132 143 190 179 200
Choose suitable groupings to tabulate these data.
9 Draw a column graph to display the information from question 5.
10 Draw a sector graph to display the information from question 7.
11 The data below shows the changing temperature over a period of 12 hours.
Time 7 am 8 am 9 am 10 am 11 am 12 pm 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm 4 pm 5 pm 6 pm 7 pm
Temperature
11 13 14 16 19 20 22 22 20 17 16 15 14
(°C)
Plot these points on a graph and join the points. This type of graph is a line graph.
Further development
12 Explain the advantages of using external data sources.
13 Fiona and Suzi collect information about road transport in their county town:
• Fiona has found information from the RTA about vehicle registration in NSW.
• Suzi records the types of vehicles that pass through the main intersection during the day.
a Which person has used an internal data source?
b What is the advantage of Fiona’s data collection method?
c State a benefit of Suzi’s data collection method.

14 The data below shows the marks, out of 100, from an exam taken by 40 students.
93 88 43 59 67 57 79 60 76 55
52 66 70 62 93 56 51 86 49 53
92 67 94 79 55 73 91 97 51 61
77 77 44 64 99 56 95 63 44 91
a What is the lowest score in the data set?
b What is the highest score in the data set?
c Mieka records the scores in a table which has been started below:
Score Frequency
40 0
41 0
42 0
43 1
44 2
Explain why this is not a practical way to display the data.

d Display the data from question 6 in a table using a class size of 10 beginning with 40–49.
e Display the data from question 6 in a table using a class size of 5 beginning with 40–44.
f Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using a smaller class size.
15 For each of the following, state whether the data would best be displayed by a column, sector or line
graph.
a The number of goals kicked by each player in a soccer team.
b The breakdown of reasons for which the NRMA is called to assist broken down drivers.
c The height of a plant as it grows over one year.
d The numbers of various animals living in a national park.
4B Target populations and sampling

The first step in gathering the relevant data for a statistical investigation is to target the population that
is to be investigated. This means identifying the sections of the population for whom the statistical
investigation will have meaning.
For example, if investigating the medical needs of a community we would not conduct our survey
at the local fitness club. In this case we would survey doctors and other medical personnel, as well as a
selection of patients who use these facilities.
When starting an investigation, we must determine the quantity of information needed for the
database. Consider the case of a company hired to calculate TV ratings. Does the company need to
know what every household is watching? Obviously not; they ask a selection of homes to record their
television viewing.
Conversely, consider the case of selecting a commemorative Year 12 jersey at your school. In this case
it would be reasonable to ask the opinion of every person in Year 12.
Data can be collected in two ways:
1. Census — This is where an entire population is counted. Australians complete a census every five
years. This is a survey of every household in the nation. In most statistical investigations a census
involves surveying the entire target population.
2. Sample — A sample is a more practical way of obtaining data. Only a selection of the target
population is surveyed; however, it is important that those selected are representative of the whole
population.
Before deciding whether to do a census or sample we need to consider whether it is feasible to obtain
census data.
Consider the case of someone who is analysing the NRL results for a season. The target population is
the result of each match. This is recorded in a number of places and the data easily obtained.

Worked exaMple 4
In each of the following, state if the information was obtained by census or sample.
a A school uses the roll to count the number of students absent each day.
b The television ratings, in which 2000 families complete a survey on what they watch over a one
week period.
c A light globe manufacturer tests every hundredth light globe off the production line.
d A teacher records the examination marks of her class.
thInk WrIte
a Every student is counted at roll call each morning. a Census

b Not every family is asked to complete a ratings survey. b Sample
c Not every light globe is tested. c Sample
d The marks of every student are recorded. d Census
To ensure that any sample is representative of the whole population the method of sampling is important.
We will look at three methods of sampling.
Method 1 — Random sample. In a random sample those to be surveyed are selected by chance. In such
a sample every member of the target population should have an equal chance of being selected. If this
method is used you should get a mix of the population that is representative of the whole.
Calculators and spreadsheets generate random numbers in different ways. In many cases the random
number will be a decimal between 0 and 1. To get a whole number we could multiply this decimal by the
number of people in the target population and then poll the people that correspond to the random number
generated.
Worked exaMple 5
Three students from a school are to be selected to participate in a statewide survey of school
students. There are 750 students at the school. To choose the participants, a random number
generator is used with the results 0.983, 0.911 and 0.421. What are the roll numbers of the students
who should be selected?
thInk WrIte
1 Multiply the results of the random number generator 0.983 × 750 = 737.25
by the size of the population. 0.911 × 750 = 683.25
0.421 × 750 = 315.75
2 Round up to whole numbers. The 738th, 684th and the 316th people on
the roll would be surveyed.
If the selection is not random there is a possibility that the sample may have bias. For example, if doing
a survey at school you may
• Have a tendency to survey people you know.
• Choose an area where more students of a particular year tend to sit.
• Choose more of one sex than the other.
Method 2 — Stratified sample. In this sampling method the numbers in the survey from each sub-
group are chosen in proportion to the whole population. Suppose that you are surveying 60 people from
your school. Should you survey 10 people from each year? It is better to select the numbers from each
year in proportion to the whole population. If, for example, 20% of students are in Year 7, then 20% of
60 (12) students from this year should be chosen.
Worked exaMple 6
Adrian is conducting a survey of school students. At his school, 47% of the population are male
and 53% are female. If Adrian decides to survey 60 students, how many students of each sex
should he choose if he decides to use a stratified sample?

thInk WrIte
1 The population is 47% male and so 47% of 47% of 60 = 0.47 × 60

the sample should be male. Find 47% of 60. = 28.2
2 The population is 53% female and so 53% 53% of 60 = 0.53 × 60
of the sample should be female. Find 53% = 31.8
of 60.
3 Make a conclusion about how many of each There should be 28 males and 32 females in
sex should participate in the survey, rounding Adrian’s survey.
off your answers.
Method 3 — Systematic sample. When selecting a systematic sample the participants are chosen in
an organised way. For example, tyres coming off a production line need to be tested for wear. Every
100th tyre produced may be selected.
exercise 4B target populations and sampling

1 For each of the following describe what the target population for a survey would be.
a The school end-of-year committee wants to find out the preferred venue for the Year 12 farewell.
b The local council wants to find out what sporting facilities are needed in the area.
c A newspaper wants to predict the winner of the next federal election.
d A group planning to build a preschool would like to know what facilities would attract
enrolments.
e A recording label wants to predict the likely success of a grunge band.
2 We 4 A school conducts an election for a new school captain. Every teacher and student in the
school votes. Is this an example of a census or a sample? Explain your answer.
3 A survey is conducted by a council to see what sporting facilities the community needs. If 500 people
who live in the community are surveyed, is this an example of a census or a sample?
4 For each of the following surveys, state whether a census or a sample has been used.
a Two hundred people in a shopping centre are asked to nominate the supermarket where they do
most of their grocery shopping.
b To find the most popular new car on the road, 500 new car buyers are asked what make and
model car they purchased.
c To find the most popular new car on the road, the make and model of every new car registered are
recorded.
d To find the average mark in the Mathematics half-yearly exam, every student’s mark is recorded.
e To test the quality of tyres on a production line, every 100th tyre is road tested.
5 Below are a number of statistical investigations. For each state whether data would be available for the
entire target population
a Arthur wants to research the average temperature in Sydney during each month.
b The manufacturer wants to test the life span of every battery produced.
c Carla wants to compare the average birth weight of baby boys and girls.
d David wants to compare the batting average of all test cricketers.
6 For each of the following, recommend whether you would use a census or a sample to obtain the
results.
a To find the most watched television program on Monday night at 7:30 pm
b To find the number of cars sold during a period of one year
c To find the number of cars that pass through the tollgates on the Sydney Harbour Bridge each day
d To find the percentage of computers produced by a company that are defective
7 An opinion poll is conducted to try to predict the outcome of an election. Two thousand people are
telephoned and asked about their voting intention. Is this an example of a census or a sample?
8 We5 A factory has 500 employees. Each employee has an employee number between 1 and 500.
Five employees are selected to participate in an Occupational Health and Safety survey. To choose the
participants, a random number generator is used. The results are 0.326, 0.352, 0.762, 0.989 and 0.018.
What are the employee numbers of those to participate in the survey?

9 A school has 837 students. A survey of 10 students in the school is to be conducted. A random number
generator is used to select the participants. If the random numbers chosen are:
0.988 0.251 0.498 0.661 0.247 0.031 0.967 0.932 0.229 0.443
what are the roll numbers of the students who should be selected?
10 A survey is to be conducted of 20 out of 50 000 people in a country town. Those selected are to be
chosen using a random number generator.
a Use your calculator to generate 20 random numbers.
b Calculate the electoral roll numbers of the people who should be chosen for the survey.
11 For each of the following, state whether the sample used is an example of random, stratified or
systematic sampling.
a Every 10th tyre coming off a production line is tested for quality.
b A company employs 300 men and 450 women. The sample of employees chosen for a survey
contains 20 men and 30 women.
c The police breathalyse the driver of every red car.
d The names of the participants in a survey are drawn from a hat.
e Fans at a football match fill in a questionnaire. The ground contains 8000 grandstand seats and
20 000 general admission seats. The questionnaire is then given to 40 people in the grandstand
and 100 people who paid for a general admission seat.
12 MC Which of the following is an example of a systematic sample?
a The first 20 students who arrive at school each day participate in the survey.
b Twenty students to participate in the survey are chosen by a random number generator.
c Twenty students to participate in the survey are selected in proportion to the number of students in
each school year.
d Ten boys and 10 girls are chosen to participate in the survey.
13 MC Which of the following statistical investigations would be practical to complete by census?
a A newspaper wants to know public opinion on a political issue.
b A local council wants to know if a skateboard ramp would be popular with young people in the area.
c An author wants a cricket player’s statistics for a book being written.
d An advertising agency wants to know the most watched program on television.
14 WE6 Zara is conducting a survey of the people at work. At her work 68% of the workers are male and
32% are female. If Zara decides to survey 50 workers, how many of each sex should she choose, if she
chooses to use a stratified sample?
15 The table below shows the percentage of students that are in each year of a school.
Year 7 8 9 10 11 12
Percentage of students 20% 19% 21% 16% 13% 11%
If 40 students are to participate in a survey, find the number chosen from each year group if stratified
sampling is used.
Further development
16 When completing a census, explain why it is more practical in most cases to use external sources.
17 Greg is trying to generate a random sample of people in the street. He does this by selecting every
fifth person that walks past him.
a Explain why this sample is not random.
b Will Greg’s method provide him with a mix of participants that is representative of the entire
population?
18 In a quality control operation there are four production lines labelled A, B, C and D. Every 50th item
off production line B is selected for testing.
a What method of sample selection is being used?
b Is this the right method of sample selection?
c Explain the fault in the sample selection method and suggest a better method.
19 To generate a random number between 1 and 100, Ricky’s calculator generates a decimal number
between 0 and 1. He multiplies this number by 100, adds 1 and takes the integer part of the result.
a Demonstrate this process and find the resulting integer if Ricky starts with 0.739.
b Explain the purpose of multiplying by 100.
c Explain the purpose of adding 1.

20 To complete a survey, John collects a sample of 50 people all with surname ‘Smith’ from the telephone
book.
John claims that since Smith is a very common surname his sample should be representative of
the whole population. Give three reasons why this sample will not be representative of the whole
population.
21 Rod claims that a systematic sample is the best way to ensure a sample is representative of the entire
dIgItal doC
WorkSHEET 4.1 population.
doc-10316 Give one reason for and one reason against Rod’s claim.
4C population characteristics
Characteristics about a population can be estimated by taking a sample of that population. For example,
to estimate the average income of Australians we could conduct an anonymous survey of a sample of the
Australian population.
To get an accurate estimate, it is important that the sample taken has similar characteristics to the
entire population. For example, the sample should have an equal number of males and females, and
the ages of those in the sample should be in the same proportion as for the whole population. The area
sampled should include a cross-section of people according to socio-economic level, ethnic background,
religion etc., similar to that of the whole population. In such cases we use the stratified sampling
technique.
Characteristics (such as sex and age) of the population and the sample must also match, if we expect
our sample to have incomes in the same proportions as those of the general population.
InvestIgate: population characteristics
If we are trying to estimate the average income of Australian families, what would be the effect if our
sample:
1 contained a majority of one sex?
2 contained only people in the 15–21 age group?
3 contained only people who live in a small country town?
To calculate the number of participants in a sample from each strata of the population, we calculate each
strata as a fraction of the total population and multiply this fraction by the total number to be chosen in
the sample.
Worked exaMple 7
The table below shows the enrolment at a high school.

Sam is conducting a music survey for the school disco. He plans to survey 60 students. Show how
Sam should break down his sample in terms of year and sex.
Year Boys Girls
7 96 102
8 85 87
9 92 88
10 80 74
11 71 75
12 69 65
Total 493 491
Grand total 984

thInk WrIte
1 Write each strata as a fraction of the total and 96

Year 7 boys = 984 × 60
then multiply by the 60 to be chosen in the
sample. ≈ 5.85
102
Year 7 girls = 984 × 60
≈ 6.22
85
Year 8 boys = 984 × 60
≈ 5.18
87
Year 8 girls = 984 × 60
≈ 5.30
92
Year 9 boys = 984 × 60
≈ 5.61
88
Year 9 girls = 984 × 60
≈ 5.37
80
Year 10 boys = 984 × 60
≈ 4.88
74
Year 10 girls = 984 × 60
≈ 4.51
71
Year 11 boys = 984 × 60
≈ 4.33
75
Year 11 girls = 984 × 60
≈ 4.57
69
Year 12 boys = 984 × 60
≈ 4.21
65
Year 12 girls = 984 × 60
≈ 3.96
2 To complete the table, round off each of Number of students to be sampled
these answers to the nearest whole number.
Year Boys Girls
7 6 6
8 5 5
9 6 5
10 5 5
11 4 5
12 4 4
Total 30 30
Grand total 60
Note that on some occasions after rounding off each of the answers, the total number of people to
participate in the sample may add to one more than the number that we planned to select. In such cases,
the person doing the sample should include this extra person as it gives a better sample of the overall
population.

exercise 4C population characteristics
1 We7 The table below shows
the number of students in each year at
a school.
No. of
Year students
7 90
8 110
9 90
10 80
11 70
12 60
Total 500
If a survey is to be given to 50 students

at the school, how many from each year
should be chosen if a stratified sample is
used?
2 A company employs 300 men and 200 women. If a survey of 60 employees using a stratified sample is
completed, how many people of each sex participated?
3 A business has 400 employees of which 250 are female and 150 are male. The business intends to
survey 40 of their employees. If a stratified survey is to be conducted, how many employees of each sex
should be surveyed?
4 In the head office of a bank there are 250 employees. Ten of these employees are senior management,
60 are middle management and 180 are employed as clerks. A survey is to be conducted of 50 staff
members. How many employees at each level should be surveyed?
5 The Department of Education wants to survey a school population. At the school there are 93 teachers
and 1248 students. If the department is to survey a total of 50 people, how many teachers and how
many students should participate in the survey?
6 The table below shows the age and sex of the staff of a corporation.
Age Male Female

20–29 61 44
30–39 40 50
40– 49 74 16
50–59 5 10
A survey of 50 employees is to be done. Using a stratified survey, suggest the breakdown of people
to participate in terms of age and sex.
7 The table below shows the number of students who are in each year level at a school.
Year 7 8 9 10 11 12
Number of students 187 192 168 157 137 108
If 80 students are to be selected to participate in a survey, how many should be chosen from each
year level?

8 A shopping centre has a floor area of 5000 m2. There is one major department store with an area of
1500 m2, two smaller department stores of 750 m2 and 40 small stores of 50 m2. The management of
the centre assigns voting rights in the shopping centre in proportion to the floor area of each business.
Given that there are 200 votes to be distributed, how many votes should each business get?
9 The table below shows the population of a school.
Year 7 8 9 10 11 12

Boys 104 112 107 97 75 68
Girls 98 119 110 88 82 66
A survey of 100 students is to be conducted. Complete the table below to show the number of
students from each year and sex who should participate in a stratified sample.
Year Boys Girls

7
8
9
10
11
12
Further development
10 Use your calculator to generate five random numbers between 0 and 10.
a Find the average of the five numbers. Compare your answer to others in your class by looking for
the highest and smallest results.
b Now generate 20 random numbers between 0 and 10 and find the average. Compare your answers
again to others in the class.
c What do you notice about the results to part (a) and (b)?
11 What does question 10 tell you about sample size?
12 The following two tables show information about the population of a school.
No. of
Year students
7 180
8 204
9 191
10 172
11 139
12 114
Male Female
400 600
How can the information in both tables be incorporated into a stratified sample?
13 Jack wants to complete a survey on the same school population, however, as well as year and gender he
wants to include a third stratum of ethnic origin.
a Explain why a stratified sample becomes more difficult when extra strata are added.
b What would be the best method for Jack to obtain his sample?

14 The table below shows the number of people in each of four strata and the number selected to
participate in a survey from each group. In which of the four strata has the wrong number of
participants been selected?
Strata No. in population No. in survey

A 243 16
B 347 23
C 198 14
D 376 27
15 MC When constructing a stratified random sample Bettina completes the following steps which are
written in the incorrect order.
A Uses a random number generator to select the participants from each stratum.
B Multiplies each fraction by the number required for the sample.
C Allocates a number to each person in the population.
D Writes each strata as a fraction of the population.
Write the steps A, B, C and D in the correct order.
Investigate: Choosing a sample
Consider how you would choose your sample if you wished to conduct a survey for your next school disco.
Use the method in Worked example 7 to select the number of boys and girls that should be chosen from
each year to do your survey.
Step 1. Find out the number of boys and girls enrolled in each year at your school.
Step 2. Calculate the percentage of the whole school population in each year for both boys and girls.
Step 3. Choose a suitable sample size and calculate the number of boys and girls needed from each year to
complete your survey.
4D Types of data

Data can be put into two categories.
1. Categorical data
Categorical data cannot be measured; they can only be put into categories.
An example of categorical data is makes of cars. The categories for the data would be all possible
makes of cars such as Ford, Holden, Toyota, Mazda, etc. Other questions that would lead to categorical
data would be things such as:
• What is your hair colour?
• Who is your favourite musical performer?
• What method of transport do you use to get to school?
2. Quantitative data
Quantitative data can be measured. They are data to which we can assign a numerical value.
Quantitative data are collected either by measurement or by counting. For example, the data collected
by measuring the heights of students are quantitative data. The data collected by counting the ages of
students in years are also quantitative data.
Worked Example 8
State whether the following pieces of data are categorical or quantitative.

a The value of sales recorded at each branch of a fast-food outlet
b The breeds of dog that appear at a dog show
Think Write
a The value of sales at each branch can be measured. a The value of sales are quantitative data.
b The breeds of dog at a show cannot be measured. b The breeds of dog are categorical data.

There are two types of categorical data and two types of quantitative data.
Data
InteraCtIvItY
int-0219
Categorical Quantitative Classifying data
Data which are placed in categories; that is, Data which are in numerical form; such as
non-numerical form, such as hair colour, type height, number of children in the family,
of vehicle, and so on. and so on.
Nominal Ordinal Discrete Continuous

Need sub-groups Need a ranking to Counted in exact values, Measured in a
to complete the order the description, such as goals scored in continuous decimal
description, such as hair such as achievement a football match, shoe scale, such as mass,
colour: blond, brown levels: very high, size and so on. Values temperature, length and
and so on. high, satisfactory and are often, but not always, so on.
so on. whole numbers.
Worked exaMple 9
Classify each of the following data using two selections from the following descriptive words:
categorical, quantitative, nominal, ordinal, discrete and continuous.
a The number of students absent from school
b The types of vehicle using a certain road
c The various pizza sizes available at a local takeaway
d The room temperature at various times during a particular day
thInk WrIte
a 1 Determine whether the data are categorical or a The data are quantitative as absences are
quantitative. represented by a number.
2 Determine whether the data are discrete or The data are discrete as the number of
continuous. absences can be counted and is an exact value.
b 1 Determine whether the data are categorical or b The data are categorical as the types of vehicle
quantitative. need to be placed in non-numerical categories.
2 Determine whether the data are nominal or The data are nominal as there is no ranking or
ordinal. order involved.
c 1 Determine whether the data are categorical or c The data are categorical as the pizza sizes need
quantitative. to be ranked in order ranging from small to
family.
2 Determine whether the data are nominal or The data are ordinal as pizzas are ranked in
ordinal. order of size.
d 1 Determine whether the data are categorical or d The data are quantitative as room temperature
quantitative. is represented by a number.
2 Determine whether the data are discrete or The data are continuous as temperature can
continuous. assume any value and measurement is involved.
exercise 4d types of data

1 We8 State whether the data collected in each of the following situations would be categorical or
quantitative.
a The number of matches in each box is counted for a large sample of boxes.
b The sex of respondents to a questionnaire is recorded as either M or F.
c A fisheries inspector records the lengths of 40 cod.

d The occurrence of hot, warm, mild and cool weather for each day in January is recorded.
e The actual temperature for each day in January is recorded.
f Cinema critics are asked to judge a film by awarding it a rating from one to five stars.
2 State whether the categorical data formed by each of the following situations are nominal or
ordinal.
a On a school report students are ranked as Unsatisfactory, Satisfactory, Above average or
Outstanding.
b The day of the week that a business has the most customers is recorded.
c Visitors to a museum are recorded as being either male or female.
d The colour of each traffic light on a journey is recorded.
e The make of each television in an electronics store is recorded.
3 State whether the quantitative data formed by each of the following situations are discrete or
continuous.
a The heights of 60 tomato plants at a plant nursery
b The number of jelly beans in each of 50 packets
c The time taken for each student in a class of six-year-olds to tie their shoelaces
d The petrol consumption rate of a large sample of cars
e The IQ (intelligence quotient) of each student in a class
4 We9 Classify each of the following data using two words selected from the following descriptive
words: categorical, quantitative, nominal, ordinal, discrete and continuous.
a The population of your town or city
b The types of motorbike in a parking lot
c The heights of people in an identification line-up
d The masses of babies in a group
e The languages spoken at home by students in your class
f The time spent watching TV
g The number of children in the families
in your suburb
h The air pressure in your car’s tyres
i The number of puppies in a litter
j The types of radio program listened to
by teenagers
k The times for swimming 50 metres
l The quantity of fish caught in a net
m The number of CDs you own
n The types of shops in a shopping centre
o The football competition ladder at the end of each round
p The lifetime of torch batteries
q The number of people attending a rock concert
r Exam grades
s The types of magazine sold at a newsagency
t Hotel accommodation rating
5 For each of the following, state if the data are categorical or quantitative. If quantitative, state if the data
are discrete or continuous.
a The number of students in each class at your school
b The teams people support at a football match
c The brands of peanut butter sold at a supermarket
d The heights of people in your class
e The interest rate charged by each bank
f A person’s pulse rate
6 An opinion poll was conducted. A thousand people were given the statement ‘Euthanasia should be
legalised’. Each person was offered five responses: strongly agree, agree, unsure, disagree and strongly
disagree. Describe the data type in this example.
7 A teacher marks her students’ work with a grade A, B, C, D or E. Describe the data type used.
8 A teacher marks his students’ work using a mark out of 100. Describe the data type used.

9 MC The number of people who are using a particular bus service are counted over a two week period.
The data formed by this survey would be an example of:
A categorical and ordinal data B categorical and nominal data
C quantitative and discrete data D quantitative and continuous data
10 The following graph shows the number

of days of each weather type for the Gold
Coast in January.

14
Number of days in January
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
ot m ild ol
H ar M Co
W
Weather
Describe the data in this example.

11 The graph at right shows a girl’s height each year for 10 years.
180
Describe the data in this example.
Height (cm)
160
140
120
100
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Age
Further development
12 Carl says that categorical data is words and quantitative data is numbers. Explain what Carl means
by this statement. Is this always correct?
13 Danielle says that if quantitative data can be fractions then it must be continuous. Is Danielle
correct? Explain your answer.
14 Garry says that for quantitative data, ‘if you count it, it’s discrete and if you measure it, it’s
continuous’. Explain what Garry means by this statement.
15 a Explain why it would be inappropriate to use a line graph for categorical data.
b What type of graph would be most appropriate?
16 For what type of data is a line graph most appropriate?
17 Give an example of each of the data types shown below.
• Categorical and ordinal
• Categorical and nominal
• Quantitative and discrete
• Quantitative and continuous
4E Bias
No doubt you have heard the comment, ‘There are lies, damned lies and statistics’. This implies that we
should be wary of statistical figures quoted. Indeed, we should always make informed decisions of our
own and not simply accept the mass of statistics that bombards us through the media.
Bias can be introduced into statistics by:
1. questionnaire design
2. sampling bias
3. the interpretation of results.

Bias in questionnaire design
Consider a survey designed to collect data on opinions relating to
culling kangaroo numbers in Australia.
The questions may be designed to be emotive in nature. Respondents
in these situations feel obliged to show compassion. Posing a question
in the form, ‘The kangaroo is identified as a native Australian animal,
not found anywhere else in the world. Would you be in favour of
culling kangaroos in Australia?’, would almost certainly encourage a
negative response.
Using a leading question (one which leads the respondent to
answer in a particular way) can cause bias to creep into responses.
Rephrasing the question in the form, ‘As you know, kangaroos cause
massive damage on many farming properties. You’d agree that their
numbers need culling, wouldn’t you?’, would encourage a positive
response.
Using terminology that is unfamiliar to a large proportion of those being surveyed would certainly
produce unreliable responses. ‘Do you think we need to cull herbivorous marsupial mammals
in Australia?’, would cause most respondents to answer according to their understanding of the
terms used. If the survey was conducted by an interviewer, the term could be explained. In the case
of a self-administered survey, there would be no indication of whether the question was understood
or not.
sampling bias
As discussed previously, an ideal sample should reflect the characteristics of the population.
Statistical calculations performed on the sample would then be a reliable indication of the
population’s features.
Selecting a sample using a non-random method, as discussed earlier, generally tends to introduce an
element of bias.
Particular responses can be selected from all those received. In collecting information on a local
issue, an interviewer on a street corner may record responses from many passers-by. From all the data
collected, a sample could be chosen to support the issue, or alternatively another sample could be chosen
to refute the same issue.
A sample may be selected under abnormal conditions. Consider a survey to determine which
lemonade was more popular — Kirks or Schweppes. Collecting data one week when one of the brands
was on special at half price would certainly produce misleading results.
Data are often collected by radio and television stations via telephone polls. A ‘Yes’ response is
recorded on a given phone-in number, while the ‘No’ respondents are asked to ring a different phone-in
number. This type of sampling does not produce a representative sample of the population. Only those
who are highly motivated tend to ring and there is no monitoring of the number of times a person might
call, recording multiple votes.
When data are collected from mailing surveys, bias results if the non-response rate is high (even if
the selected sample was a random one). The responses received often represent only those with strong
views on the subject, while those with more moderate views tend to lack representation in their correct
proportion.
statistical interpretation bias

Once the data have been collected, collated and subjected to statistical calculations, bias may still occur
in the interpretation of the results.
Misleading graphs can be drawn leading to a biased interpretation of the data. Graphical
representations of a set of data can give a visual impression of ‘little change’ or ‘major change’
depending on the scales used on the axes.
The use of terms such as ‘majority’, ‘almost all’ and ‘most’ are open to interpretation. When we
consider that 50.1% ‘for’ and 49.9% ‘against’ represents a ‘majority for’ an issue, the true figures have
been hidden behind words with very broad meanings. Although we would probably not learn the real
facts, we should be wary of statistical issues quoted in such terms.

InvestIgate: Bias in statistics
The aim of this investigation is to study statistical data that you suspect to be biased.
Conduct a search of newspapers, magazines or any printed material to collect instances of quoted
statistics that you believe to be biased. There are occasions when television advertisements quote statistical
figures as a result of questionable sampling techniques. For each example, discuss:
1 the purpose of the survey
2 how the data might have been collected
3 the question(s) that may have been asked (try to pose the question(s) in a variety of ways to influence
different outcomes)
4 ways in which bias might be introduced
5 variations in interpretation of the data.
InvestIgate: Biased sampling
Discuss the problems that would be caused by each of the following biased samples.
1 A survey is to be conducted to decide the most popular sport in a local community. A sample of
100 people was questioned at a local football match.
2 A music store situated in a shopping centre wants to know the type of music that it should stock.
A sample of 100 people was surveyed. The sample was taken from people who passed by the store
between 10:00 and 11:00 am on a Tuesday.
3 A newspaper conducting a Gallup poll on an election took a sample of 1000 people from Sydney.
InvestIgate: spreadsheets creating misleading graphs
Let us practise producing misleading graphs. Consider the data in this table.
Year 1990 1995 2000 2005
Wages ($m) 6 9 13 20
% increase in wages 25 50 44 54
Profits ($m) 1 1.5 2.5 5
% increase in profits 20 50 66 100
We shall use a spreadsheet to produce misleading graphs based on these data.
Graph 1 Graph 2
Graph 3
1 Enter the data as indicated in the spreadsheet above.
2 Graph the data using the Chart Wizard. You should obtain a graph similar to Graph 1.

3 Copy and paste the graph twice within the spreadsheet.
4 Graph 2 gives the impression that the wages are a great deal higher than the profits. This effect was
obtained by reducing the horizontal axis. Experiment with shortening the horizontal length and
lengthening the vertical axis.
5 In Graph 3 we get the impression that the wages and profits are not very different. This effect was
obtained by lengthening the horizontal axis and shortening the vertical axis. Experiment with various
combinations.
6 Print out your three graphs and examine their differences.
Note that all three graphs have been drawn from the same data using valid scales. A cursory glance leaves
us with three different impressions. Clearly, it is important to look carefully at the scales on the axes of
graphs.
Another method which could be used to change the shape of a graph is to change the scale of the axes.
7 Right click on the axis value, enter the Format axis option, click on the Scale tab, then experiment with
changing the scale values on both axes.
Techniques such as these are used to create different visual impressions of the same data.
8 Use the data in the table to create a spreadsheet, then produce two graphs depicting the percentage
increase in both wages and profits over the years giving the impression that:
a the profits of the company have not grown at the expense of wage increases (the percentage increase in
wages is similar to the percentage increase in profits)
b the company appears to be exploiting its employees (the percentage increase in profits is greater than
that for wages).
Worked exaMple 10
Discuss why the following selected samples could provide bias in the statistics collected.
a In order to determine the extent of unemployment in a community, a committee phoned two
households (randomly selected) from each page of the local telephone book during the day.
b A newspaper ran a feature article on the use of animals to test cosmetics. A form beneath the
article invited responses to the article.
thInk WrIte
a 1 Consider phone book selection. a Phoning two randomly selected households per page of the
telephone directory is possibly a representative sample.
2 Consider those with no phone However, those without a home phone and those with
contact. unlisted numbers could not form part of the sample.
3 Consider the hours of contact. An unanswered call during the day would not necessarily
imply that the resident was at work.
b 1 Consider the newspaper b Selecting a sample from a circulated newspaper excludes
circulation. those who do not have access to the paper.
2 Consider the urge to respond. In emotive issues such as these, only those with strong
views will bother to respond, so the sample will represent
extreme points of view.
exercise 4e Bias
1 Rewrite the following questions, removing any elements or words that might contribute to bias in
responses.
a The poor homeless people, through no fault of their own, experience great hardship during the
freezing winter months. Would you contribute to a fund to build a shelter to house our homeless?
b Most people think that, since we’ve developed as a nation in our own right and broken many ties
with Great Britain, we should adopt our own national flag. You’d agree with this, wouldn’t you?
c You’d know that our Australian 50 cent coin is in the shape of a dodecagon, wouldn’t you?
d Many in the workforce toil long hours for low wages. By comparison, politicians seem to get life
pretty easy when you take into account that they only work for part of the year and they receive
all those perks and allowances. You’d agree, wouldn’t you?

2 Rewrite parts a to d in question 1 so that the expected response is reversed.
3 WE10 What forms of sampling bias can you identify in the following samples?
a Choosing a sample from students on a bus travelling to a sporting venue to answer a questionnaire
regarding sporting facilities at their school
b Sampling using ‘phone-in’ responses to an issue viewed on a television program
c Promoting the results of a mail-response survey when fewer than half the selected sample replied
d Comparing the popularity of particular chocolate brands when one brand has a ‘two for the price
of one’ special offer
e Choosing a Year 7 class and a Year 12 class to gather data relating to the use of the athletics oval
after school
4 Why does this graph produce a biased visual impression? Value of A$ compared with US$1
71c
Australian currency
5 Comment on the following statement:
‘University tests have demonstrated that Double-
70c
White toothpaste is consistently used by the majority
of teenagers and is more effective than most other 69c
toothpastes.’
6 Surveys are conducted on samples to determine the
characteristics of the population. Discuss whether the 9 May 11 May 12 May
samples selected would provide a reliable indication of Date
the population’s characteristics.
Sample Population
a Year 11 students Student drivers
b Year 12 students Students with part-time jobs
c Residents attending a neighbourhood Residents of a suburb
watch meeting
d Students in the school choir Music students in the school
e Cars in a shopping centre car park Models of Holden cars on the road
f Males at a football match Popular TV programs
g Users of the local library Popular teenage magazines
Further development 105

7 The graph at right shows the money spent by government
on health care in 2000, 2004 and 2008. 104
Health care cost ($ m)
a What impression does the graph give about health care

funding? 103
b Draw a graph that gives a more realistic impression
of the decline in funding.
102
101
100
8 The graph below shows employment growth. 2000 2004 2008
Growth of total employment, 1947–81 Years
6
5
Total employment
4
(millions)
3
2
1
0
1947 1954 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981
a What impression has been given by the graph?
b How has this impression been achieved?

9 The graph at right shows road 650
fatalities in Queensland over Road fatalities, Queensland
a 20-year period. 600
a What is the first
impression that the
graph gives? 550
b How has this effect
been achieved? 500
c How has the change in
the number of fatalities
450
been exaggerated?
10 You are a manufacturer 400
and your plant is 1987 1984 1981 1978 1975 1972 1969
discharging heavy metals Source: Qld Year Book, 1989, p. 205 and the Australian Bureau of Statistics.
into a waterway. Your chemists do tests on the water every three months. The table below shows the
results over a 2-year period.
Draw a graph that will show your company in the best light.
2009 2010
Date Jan. Apr. July Oct. Jan. Apr. July Oct.
Concentration (parts per million) 7 9 18 25 30 40 49 57
11 The sector graph shows the break-up of workers compensation costs incurred by employers other than
government.
a What fraction of the Break-up of non-government workers compensation costs
total costs are weekly
compensation payouts
and statutory lump sum Common law
claims? claims $143.5m Common law fees
b What angle should be and outlays $19m
at the centre of this
sector?
c What angle is at the
centre of this sector?
Weekly compensation
d Why has this distortion Total $202.8m payouts and statutory lump
of angle occurred? sum claims $40.3m
Discuss how this might Source: Courier-Mail, 21 September 1991.
be used to mislead the
reader?
12 The graph below shows how the $27 that a buyer pays for a CD is distributed among departments
involved in production and marketing.
dIgItal doC Where your $27 goes
WorkSHEET 4.2
doc-10317 Other recording
Record company costs 65c
sales process $1.27 Distribution 56c
Record company
administration costs $1.54
Mechanical Record shop $7.40

royalties $1.57
Record company
profit $1.54
Advertising Royalties and costs
$1.94 to artist $3.86
Sales tax Production
$3.27 $3.40
You are required to find out whether or not the graph is misleading, and fully explain and support
any statements you make.

Investigate: Bias
It is important that a sample is chosen randomly to avoid bias.

Consider the following situation.
The government wants to improve sporting facilities in Sydney. They decide to survey 1000 people
about what facilities they would like to see improved. To do this, they choose the first 1000 people
through the gate at a football match at the Sydney Cricket Ground.
In this situation it is likely that the results will be biased towards improving facilities for football.
It is also unlikely that the survey will be representative of the whole population in terms of equality
between men and women, age of the participants and ethnic backgrounds.
Questions can also create bias. Consider asking the question, ‘Is football your favourite sport?’ The
question invites the response that football is the favourite sport rather than allowing a free choice from a
variety of sports by the respondent.
Consider each of the following surveys and discuss:
a any advantages, disadvantages and possible causes of bias
b a way in which a truly representative sample could be obtained.
1 Surveying food product choices by interviewing customers of a large supermarket chain as they emerge
from the store between 9:00 am and 2:00 pm on a Wednesday.
2 Researching the popularity of a government decision by stopping people at random in a central city mall.
3 Using a telephone survey of 500 people selected at random from the phone book to find if all Australian
states should have daylight saving time in summer.
4 A bookseller uses a public library database to survey for the most popular novels over the last three
months.
5 An interview survey about violence in sport taken at a rugby league football venue as spectators leave.

Summary
statistical processes There are six stages to a statistical inquiry.
Stage 1. Posing questions — questions are set to find the information that will help solve the
problem.
Stage 2. Collecting data — this can be done:
externally — this involves obtaining data from outside sources
internally — this involves researchers generating information.
Internal collection of data can be done by observation or questioning.
Stage 3. Organising data — putting the results into an organised, readable form.
Stage 4. Summarising and displaying data — the display of the tables used and the drawing of
graphs.
Stage 5. Analysing data and drawing conclusions — reading and interpreting the results to answer
the original problem.
Stage 6. Writing a report — the explanation of the above processes and how the conclusions were
reached.
target populations • A statistical investigation can be done by either census or sample.

and sampling • A census is when an entire population takes part in the investigation.
• A sample is when a small group takes part in the investigation and the results are taken to be
representative of the whole group.
• There are three types of sample.
1. Random sample — chance is the only factor in deciding who participates.
2. Stratified sample — the sample taken is chosen so that it has the same characteristics as the
whole population.
3. Systematic sample — there is a method for deciding who participates in the sample.
population • A stratified sample can be used to ensure that the characteristics of your sample match the
characteristics characteristics of the whole population.
• To select a stratified sample:
1. Write each number in each stratum as a fraction of the whole population.
2. Multiply by the size of the sample that you wish to take.
3. Round off the answer for each stratum to the nearest whole number.
• Sometimes this method increases the sample size, but this may be necessary to get the best
representation possible in your sample.
types of data • Data can be classified as being categorical or quantitative.

• Categorical data are data that are non-numerical. For example, a survey of car types is not
numerical.
• Categorical data can be nominal (unordered) or ordinal (ordered).
• Quantitative data are data that can be either counted or measured. For example, a survey of the
daily temperature is quantitative.
• Quantitative data can be either discrete or continuous.
• Discrete data can take only certain values such as whole numbers.
• Continuous data can take any value within a certain range.
Bias • Bias occurs when the results of an investigation are skewed to one side. This can occur because of:
1. A poorly worded question that can lead the responder into a response favouring one side.
2. A poorly chosen sample. Those participating in the investigation may not represent the whole
population and be more inclined to a certain point of view.
3. Misinterpretation of results. This can occur when a graph is drawn to give a certain impression.

Chapter review
1 Which of the following is an example of a census?
M U ltIp l e
a A newspaper conducts an opinion poll of 2000 people. C ho IC e
B A product survey of 1000 homes to determine what brand of washing powder is used
C Every 200th jar of Vegemite is tested to see if it is the correct mass.
d A federal election
2 Which of the following is an example of a random sample?
a The first 50 students to arrive at school take a survey.
B Fifty students’ names are drawn from a hat and those drawn take the survey.
C Ten students from each year of the school are asked to complete a survey.
d One class in the school is asked to complete the survey.
3 Which of the following is an example of categorical data?
a The type of car that is in each home
B The number of cars in each home
C The distance travelled by a person’s car in a one year period
d The amount of money spent on petrol in a one year period
4 Which of the following is an example of continuous data?
a The type of car that is in each home
B The number of cars in each home
C The distance travelled by a person’s car in a one year period
d The amount of money spent on petrol in a one year period
1 For each of the statistical investigations below, state whether the data source would be external or s ho rt
a n s W er
internal.
a The wins recorded by a major football team
b The number of brick homes in an area
c The number of sales made by a department store in a month
d The amount of traffic passing through an intersection in one hour
2 For each of the following, state whether the data would be gathered using observation or questioning.
a The number of surfers on various beaches
b The brand of surfboard preferred by surfers
c The average height of Year 11 students at your school
d The most popular movie among Year 11 students at your school
3 Rewrite each of the following questions so that the results are easier to tabulate.
a What is the distance from your home to school?
b Describe the type of house you live in.
c What is the number of kilometres that your family car travels in one year?
d What is your favourite sport?
4 A survey is conducted on the number of people living in each household in a street. The results are
shown below.
1 4 5 2 2 3 4 6 1 2 5
6 4 4 6 3 2 3 5 1 3 4
3 3 4 2 2
Put these results into a table.
5 A group of Year 11 students were asked to state the number of CDs that they had purchased in the last
year. The results are shown below.
12 1 13 20 5 22 35 12 17 20
9 5 11 0 14 25 3 8 10 9
12 6 18 7 10 9 6 23 14 19
Put the results into a table using the categories 0– 4, 5–9, 10–14 etc.
6 Draw a column and a sector graph to represent the results to question 4.

7 For each of the following statistical investigations, state whether a census or a sample has been used.
a The average price of petrol in Sydney was estimated by averaging the price at 40 petrol stations.
b The Australian Bureau of Statistics has every household in Australia complete an information form
once every five years.
c The performance of a cricketer is measured by looking at his performance in every match he has
played.
d Public opinion on an issue is sought by a telephone poll of 2000 homes.
8 Name and describe three different methods for selecting a sample.
9 Which method of sampling has been used for each of the following?
a The quality-control department of a tyre manufacturing company road tests every 50th tyre that
comes off the production line.
b To select the students to participate in a survey, a spreadsheet random number generator selects the
roll numbers of 50 students.
c An equal number of men and women are chosen to participate in a survey on fashion.
10 Use a random number generator to select 10 numbers between 1 and 1000.
11 The table below shows the number of students in each year of school.
Year No. of students

7 212
8 200
9 189
10 175
11 133
12 124
In a survey of the school population, how many students from each year should be chosen, if a
sample of 60 is selected using a stratified sample?
12 State whether each of the following data types are categorical or quantitative.
a The television program that people watch at 7:00 pm
b The number of pets in each household
c The amount of water consumed by athletes in a marathon run
d The average distance that students live from school
e The mode of transport used between home and school
13 For each of the quantitative data types below, determine if the data are discrete or continuous.
a The dress sizes of Year 11 girls
b The volume of backyard swimming pools
c The amount of water used in
households
d The number of viewers of a
particular television program
e The amount of time Year 11
students spent studying
14 Bias can be introduced into
statistics through:
a questionnaire design
b sample selection
c interpretation of statistical
results.
Discuss how bias could be a
result of techniques in the above
three areas.

1 Carolyn is a marine biologist. She spends the day on a boat and 500 fish are netted. Carolyn notes the e x ten d ed
types of fish netted. There are 173 blackfish, 219 drummer and 108 mullet. res p o n s e
a Are Carolyn’s data categorical or quantitative?
b The fish are tagged and released back into the school from which they were caught. Another 250
are then caught and it is noted that 63 have tags. What type of sample has been taken?
2 A paint company says that 1 litre of paint can paint an area of 4 m2. To test this, every 100th can is
tested to see that it will cover at least 4 m2.
a Are the data categorical or quantitative? If they are quantitative, are the data discrete or
continuous?
b What type of sample has been used?
c The paint is mixed in one of five machines. Every can tested therefore comes from the same
machine. A quality control officer then says that the data are biased. What is meant by the term
bias?
d Explain what could be done to prevent the data from being biased.
dIgItal doC
Test Yourself
doc-10318
Chapter 4

ICT activities
4a statistical processes 4e Bias
dIgItal doC dIgItal doC
• Spreadsheet (doc-1505): Frequency tables (page 112) • WorkSHEET 4.2 (doc-10317): Answer questions on statistics and
data. (page 130)
4B target populations and sampling
dIgItal doC Chapter review
• WorkSHEET 4.1 (doc-10316): Answer questions on statistics and • Test Yourself Chapter 4 (doc-10318): Take the end-of-chapter test to
data. (page 118) check your progress. (page 135)
4d types of data To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au

InteraCtIvItY
• Classifying data (int-0219): Interact with data classification. (page 123)

Answers CHAPTER 4
statIstICs and soCIetY, 10 Number of students Marks on maths
exam
exercise 4B target populations and
data ColleCtIon and sampling

40–49 1 a All Year 12 students
saMplIng 50–59 b Sporting players and clubs in the local
exercise 4a statistical processes district
60–69
1 a External b External c All Australian citizens 18 years of age
70–79
c Internal d External and older
80–89
e Internal f Internal d Parents of preschool children
90–99
g External h External e People in the age group to whom grunge
2 a Internal b External 11 music appeals
c External d Internal 25 2 Census — every member of the population
Temperature (°C)
3 a Observation b Questioning 20 participates.
c Questioning d Observation 15 3 Sample
e Questioning f Observation 10 4 a Sample b Sample c Census
g Questioning h Observation 5 d Census e Sample
4 Check with your teacher. 0 5 a Data would be available from the
5 Bureau of Meteorology
am
am
10 m
11 m
12 m
pm
pm
pm
pm
pm
pm
pm
pm
Make Tally Frequency
a
a
a
7 b No data would be available as you
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Time
Holden ||| 8 cannot test every battery.
12 Answers will vary but the major advantage
c Not all data would be available. A
Ford ||| 8 is access to large amounts of data. sampling method would be needed.
13 a Suzi d Data would be available from records of
Nissan || 2 b Large amounts of accurate data matches played.
Mazda ||| 3 c Data relates only to her town. 6 a Sample b Census
14 a 43 b 99 c Census d Sample
Toyota || 7 c As most scores will have a frequency 7 Sample 8 163, 176, 381, 495, 9
Mitsubishi || 2 of 1 the table will not be any more 9 827, 210, 417, 553, 207, 26, 809, 780,
informative than the list of scores. 192, 371
6 d 10 Check with your teacher.
Score Tally Frequency Class Frequency
11 a Systematic b Stratified c Systematic
66 |||| 4 40–49 4 d Random e Stratified
67 || 2 12 A 13 C
50–59 10
14 34 males and 16 females
68 | 1 60–69 8 15 Year 7 — 8, Year 8 — 8, Year 9 — 8,
69 5 Year 10 — 6, Year 11 — 5, Year 12 — 4
70–79 7 Choose the 40th student at random.
70 10 80–89 2 16 As a census generally involves gathering
71 || 7 large quantities of information and an
90–99 9 external source is more practical if the
72 || 7 e information is already there. It may be
Class Frequency impractical to survey an entire population.
73 |||| 4
40–44 3 17 a There is a method to Greg’s selection
7 and so his sample is systematic.
Mark Tally Frequency 45–49 1 b As there should be a good mix of
40–49 | 1 50–54 4 people passing by his sample should be
representative of the population.
50–59 || 2 55–59 6 18 a Systematic b No
60–69 |||| 9 60–64 5 c Only one production line is being
tested and faults on other lines may be
70–79 ||| 8 65–69 3 overlooked. Selecting every 200th item
70–74 2 off each line would be a better method.
80–89 ||| 3
19 a 74
75–79 5 b Multiplying by 100 gives 100 possible
90–99 || 2
80–84 0 answers.
8 Check with your teacher. c Adding one moves the possible results
9 85–89 2
9 from 0–99 to 1–100 as required.
8 90–94 6 20 Answers will vary but reasons may
7
6 include: many people from the same
95–99 3
Frequency
5 family, not a mix of the various ethnic

4
3 f The smaller class sizes provide more groups that make up the population, not a
2 detailed data, however the larger class mix of all areas of the country.
1
0 size provides a more compact summary 21 The systematic sample will have one
n d n a ta i
de For issa azd yo bish of the data. characteristic in the correct proportion but
ol N M To itsu
H 15 a Column b Sector other characteristics of the population may
Make of car M c Line d Column not be in that proportion.

exercise 4C population characteristics 4 a Quantitative, discrete 4 The decrease in the value of the
1 Year 7 — 9, Year 8 — 11, Year 9 — 9, b Categorical, nominal Australian dollar compared with the
Year 10 — 8, Year 11 — 7, Year 12 — 6 c Quantitative, continuous American dollar is accentuated by the
2 36 men and 24 women d Quantitative, continuous large scale on the y-axis. The decrease
3 25 females and 15 males e Categorical, nominal is actually only 2 cents. The scale on the
4 2 senior management, 12 middle f Quantitative, continuous x-axis is not uniform (9 May, 11 May,
management and 36 clerks g Quantitative, discrete 12 May).
5 3 teachers and 47 students h Quantitative, continuous 5 What type of university tests? What do the
6 i Quantitative, discrete terms ‘consistently’, ‘majority’, ‘more
Age Male Female
j Categorical, nominal effective’, ‘most other’ mean? No hard
20–29 10 7 k Quantitative, continuous evidence has been provided to support the
l Quantitative, discrete claim.
30–39 7 8
m Quantitative, discrete 6 a There would be many more student
40–49 12 3 n Categorical, nominal drivers in Year 12 than in Year 11 —
50–59 1 2 o Categorical, ordinal perhaps also some in Year 10.
p Quantitative, continuous b Students with part-time jobs are in lower
7 Year 7 — 16, Year 8 — 16, Year 9 — 14, q Quantitative, discrete year levels as well.
Year 10 — 13, Year 11 — 12, Year 12 — 9 r Categorical, ordinal c Residents not at the neighbourhood
8 Major department store 60 votes, small s Categorical, nominal watch meeting have been ignored.
department store 30 votes and small stores t Categorical, ordinal d Other music students who play
2 votes 5 a Quantitative and discrete instruments and don’t belong to the
9 b Categorical choir have been excluded.
Year Boys Girls
c Categorical e The composition of cars in a shopping
7 9 9 d Quantitative and continuous centre car park is not representative of
8 10 11 e Quantitative and continuous the cars on the road.
f Quantitative and discrete f Females have been excluded.
9 10 10 6 Categorical and ordinal g Users of the local library would not
10 9 8 7 Categorical and ordinal reflect the views of teenagers.
8 Quantitative and discrete 7 a That health care funding has been
11 7 7 9 C halved over the eight year period.
12 6 6 10 Categorical and ordinal b
11 Quantitative and continuous 110
10 Answers will vary but for part (c) you 12 This statement means that words are 100
should notice the result for (b) is closer to generally used to describe categorical data
the expected value of 5. and numbers which have a value generally 90
11 The larger the sample the more likely describe quantitative data. The statement is
results will reflect the whole population. 80
generally true but not always correct.
Health care cost ($m)
12 The correct number of students are chosen 13 Danielle is not correct. This may be true in 70
from each year and then within each most cases but clothing that has half sizes
stratum 40% should be boys and 60% is an example of discrete fractional data. 60
girls. To be continuous data must be able to take 50
13 a Having multiple strata you need to any value.
stratify within each group, making 14 Garry means that anything that is counted 40
sample selection very tedious. can only take certain values, usually
b Jack should select a random sample as
30
whole numbers but anything that is
this should include all relevant strata. measured can take any value within a 20
14 B and D reasonable range.
15 C–D–B–A 10
15 a Categories have no ‘in between’ values
exercise 4d types of data so a line graph would have no meaning.
There should not be links between the 0
1 a Quantitative 2000 2004 2008
b Categorical categories. The order of the categories is Years
c Quantitative also generally not important. 8 a That employment growth was linear in
d Categorical b Column graph that period.
e Quantitative 16 Quantitative continuous data b The scale on the horizontal axis is not
f Quantitative 17 Answers will vary. even.
2 a Ordinal 9 a That fatalities are increasing.
b Ordinal exercise 4e Bias b By reversing the horizontal scale
c Nominal 1 Check with your teacher. c By beginning the vertical scale at 400
d Nominal 2 Check with your teacher. 10 Check with your teacher.
e Nominal 3 a Sample does not represent 11 a 20% b 71.5° c 80°
3 a Continuous characteristics of population. d The perspective magnifies some sectors
b Discrete b No control over responses and diminishes others.
c Continuous c Unrepresentative sample 12 The graph is misleading as the perspective
d Continuous d Abnormal conditions accentuates sectors at the front because the
e Continuous e Only extreme groups in sample graph is elliptical rather than circular.

Chapter revIeW 6
7
10 Check with your teacher.
11 Year 7 — 12, Year 8 — 12, Year 9 — 11,
MUltIple ChoICe 6
Year 10 — 10, Year 11 — 8, Year 12 — 7
1D 2 B 5
Frequency
12 a Categorical
3A 4 C 4
b Quantitative
3
short ansWer c Quantitative
2
d Quantitative
1 a External b Internal 1
e Categorical
c External d Internal 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 13 a Discrete
2 a Observation b Questioning Number of people in a household b Continuous
c Observation d Questioning
Number of people c Continuous
3 Check with your teacher.
in a household d Discrete
4 Score Tally Frequency 1 e Continuous
1 ||| 3 2 14 Check with your teacher.
2 | 6 3
3 | 6 extended response
4
4 | 6 5
1 a Categorical
5 ||| 3 b Random
6
6 ||| 3 2 a Quantitative and continuous
7 a Sample b Census b Systematic
5 Number of Number of c Census d Sample c The data are influenced by factors that
CDs Tally students 8 Random sample — where the participants don’t make them representative of the
0–4 ||| 3 are chosen by luck whole population.
5–9 |||| 9 Stratified sample — where the participants d Take cans of paint from each of the five
10–14 |||| 9 are chosen in proportion to the entire machines.
15–19 ||| 3 population
Systematic sample — where a system is
20–24 |||| 4
used to select the participants
25–29 | 1 9 a Systematic
30–34 0 b Random
35–39 | 1 c Stratified

Chapter 5
Displaying single data sets
Chapter ContentS
5a Types of graphs and stem-and-leaf plots
5B Frequency tables and cumulative frequency
5C Range and interquartile range, deciles and percentiles
5d Five-number summaries
5e Appropriate graphs and misuse of graphs
5atypes of graphs and

stem-and-leaf plots
Data can be displayed in many different ways. Most commonly data are displayed on some type of
graph. Graphs such as column graphs, sector graphs and line graphs were looked at in chapter 4 and
more can be found on these types of graphs using the skillsheets if you need them. In this section we are
going to look at some displays that are of particular use to statisticians.
radar charts
A radar chart is similar to a line graph except it is circular. It is particularly suitable for showing data
trends that repeat.
The ‘radar’ is drawn with the data being measured placed in equal sectors around the circle and the
results having a scale emanating from the centre. The points are then plotted and joined.
Worked example 1
The information below shows the sales in a department store over a year.
Month Sales ($m) Month Sales ($m)

January 2.8 July 1.8
February 1.7 August 1.1
March 1.1 September 1.6
April 1.2 October 1.9
May 1.3 November 2.5
June 1.6 December 3.4
Show these data in a radar chart.
Chapter 5 • Displaying single data sets 141

think draW
1 Draw equal sectors of 30°. Sales ($m)

January
2 Draw the sales from the centre using 3.5
1 cm = $0.5 million. December 3 February
2.5
3 Plot the points. November 2 March
1.5
1
4 Join each point with a straight line. 0.5
October 0 April
September May
August June
July
dot plots
A dot plot is used to display a set of scores on a number line. This graph is useful for showing a small
number of scores.
Worked example 2
Below are the scores out of 10 achieved by 11 students on a Maths quiz.

7 4 8 7 6 7 6 5 8 9 5
Show this information on a dot plot.
think draW
1 Draw a number line showing all numbers 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

from 0 to 10.
2 Place a dot on the appropriate number for
each score, stacking the dots to show where
more than one of the same score has occurred. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Stem-and-leaf plots
A stem-and-leaf plot is a method of tabulating data that generally consists of two parts.
A stem is made using the first part of each piece of data. The second part of each piece of data forms
the leaves. Consider the case below.
The following data show the mass (in kg) of 20 possums trapped, weighed then released by a wildlife
researcher.
1.8 0.9 0.7 1.4 1.6 2.1 2.7 2.2 1.8 2.3
2.3 1.5 1.1 2.2 3.0 2.5 2.7 3.2 1.9 1.7
The stem is made from the whole number part of the mass and the leaves are the decimal part. The
first piece of data was 1.8 kg. The stem of this number could be considered to be 1 and the leaf 0.8. The
second piece of data was 0.9. It has a stem of 0 and a leaf of 0.9.
To compose a stem-and-leaf plot for these data, rule a vertical column of stems then enter the leaf
of each piece of data in a neat row beside the appropriate stem. The first row of the stem-and-leaf plot
records all data from 0.0 to 0.9. The second row records data from 1.0 to 1.9 etc. Attach a key to the plot
to show the reader the meaning of each entry.

It is convention to assemble the data in order of size, so this stem-and-leaf plot should be written in
such a way that the numbers in each row of ‘leafs’ are in ascending order.
Key: 0 | 7 = 0.7 kg
Stem Leaf
0 7 9
1 1 4 5 6 7 8 8 9
2 1 2 2 3 3 5 7 7
3 0 2
When preparing a stem-and-leaf plot, it is important to try to keep the numbers in neat vertical
columns because a neat plot gives the reader an idea of the distribution of scores. The plot itself looks a
bit like a histogram turned on its side.
Worked Example 3
The information below shows the mass, in kilograms, of twenty 16-year-old boys.
65 45 56 57 58 54 61 72 70 69
61 58 49 52 64 71 66 65 66 60
Show this information in a stem-and-leaf plot.
Think Write
1 Make the ‘tens’ the stem and the ‘units’ the

leaves.
2 Write a key. Key: 5 | 6 = 56 kg
3 Complete the plot. Stem Leaf

4 5 9
5 2 4 6 7 8 8
6 0 1 1 4 5 5 6 6 9
7 0 1 2
It is also useful to be able to represent data with a class size of 5. This could be done for the
stem-and-leaf plot below by choosing stems 0*, 1, 1*, 2, 2*, 3, where the class with stem 1 contains
all the data from 1.0 to 1.4 and stem 1* contains the data from 1.5 to 1.9 etc. If stems are split in
this way, it is a good idea to include two entries in the key. The stem-and-leaf plot for the ‘possum’
data would appear as follows.
Key: 1 | 1 = 1.1 kg 1* | 5 = 1.5
Stem Leaf
0* 7 9
1 1 4
1* 5 6 7 8 8 9
2 1 2 2 3 3
2* 5 7 7
3 0 2
A stem-and-leaf plot has the following advantages over a frequency distribution table.
• The plot itself gives a graphical representation of the spread of data. (It is rather like a
histogram turned on its side.)
• All the original data are retained, so there is no loss of accuracy when calculating statistics such
as the mean and standard deviation. In a grouped frequency distribution table (see page 146)
some generalisations are made when these values are calculated.

Worked example 4
The following data give the length of gestation in days for

24 mothers. Prepare a stem-and-leaf plot of the data using a
class size of 5.
280 287 285 276 266 292
288 273 295 279 284 271
292 288 279 281 270 278
281 292 268 282 275 281
think Write
1 A class size of 5 is required. The smallest piece

of data is 266 and the largest is 295 so make the
stems: 26*, 27, 27*, 28, 28*, 29, 29*.
The key should give a clear indication of the
meaning of each entry.
2 Enter the data piece by piece. Enter the leaves in

pencil at first so that they can be rearranged into
order of size. Check that 24 pieces of data have
been entered.
3 Now arrange the leaves in order of size. Key: 26* | 6 = 266

27 | 0 = 270
Stem Leaf
26* 6 8
27 0 1 3
27* 5 6 8 9 9
28 0 1 1 1 2 4
28* 5 7 8 8
29 2 2 2
29* 5
Since all the original data are recorded on the stem-and-leaf plot and are conveniently arranged in order
of size, the plot can be used to locate the upper and lower quartiles and the median.
exercise 5a types of graphs and stem-and-leaf plots

1 We1 The table below shows the average monthly temperature in Sydney.
Month Temp (°C) Month Temp (°C)

January 28 July 15
February 30 August 16
March 26 September 20
April 24 October 22
May 20 November 25
June 17 December 27

Show this information in a radar chart.
2 The table below shows the percentage of televisions that are being watched over a 24-hour period.
Time Percentage Time Percentage

12:00 am 12% 12:00 pm 30%
2:00 am 1% 2:00 pm 33%
4:00 am 2% 4:00 pm 45%
6:00 am 8% 6:00 pm 60%
8:00 am 15% 8:00 pm 78%
10:00 am 24% 10:00 pm 55%
Show this information in a radar chart.

3 WE 2 Below are the scores out of 10 on a spelling test as achieved by a small class of students.
Show the information on a dot plot.
4 5 3 7 8 10 9 6 7 7 8 6 8 6 7
4 Below is the maximum temperature in Sydney each day during February.
28 35 33 34 30 27 28 29 30 26 28 30 31 33
32 31 30 31 29 29 28 25 26 30 31 30 29 29
Show this information on a dot plot.
5 WE3 The data below give the number of errors made each week by 20 machine operators. Prepare a
stem-and-leaf diagram of the data using stems of 0, 1, 2 etc.
6 15 20 25 28 18 32 43 52 27
17 26 38 31 26 29 32 46 13 20
6 The data below give the time taken for each of 40 runners on a 10 km fun run.
Prepare a stem-and-leaf diagram for the data using a class size of 10 minutes.
36 42 52 38 47 59 72 68 57 82
66 75 45 42 55 38 42 46 48 39
42 58 40 41 47 53 68 43 39 48
71 42 50 46 40 52 37 54 48 52
7 WE4 The typing speed of 30 word processors is recorded below. Prepare a stem-and-leaf diagram of
the data using a class size of 5.
96 102 92 96 95 102 95 115 110 108
88 86 107 111 107 108 103 121 107 96
124 95 98 102 108 112 120 99 121 130

8 Twenty transistors are tested by applying increasing voltage until they are destroyed. The maximum
voltage that each could withstand is recorded below. Prepare a stem-and-leaf plot of the data using a
class size of 0.5.
14.8 15.2 13.8 14.0 14.8 15.7 15.5 15.6 14.7 14.3
14.6 15.2 15.9 15.1 14.3 14.6 13.9 14.7 14.5 14.2
Questions 9 and 10 refer to the stem-and-leaf plot below.
Key: 12 | 1 = 1210
12* | 5 = 1250
Stem Leaf
12 1 2 4
12* 5 7 7 9 9
13 0 1 1 2 3 4 4
13* 5 6 6 7 9 9
14 0 2 3 4
14* 0 1
9 mC The class size used in the stem-and-leaf plot is:
a 1 B 10 C 33 d 50
10 mC The number of scores that have been recorded is:
a 27 B 33 C 1210 d 1410
Further development
11 a Describe the advantages of displaying data in a dot plot.
b The data below shows the number of packets of chips sold from a vending machine over a 2 week
period.
15, 17, 18, 18, 14, 16, 17, 6, 16, 18, 16, 16, 20, 18
Display this information in a dot plot.
c Explain why a dot plot is only suitable for discrete data.
12 Explain why it would not be suitable to represent each of the following data sets on a dot plot.
a A cricketer’s scores in a season were 4, 65, 82, 5, 19, 56, 23, 153.
b The heights of 8 bushes were 1.93 m, 1.76 m, 1.55 m, 1.86 m, 1.97 m, 1.13 m, 1.05 m, 2.06 m.
13 Tina wants to draw graphs to represent the following data:
• The average daily sales in her shop over a week
• The most frequently sold items in her shop
• The amounts of money spent by her customers
Which of these would be most suitable to display on a radar chart? Explain your choice.
14 The data below gives the head circumference (to the nearest centimetre) of 16 four-year-old girls.
48 49 47 52 51 50 49 48 50 50 53 52 43 47 49 50
a Draw a stem-and-leaf plot of the data using stems 4 and 5.
b Draw the stem-and-leaf plot with the stems 4 and 5 split into halves.
diGital doC c Jessica decides to draw the stem-and-leaf plot in fifths, which is five rows for each stem, with 0’s
doc-10319 and 1’s on the first row, 2’s and 3’s on the second row and so on. Complete the stem-and-leaf plot
drawing graphs using
graphics calculators
using this method.
and spreadsheets 15 Explain why categorical data is unsuitable to be represented by a line graph.
5BFrequency tables and cumulative

frequency
From previous years you should be familiar with compiling a frequency table. In this section we will
revise compiling frequency tables, but place an emphasis on the use of the cumulative frequency.
When working with quantitative data, each piece of data is known as a score. Quantitative data may be
presented as grouped or ungrouped data. Ungrouped data are suitable for discrete data that do not have a
wide range of scores.
The frequency table will have columns for scores, tally, frequency and cumulative frequency, which is
a running total of the frequency column.

Worked example 5
Fifty people were surveyed and asked the number of videos that they had hired from a video store
in the past month. The results are shown below.
2 4 5 3 3 3 3 0 5 1
1 3 3 0 5 2 2 1 3 1
3 4 4 2 0 1 4 0 3 2
0 1 5 5 1 2 3 5 3 4
0 2 0 4 4 4 2 2 4 5
Enter the information in a frequency table.
think Write/draW
1 Draw a table with three columns and with scores

from 0 to 5.
2 Enter a tally mark for each score.
3 Count the tally marks for each score and enter the Score Tally Frequency
result in the frequency column.
0 |||| || 7
1 |||| || 7
2 |||| |||| 9
3 |||| |||| | 11
4 |||| |||| 9
5 |||| || 7
When data are continuous or spread over a wide range it is useful to group the scores into groups or
classes. When summarising raw data in a frequency table the group size is important. In general we try
to have between 5 and 10 classes.
Later we will be looking at some of the calculations that are done using a frequency table. For this
reason we need to have a single score to represent every score in the group and so an extra column is
created called the class centre.
Worked example 6
The height of 40 students was measured and the results are shown
below.
146 141 155 166 168 158 169 164 141 154
159 143 152 156 146 146 161 150 141 153
152 148 152 142 162 159 141 151 169 169
164 148 168 169 146 162 151 150 143 140
Put the above results into a frequency table.

think Write/draW
1 The data range from 140 cm to 168 cm.

Class
Choose a group of 5 cm beginning at
Height centre Tally Frequency
140 cm.
140–<145 142.5 |||| ||| 8
2 Calculate the class centres.
145–<150 147.5 |||| | 6
3 Draw a frequency table with four columns
150–<155 152.5 |||| |||| 9
and room for six classes.
155–<160 157.5 |||| 5
4 Enter a tally mark in the appropriate class
as each height is read. 160–<165 162.5 |||| 5
165–170 167.5 |||| || 7
5 Complete the frequency table by counting
the tally marks.
In analysing statistical data the most useful graph that can be drawn is the cumulative frequency histo-
gram and polygon (ogive). The cumulative frequency histogram is drawn without the half column space
before the first column, while the ogive is drawn to the top right-hand corner of each column.
Worked example 7
The frequency table below shows the heights of people in a basketball squad.
Height (cm) Class centre Frequency

170–<175 172.5 3
175–<180 177.5 6
180–<185 182.5 12
185–<190 187.5 10
190–<195 192.5 8
195–200 197.5 1
a Add a cumulative frequency column to the table.
b Draw a frequency histogram and polygon.
think Write/draW
a 1 Add a fourth column to the table. a

Height Class Cumulative
2 Complete the column by keeping a (cm) centre Frequency frequency
running total of the frequencies. 170–<175 172.5 3 3
175–<180 177.5 6 9
180–<185 182.5 12 21
185–<190 187.5 10 31
190–<195 192.5 8 39
195–200 197.5 1 40
b 1 Draw the axes with height on the b

Cumulative frequency
horizontal axis and cumulative 40

frequency on the vertical axis. Show 35
30
the class centres for the height. 25
20
2 Draw the columns for the cumulative 15
10
frequency histogram. 5
0
3 Draw the cumulative frequency
2.5
7.5
2.5
7.5
2.5
7.5
polygon by joining the lines to the top

17
17
18
18
19
19
Height (cm)
right-hand corner of each column.

It is important to see that the increase in each column of the cumulative frequency histogram
represents the frequency of each class. This enables us to reconstruct a frequency table from the
cumulative frequency graph.
Worked example 8
Use the cumulative frequency histogram below to complete a frequency table of the data.
70 Cumulative frequency
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 155 165 175 185 195 205
Class centre
think Write/draW
1 The difference in class centres is 10 so this is

the class size.
2 The classes will be ‘5’ either side of each
class centre.
3 Find each frequency by subtracting the
Class Cumulative
cumulative frequencies.
Class centre Frequency frequency
The 150−<160 frequency is the same as the
cumulative frequency. (8) 150−<160 155 8 8
The 160−<170 frequency = 22 − 8 = 14 160−<170 165 14 22
The 170−<180 frequency = 30 − 22 = 8 170−<180 175 8 30
The 180−<190 frequency = 44 − 30 = 14
The 190−<200 frequency = 55 − 44 = 11 180−<190 185 14 44
The 200−<210 frequency = 60 − 55 = 5 190−<200 195 11 55
200−210 205 5 60
Frequency tables and

exercise 5B
cumulative frequency
1 We5 Twenty households were surveyed to find the number of people in that household. The results
are shown below.
4 3 4 6 3 2 5 2 7 4 5 6 4 3 5 4 6 2 3 4
Use this information to complete a copy of the frequency table below.
Score Tally Frequency

2
3
4
5
6
7
2 The marks of 25 students on a spelling test are shown below.

4 5 8 5 10 7 6 9 7 6 5 7 6 diGital doC
4 7 5 6 7 5 7 8 4 6 8 7 Spreadsheet
doc-1559
Put this information into a frequency table. Frequency tables

3 The scores of 50 professional golfers in a round of golf are shown below.
72 70 69 75 78 68 66 68 67 72 72 71 68 73 72 71 74
77 72 73 72 72 72 74 70 71 73 72 77 74 76 68 69 68
77 75 72 72 72 71 73 72 70 74 72 71 73 68 67 67
Display this information in a frequency table.
4 WE6 A class of 30 students sat for a Mathematics test. Their results out of 100 are shown below.
68 72 58 45 69 92 38 51 70 65 69 73 52 76 48
69 73 41 42 73 80 50 60 49 65 94 88 85 53 60
Use these results to copy and complete the frequency table below.
Score Class centre Tally Frequency

30–39
40– 49
50–59
60–69
70–79
80–89
90–99
5 A farmer measures the heights of his tomato plants.

The results, in metres, are shown below.
0.93 1.21 2.03 1.40 1.17 1.53
1.82 1.77 1.65 0.63 1.24 1.99
0.80 2.14 1.53 2.07 1.96 1.05
0.94 1.23 1.72 1.34 0.75 1.17
1.50 1.41 1.74 1.86 1.55 1.42
1.52 1.39 1.76 1.67 1.28 1.43
2.13
Use the class groupings 0.6–<0.8, 0.8–<1.0, 1.0–<1.2, . . . etc.
to complete a frequency distribution table for these data.
6 The following data give the times (in seconds) taken for athletes to complete a 100 m sprint.
12.2 12.0 11.9 12.0 12.6 11.7
11.4 11.0 10.9 11.7 11.2 11.8
12.2 12.0 12.7 12.9 11.3 11.2
12.8 12.4 11.7 10.8 13.3 11.7
11.6 11.7 12.2 12.7 13.0 12.2
Construct a frequency distribution table for the data. Use a class size of 0.5 seconds.

7 We7 The following data show the number of registered
cars normally kept at each of 30 households.
No. of cars Frequency
0 2
1 8
2 11
3 6
4 2
5 1
a Copy the table and add a cumulative frequency column.

b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
8 The following table shows the number of jelly beans in each of 60 packets.
No. of jelly beans Frequency

48 2
49 10
50 32
51 9
52 5
53 2
b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and
polygon.
9 The following frequency table gives the number of oysters of different lengths from a tray in a marine
farm.
Cumulative
Length (cm) Class centre Frequency frequency
4–<5 6
5–<6 10
6–<7 60
7–<8 58
8–<9 8
9–10 4
a Copy and complete the table.
b Show the information in the form of a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.

10 The following frequency table gives the results of testing the lives of 200 torch batteries.
Lifetime (hours) Frequency

20–<25 6
25–<30 25
30–<35 70
35–<40 61
40–<45 30
45–50 8
a Redraw the table, including a column for class centre and cumulative frequency.
11 Complete the frequency and class columns for the frequency table below.
Class Class centre Frequency Cumulative frequency

3 5
8 12
13 20
18 30
23 35
12 Use the cumulative frequency histogram below to construct a frequency table for the data.
100 Cumulative frequency

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Score
13 MC Consider the cumulative frequency histogram below.
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 5 15 25 35 45
Class centre
Which class has the highest frequency?
a 0−<10 B 20−<30 c 30−<40 d 40−<50
14 WE8 Use the cumulative frequency histogram below to construct a frequency table for the data.
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 5 15 25 35 45
Class centre

Further development
15 A survey is conducted where 40 people were asked the number of hours of television that they watched
each week.
a Is the data discrete or continuous?
b The results are as shown below.
10, 13, 7, 12, 16, 11, 6, 14, 6, 11,
5, 14, 12, 8, 27, 17, 13, 8, 14, 10
13, 7, 15, 10, 16, 8, 18, 14, 21, 28,
9, 12, 11, 13, 9, 13, 29, 5, 24, 11
Why is it more practical in this case to use class groupings rather than individual scores?
c Complete the frequency table below.
Class Tally Class centre Frequency

5–<10
10–<15
15–<20
20–<25
25–30
16 The number of phone calls made, on average, per week in a sample of 56 people is listed below.
21, 50, 8, 64, 33, 58, 35, 61, 3, 51, 5, 62, 16, 44,
56, 17, 59, 23, 34, 57, 49, 2, 24, 50, 27, 33, 55, 7,
52, 17, 54, 78, 69, 53, 2, 42, 52, 28, 67, 25, 48, 63,
12, 72, 36, 66, 15, 28, 67, 13, 23, 10, 72, 72, 89, 80
a Is the data discrete or continuous?
b Explain why classes of 1–10, 10–20, . . . etc. are not appropriate in this case.
c Complete a frequency table using a class size of 10.
17 The following frequency table shows the time taken (in seconds) for 60 people, involved in a
psychology experiment, to complete a simple manipulative puzzle.
Time taken (s) Frequency

6–<8 1
8–<10 4
10–<12 15
12–<14 18
14–<16 12
16–<18 8
18–20 2
a Copy the table and add a cumulative frequency column to it.

b Prepare an ogive of the data.
18 The cumulative frequency histogram below shows the marks in a class on an exam. (All marks are
whole numbers.)
30
Cumulative
frequency
25
20
15
10
5
0 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 94.5
Class centre diGital doC
WorkSHEET 5.1
Represent the data in a frequency table. doc-10320

range and interquartile range,
5C
interaCtiVitY
int-2362
deciles and percentiles
measures of centre Once a set of scores has been collected, tabulated and graphed, we are ready to make some conclusions
and spread
about the data.
The range and interquartile range are used to measure the spread of a set of scores.
The range is the difference between the highest and the lowest score.
Range = highest score − lowest score
Worked example 9
There are 17 players in the squad for a State of Origin match. The number of State of Origin
matches played by each member of the squad is shown below.
2 6 12 8 1 4 8 9 24 4 5 11 14 6 11 15 10
What is the range of this distribution?
think Write
1 The lowest number of matches played is 1. Lowest score = 1

2 The highest number of matches played is 24. Highest score = 24
3 Calculate the range by subtracting the lowest Range = 24 − 1
score from the highest score. = 23
A smaller range will usually represent a more consistent set of scores. Exceptions to this are when one
or two scores are much higher or lower than most.
When we are calculating the range from a frequency distribution table, we find the highest and lowest
score from the score column. We do not use any information from the frequency column in calculating the
range. When the data are presented in grouped form, the range is found by taking the highest score from
the highest class and the lowest score from the lowest class.
Worked example 10
The frequency distribution table below shows the heights of boys competing for a place on a
basketball team.
Find the range of these data.
Height Frequency
170–<175 3
175–<180 6
180–<185 12
185–<190 10
190–<195 8
195–200 1
think Write
1 The lowest score is at the bottom of the Lowest score = 170

170–175 class.
2 The highest score is at the top of the Highest score = 200
195–200 class.
3 Range = highest score − lowest score. Range = 200 − 170
= 30

In many cases, the range is not a good indicator of the overall spread of scores. Consider the two sets of
scores below showing the wages of people in two small businesses.
A: $240, $240, $240, $245, $250, $250, $260, $800
B: $180, $200, $240, $290, $350, $400, $500, $600
The range for business A = $800 − $240 and for business B = $600 − $180
= $560 = $420
While the range for business A is greater, by looking at the wages in the two businesses, we can see
that the wages in business B are generally more spread. The range uses only two scores in its calculation.
The interquartile range is usually a better measure of dispersion (spread).
The quartiles are found by dividing the data into quarters. The lower quartile is the lowest 25% of
scores, the upper quartile is the highest 25% of scores.
To calculate an interquartile range, we must first be able to calculate the median. To calculate the
median, we must first arrange the scores in ascending order. The median is the middle score (if there is
an odd number of scores) or the average of the two middle scores (if there is an even number of scores).
Worked example 11
Calculate the median of:

a 2, 5, 8, 8, 8, 11, 12 b 45, 69, 69, 87, 88, 92, 99, 100.
think Write
a There are 7 scores so the median is the 4th score. a Median = 8

87 + 88
b There are 8 scores so the median is the average of the b Median =
4th score and the 5th score. 2
= 87.5
The interquartile range is the difference between the upper quartile and the lower quartile. To find the
1
lower and upper quartiles we arrange the scores in ascending order. The lower quartile is 4 of the way
3
through the distribution and the upper quartile is 4 of the way through the distribution.
To find the interquartile range we follow the steps below.
1. Arrange the data in ascending order.
2. Divide the data into two halves by finding the median.
(a) If there is an odd number of scores, the median score should not be included in either half of the
scores.
(b) If there is an even number of scores, the middle will be halfway between two scores and this will
divide the data neatly into two sets.
3. The lower quartile will be the median of the lower half of the data.
4. The upper quartile will be the median of the upper half of the data.
5. The interquartile range will be the difference between the medians of the two halves of the data.
Worked example 12
Find the interquartile range of the following data, which show the number of home runs scored in
a series of baseball matches.
12, 9, 4, 6, 5, 8, 9, 4, 10, 2
think Write/diSplaY
Method 1
1 Write the data in ascending order. 2, 4, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 9, 10, 12
2 Divide the data into two equal halves. 2, 4, 4, 5, 6 8, 9, 9, 10, 12
3 The lower quartile is the median of the lower half. Lower quartile = 4
4 The upper quartile is the median of the upper half. Upper quartile = 9
5 The interquartile range is the upper quartile minus the Interquartile range = 9 − 4
lower quartile. =5

Method 2
1 From the MENU select STAT.
2 Delete any existing data from all lists and then enter the
scores into List 1.
3 Press 2 for CALC and then 6 for SET. Enter the

settings as shown at right.
1Var Xlist:List 1 shows that the scores are stored in
List 1.
1Var Freq:1 shows that each score in List 1 is an
individual score with a frequency of 1.
4 Press w to return to the previous screen and then
press 1 for 1Var and all the summary statistics will
be displayed.
5 Scroll down using the arrow keys until you can see the
median, which is equal to 7.
6 To find the range, we need to find the lowest and the highest Range = 12 – 2
score. On the previous screen you will see the lowest score = 10
denoted MinX. Scroll down further to find MaxX. The range
is found by subtracting MinX from MaxX.
7 On this screen you will see the value of the upper quartile IQR = 9 – 4
Q3 and the lower quartile Q1. To find the interquartile =5
range, subtract Q1 from Q3.

In most cases we are asked to find the interquartile range of a grouped distribution. This requires us to
draw a cumulative frequency polygon and find the 25th and 75th percentile.
A percentile is a measure of where in a set of scores an individual score lies. For example, the
25th percentile has 25% of scores below it and 75% above it.
To find the interquartile range, draw a second vertical axis that shows the 25th, 50th and
75th percentile. A line is drawn from the 25th, 50th and 75th percentile to the ogive and then down to the
horizontal axis. The value for the quartiles can then be calculated.
The median is the score that is found at the 50th percentile.
Worked Example 13
The cumulative frequency histogram and polygon at right 50
shows the number of customers who order different volumes of 40
concrete from a readymix concrete company during a day.
Find the: 30
a median 20
b interquartile range for this distribution.
10
0
5 5 5 5 5 5
0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7
Volumes of concrete
Think Write/draw
a 1 Draw a vertical axis showing the a

100% 50
percentiles.
40
75%
30
50%
20
25% 10
0% 0
5 5 5 5 5 5
0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7
Volumes of concrete
2 Draw a line for the 50th percentile to Median = 0.9

the ogive and estimate the median.
b 1 Draw a line for the 25th and 75th b Lower quartile = 0.4
percentiles and estimate these values. Upper quartile = 1.6
2 Calculate the interquartile range by Interquartile range = 1.6 − 0.4
subtracting the lower quartile from the = 1.2
upper quartile.
A data set can also be divided into deciles. A decile is a band of 10% of all scores. The deciles can be
calculated in the same way as the quartiles, using the appropriate percentage on the vertical scale. For
example, the top decile would be found using the 90th percentile.

Range and interquar tile range, deciles
Exercise 5C
and percentiles
1 WE9 Find the range of each of the following sets of data.
a 2, 5, 4, 5, 7, 4, 3
b 103, 108, 111, 102, 111, 107, 110
c 2.5, 2.8, 3.4, 2.7, 2.6, 2.4, 2.9, 2.6, 2.5, 2.8
d 3.20, 3.90, 4.25, 7.29, 1.45, 2.77, 8.39
e 45, 23, 7, 47, 76, 89, 96, 48, 87, 76, 66
2 WE10 Use the frequency distribution tables below to find the range for each of the following sets of
scores.
a Score Frequency b Score Frequency
1 2 38 23
2 6 39 46
3 12 40 52
4 10 41 62
5 7 42 42
43 45
c Score Frequency
89 12
90 25
91 36
92 34
93 11
94 9
95 4
3 For the grouped dispersions below, state the range.

a Class Frequency b Class Frequency
51–60 2 150–<155 12
61–70 8 155–<160 25
71–80 15 160–<165 38
81–90 7 165–<170 47
91–100 1 170–<175 39
175–180 20
c Class Frequency
40–43 48
44–47 112
48–51 254
52–55 297
56–59 199
60–63 84
4 The scores below show the number of points scored by two AFL teams over the first 10 games of the
season.
Sydney: 110 95 74 136 48 168 120 85 99 65
Collingwood: 125 112 89 111 96 113 85 90 87 92
a Calculate the range of the scores for each team.
b Based on the results above, which team would you say is the more consistent?

5 Two machines are used to fill boxes with approximately 100 Smarties. A check is made on the
operation of the two machines. Ten boxes filled by each machine have the number of Smarties in them
counted. The results are shown below.
Machine A: 100, 99, 99, 101, 100, 101, 100, 100, 101, 108
Machine B: 98, 104, 96, 97, 103, 96, 102, 100, 97, 104
a What is the range in the number of Smarties from machine A?

b What is the range in the number of Smarties from machine B?
c Ralph is the quality control officer and he argues that machine A is more consistent in its
distribution of Smarties. Explain why.
6 WE11 Find the median for each of the data sets below.
a 3, 4, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 b 17, 20, 19, 25, 29, 27, 28, 25, 29
c 52, 55, 53, 53, 54, 55, 52, 53, 54, 52 d 12, 14, 15, 12, 14, 19, 17, 15, 18, 20
e 56, 75, 83, 47, 93, 35, 84, 83, 73, 20, 66, 90
7 WE12 For each of the data sets in question 6, calculate the interquartile range.
8 WE13 The frequency histogram and polygon at right
displays the results of a survey of 50 drivers who were asked 50

45
about the number of speeding fines they have received. 40
a Use the ogive to find the median of the distribution. 35
30
b Find the lower quartile. 25
c Find the upper quartile. 20
15
d Calculate the interquartile range. 10
e Calculate the top decile. 5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
No. of speeding fines
received by drivers
9 The frequency distribution table below shows the result of a survey of 90 households who were asked
about the number of times they had been the victim of crime.
Score Frequency
0 26
1 31
2 22
3 8
4 3
a Add a column for cumulative frequency to the table.

c Use your graph to find the median of the distribution.
d Calculate the interquartile range.

10 MC For the frequency table below, what is the range?
Score Frequency
25 14
26 12
27 19
28 25
29 19
a 4 b 5 c 6 d 17
11 MC Calculate the interquartile range of the following data.
17, 18, 18, 19, 20, 21, 21, 23, 25
a 3 b 4 c 5 d 8
12 MC The interquartile range is considered to be a better measure of the variability of a set of scores
than the range because it:
a takes into account more scores
b is the difference between the upper and lower quartiles
c is easier to calculate
d is not affected by extreme values.
13 MC The distribution below shows the ranges in the heights of 25 members of a football squad.
Cumulative
Height (cm) Class centre Frequency frequency
140–<150 145 2 2
150–<160 155 5 7
160–<170 165 10 17
170–<180 175 7 24
180–190 185 1 25
Which of the statements below is correct?

A The range of the distribution is 40.
B The range of the distribution is 49.
c The range of the distribution is 9.
d The interquartile range can only be estimated using a cumulative frequency polygon.
14 The frequency distribution table below shows the marks obtained by a group of people on an IQ test.
IQ score Frequency
75–84 12
85–94 25
95–104 50
105–114 24
115–124 13
a Redraw the frequency distribution table to include columns for class centre and cumulative
frequency.
c Find the range.
d Use the graph to estimate the i interquartile range ii top decile iii 65th percentile.

15 The following frequency distribution table shows the distribution of daily maximum temperatures
during the course of a full year.
Maximum temperature (°C) Number of days

0–<5 4
5–<10 22
10–<15 95
15–<20 124
20–<25 94
25–<30 19
30–<35 5
35–40 2

b Draw an ogive of the data.
c Find the upper and lower quartiles of the data and calculate the interquartile range.
d Use the ogive to find the median (50th percentile of the data).
e Find the bottom decile of the data (the scores between which the lowest 10% of scores lie).
16 The following data give the number of fruit that have formed on each of 30 trees in an orchard.
45 48 52 36 38 72 36 74 56 46
81 73 46 48 44 39 52 58 57 65
60 53 54 58 41 44 47 76 68 55
a Complete a frequency distribution table for the data.

c Use the ogive to find the median, lower quartile and upper quartile of the data.
d Find the interquartile range of the data.
Fur ther development
17 The salaries of the 40 employees of a small manufacturing company are represented by the
accompanying frequency table.
Salary (× $1000) Frequency

15–<20 6
20–<25 12
25–<30 8
30–<35 7
35–<40 5
40–<45 1
45–50 1

c How many employees are earning less than $22 000?
d How many employees are earning less than $31 000?
e Find the 75th percentile of the data and write a sentence explaining what it means.
f Find the 50th percentile of the data and write a sentence explaining what it means.
g Find the 25th percentile of the data and write a sentence explaining what it means.
h The management decides to award pay rises to its highest earning employees. The top 10% of
employees will all get a pay rise. How much salary would an employee need before qualifying for
a pay rise?

18 A manufacturer of surf clothing needs to know how many clothes of different sizes to produce. The
manager organises a survey of young people which provides the following data:
Waist size (cm) Frequency
70–<75 13
75–<80 28
80–<85 46
85–<90 30
90–<95 17
95–<100 8
100–<105 7
105–110 1

c How many young people had a waist size of less than 82 cm?
d How many young people had a waist size of greater than 94 cm?
g The manager decides that production costs can be minimised by only making garments fitting
sizes between 78 cm and 100 cm. What percentage of the population will not be catered for by
this manufacturer?
19 A biologist who counts the number of seeds produced in each of 60 pumpkins presents his findings on
the ogive below. Cumulative frequency (%)
60 100%
50
40
30 50%
20
10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of seeds
a How many pumpkins contained 30 or fewer seeds?

b How many pumpkins contained more than 50 seeds?
c What percentage of pumpkins had fewer than 45 seeds?
d What percentage of pumpkins had fewer than 20 seeds?
g Find the 50th percentile of the data and write a sentence explaining what it means.
h The worst 20% of pumpkins (those with the fewest seeds) are to be kept aside for further
investigation. Find the maximum number of seeds for any pumpkin in this group.
20 A time trial is a race in which each competitor rides separately, racing ‘against the clock’.
The following are the times (in seconds) of 20 competitors in a 1 km cycling time trial.
75 72 68 78 75 68 77 80 85 82
73 75 82 90 92 75 73 72 70 83

a Copy and complete the frequency table below.
Cumulative
Time (s) Frequency frequency
65–<70
70–<75
75–<80
80–<85
85–<90
90–95

c How many riders finished with a time of 82 seconds or better?
d Find the 90th percentile and write a sentence which explains what it means.
e The top 20% of riders are to be selected for a special training squad. What time would be needed
to qualify for the squad?
21 The following data, collected from a maternity hospital, gives the birth weights (in kg) of 30 babies.
3.7 3.2 3.8 4.1 2.9 3.3 3.6 3.1 3.6 3.9
4.2 2.5 2.7 3.9 3.6 3.2 3.0 2.9 3.4 3.0
3.1 2.8 2.9 3.2 3.1 3.8 3.9 3.3 4.4 3.4
a Using classes 2.4–<2.8, 2.8–<3.2, . . . etc. complete a frequency distribution table.
c What percentage of babies had a birth weight of 3.8 kg or less?
d Find the 50th percentile and explain what it means.
e Babies that weigh 2.6 kg or less are given special attention by medical staff. What percentage of
babies are given special attention?
22 The ogive below shows the temperatures (in degrees Celsius) at which paint starts to blister.
a How many paint samples blistered at a temperature of 85 °C or less? Ogive of temperature
b What percentage of the samples blistered at 85 °C or less? at which paint blistered
Cumulative frequency (%)

c What percentage of the samples could withstand a temperature of 88 °C? 30 100%

d Find the 90th percentile and explain what it means. 20
e The manufacturer wishes to guarantee that the paint will not blister at 50%
10
high temperatures. What is the highest temperature at which the paint
could be rated, if management wants no more than 20% of the paint 80 90 100
returned because of blistering? Temperature (°C)

5d Five-number summaries
interaCtiVitY Once the median and quartiles have been calculated, we are able to summarise a data set using five
int-2788 numbers. This five-number summary consists of:
parallel boxplots • lower extreme — the lowest score in the data set
int-0802
Boxplots and • lower quartile — the score at the 25th percentile
five-number summary • median — the middle score
• upper quartile — the score at the 75th percentile
• upper extreme — the highest score in the data set.
Worked example 14
For the set of scores below, develop a five-number summary.

12 15 46 9 36 85 73 29 64 50
think Write
1 Re-write the list in ascending order. 9 12 15 29 36 46 50 64 73 85

2 Write the lowest score. Lower extreme = 9
3 Calculate the lower quartile. Lower quartile = 15
36 + 46
4 Calculate the median. Median =
2
= 41
5 Calculate the upper quartile. Upper quartile = 64
6 Write the upper extreme. Upper extreme = 85
Five-number summary = 9, 15, 41, 64, 85
In most cases you will need to calculate the five-number summary from an ogive.
Worked example 15
The ogive below shows the number of seeds found in each of 60 pumpkins.
60 100%
50
40
30 50%
20
10
0 0%
0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Number of seeds
Use the ogive to develop a five-number summary.

think Write/draW
1 Draw the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles on 60 100%

the ogive.
50
40
30 50%
20
10
0 0%
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Number of seeds

2 Write the lower extreme. Lower extreme = 10
3 Use the ogive to estimate the lower quartile. Lower quartile = 31
4 Use the ogive to estimate the median. Median = 38
5 Use the ogive to estimate the upper quartile. Upper quartile = 47
6 State the upper extreme. Upper extreme = 70
Five-number summary = 10, 31, 38, 47, 70
It is important that you are able to construct a five number summary regardless of what form the data
is presented in. In the example below we are looking at the data in the form of a stem-and-leaf plot.
Worked Example 16
The stem-and-leaf plot shown below shows the ages of 25 people who attend a French speaking
course.
Stem Leaf
1 8 8 9
2 0 2 7 9 9
3 1 3 3 5 6 6 7 9
4 0 2 2 6 8
5 5
Produce a five-number summary of the data.
Think Write
1 The lowest score is 18. Lowest score = 18

2 The highest score is 55. Highest score = 55
3 There are 25 scores so the middle score will be the Median = 36
13th score.
4 There are 12 scores in the lower half. The lower Lower quartile = 28
quartile will be the average of the 6th and 7th score.
5 There will be 12 scores in the upper half and so the Upper quartile = 39.5
upper quartile will be the average of the 19th and 20th
scores.
6 Write the five-number summary. 18 28 36 39.5 555
Once a five-number summary has been developed, it can be graphed using a box-and-whisker plot
(boxplot), a powerful way to display the spread of the data.
The box-and-whisker plot consists of a central divided box with attached whiskers. The box spans the
interquartile range, the vertical line inside the box marks the median and the whiskers indicate the range.
lower lower median upper upper

extreme quartile quartile extreme
Box-and-whisker plots are always drawn to scale. This can be drawn with the five-number summary
attached as labels:
15 21 23
4 28
or with a scale presented alongside the box-and-whisker plot.
Scale
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Worked Example 17
After analysing the speed of motorists through a particular intersection, the following five-number
summary was developed.
The lowest score is 82.
The lower quartile is 84.
The median is 89.
The upper quartile is 95.
The highest score is 114.
Show this information in a box-and-whisker plot.
Think DRAW
1 Draw a scale from 70 to 120 using

1 cm = 10 km/h.
70 80 90 100 110 120
Speed (km/h)
2 Draw the box from 84 to 95.
3 Mark the median at 89.
4 Draw the whiskers to 82 and 114.
Exercise 5D Five-number summaries

1 WE14 Write a five-number summary for the data set below.
15 17 16 8 25 18 20 15 17 14
2 For each of the data sets below, write a five-number summary.
a 23 45 92 80 84 83 43 83
b 2 6 4 2 5 7 1
c 60 75 29 38 69 63 45 20 29 93 8 29 93
3 WE15 A cumulative frequency histogram and polygon is 100

shown at right. Write a five-number summary of the data set. 90

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Score
4 A cumulative frequency histogram and polygon is shown 60

50
Cumulative
frequency
at right. Write a five-number summary of the data set. 40

30
20
10
0
45 55 65 75 85 95
Score
5 WE16 The data below shows the number of race starts that have been had by 24 horses who are
running in a Melbourne Cup.
Key: 1 | 5 = 15
Stem Leaf
1 5 9
2 1 3 3 4 6 7 8 8 9
3 0 1 1 4 5 5 7
4 2 2 4 4 5
5 0
Present the data in the form of a five-number summary.

6 The stem-and-leaf plot below shows the time taken for 13 athletes to run 200 m.
Key: 19 | 6 = 1 9.6 sec

Stem Leaf
19 6 8 9 9
20 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 5 8
7 The stem-and-leaf plot below shows the scores by 35 professional golfers in a round of a tournament.
Key: 6 | 4 = 64
6* | 6 = 66
Stem Leaf
6 4
6* 6 8 8 9 9 9
7 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4
7* 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9
8 0 0 0 1
8 WE17 A five-number summary is given below.
Lower extreme = 39.2
Lower quartile = 46.5
Median = 49.0
Upper quartile = 52.3
Upper extreme = 57.8
Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data.
9 The box-and-whisker plot at right shows the distribution of
final points scored by a football team over a season’s roster.
a What was the team’s greatest points score? 50 70 90 110 130 150
b What was the team’s smallest points score? No. of final points
c What was the team’s median points score?
d What was the range of points scored?
e What was the interquartile range of points scored?
10 The box-and-whisker plot at right shows the distribution of
data formed by counting the number of honey bears in each
of a large sample of packs. 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
In any pack, what was: No. of honey bears
a the largest number of honey bears?
b the smallest number of honey bears?
c the median number of honey bears?
d the range of numbers of honey bears?
e the interquartile range of honey bears?
Questions 11, 12 and 13 refer to the box-and-whisker plot drawn below.
5 10 15 20 25 30 Scale
11 MC The median of the data is:

A 20 b 23 c 35 d 31
12 MC The interquartile range of the data is:
A 23 b 26 c 5 d 20 to 25
13 MC Which of the following is not true of the data represented by the box-and-whisker plot?
a One-quarter of the scores is between 5 and 20.
b One-half of the scores is between 20 and 25.
c The lowest quarter of the data is spread over a wide range.
d Most of the data are contained between the scores of 5 and 20.

14 The data below show monthly rainfall in millimetres.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
10 12 21 23 39 22 15 11 22 37 45 30
a Provide a five-number summary of the data.

b Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data.
15 The following data detail the number of hamburgers sold by a fast food outlet every day over a 4-week
period.
Mon. Tues. Wed. Thur. Fri. Sat. Sun.

125 144 132 148 187 172 181
134 157 152 126 155 183 188
131 121 165 129 143 182 181
152 163 150 148 152 179 181
a Draw a frequency table of the data. (Use a class size of 10.)

b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon for the data.
c Use the ogive to find approximations for the:
i median ii lower quartile iii upper quartile.
d Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data.
Further development
16 The following data show the ages of
30 mothers upon the birth of their first baby.
22 21 18 33 17 23 22 24
24 20 25 29 32 18 19 22
23 24 28 20 31 22 19 17
23 48 25 18 23 20
a Prepare a frequency table for the data.
(Use a class size of 5.)
b Draw an ogive for the data.
c Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data.
d Describe the distribution in words. What
does the distribution say about the age
that mothers have their first baby?
17 Employees on a factory assembly line are timed as they assemble a particular product.
The results are below (in minutes).
18 40 31 37 18 46 27 20 54 35 14 48 23 38
19 39 18 28 37 24 32 16 43 39 37 46 24 35
a Prepare a five-number summary of the data by first putting the data in a stem-and-leaf plot.
b Find the range.
c Find the interquartile range.
d If the slowest 25% of workers were to be dismissed, what would be the cut off time used?
e If you took 21 minutes to assemble an item, write a sentence to convince your employer that you
are a valuable employee.
18 Two classes sat for a Mathematics test. Their results have been summarised by the five-number
summary below.
Class A: 25 40 52 75 95
Class B: 20 35 56 75 85
a Find the range of marks for each class.
b What is the median for each class?
c Calculate the interquartile range for each class.
d Which class has been the most consistent? Explain your answer.

19 The stem plot at right details the age of 25 offenders who were Stem Leaf
caught during random breath testing. 1 8 8 9 9 9
a Prepare a five-number summary of the data. 2 0 0 0 1 1 3 4 6 9
b Draw a boxplot of the data. 3 0 1 2 7
4 2 5
5 3 6 8
6 6
7 4
20 Explain what the boxplot below tells you about the distribution of the data it represents.
5E Appropriate graphs and

misuse of graphs
When displaying data it is important that the right graph be chosen. To choose the correct graph the type
of data needs to be identified.
If the data is categorical, usually a comparison needs to be made and so a sector graph of a divided bar
graph may be the best choice.
Worked Example 18
Jindabing High School has 36 rooms. They can be classified as follows:

21 classrooms, 3 kitchens, 3 art rooms, 4 laboratories, 3 manual arts rooms, 1 computer room and
1 library. Represent this information as a sector graph.
Think Write/draw
1 Calculate the angle for each room. 360 ÷ 36 = 10

Since there are 360° in a circle and Each room can be represented by an
there are 36 rooms, divide 360 by 36. angle of 10°.
2 Calculate the sector angle for each Sector angle for each category of room:
category of room. Classrooms: 21 × 10° = 210°
Kitchens: 3 × 10° = 30°
Art rooms: 3 × 10° = 30°
Laboratories: 4 × 10° = 40°
Manual arts rooms: 3 × 10° = 30°
Computer room: 1 × 10° = 10°
Library: 1 × 10° = 10°
3 Use a pair of compasses to draw a Jindabing High School use of rooms
circle and a ruler to mark in the radius.
Library
4 With a protractor, measure an angle of 210° from Computer room
the radius to form the sector for the classrooms. Manual arts
5 Repeat step 4 for each of the other categories. rooms
6 Label each sector and include a title for the 10°

10°
completed sector graph.
30°
Laboratories
40°
210° Classrooms
Art rooms 30°
30°
n s
e
tch
Ki

If the data represents the change in a quantity over time, a line graph will best display this
information, while if the data is cyclical (e.g. months of the year) a radar chart may the best option.
In general, however, if the data is continuous and quantitative a histogram best displays data.
Graphs are often misrepresented in the media depending upon the purpose of the graph. It may be
politicians wishing to magnify their achievements or a company wanting to accentuate their profits.
Vertical axis and Declared roads as at 30 June 1979
horizontal axis Sealed

Secondary
roads
It is a truism that the steeper the graph the 13 000
better the growth appears. A ‘rule of thumb’ for Paved
statisticians is that for the sake of appearances,
12 000 Formed
the vertical axis should be two-thirds to three-
quarters the length of the horizontal axis. This
Unconstructed
rule was established in order to have some 11 000
comparability between graphs. State
highways
The figure at right illustrates how distorted
the graph appears when the vertical axis is 10 000
disproportionately large.
9000 Developmental
roads
Main roads
8000
Length of road (km)

7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
Urban and
sub-arterials
Source: Dept of Mapping & Surveying (1980),

Queensland resources atlas, 2nd rev. ed.
(Courtesy Dept of Lands)
Changing the scale on the vertical axis

The following table gives the holdings of a corporation during a particular year.
Quarter Holdings in $m
J–M 200
A–J 200
J–S 201
O–D 202

Here is one way of representing these data: 300
Holdings ($’000 000)

200 x x x x
100
But it is not very spectacular, is it? Now look at
the following graph.
J–M A–J J–S O–D
Quarter
202 x
Holdings ($’000 000)

201.5
201 x
The shareholders would be happier with this one.
200.5
x x
200
J–M A–J J–S O–D
Quarter
Omitting certain values 202 x
If one chose to ignore the second quarter’s value, Holdings ($’000 000) 201.5
which shows no increase, then the graph would look
even better. 201 x
200.5
200 x
J–M J–S O–D
Foreshortening the vertical axis

Quarter
Look at the figures below. Notice in graph (a) that the numbers from 0 to 4000 have been omitted. In
graph (b) these numbers have been inserted. The rate of growth of the company looks far less spectacular
in graph (b) than in graph (a).
5500
x x x
5000 xx x
Number of employees
Number of employees
x x x
x x x
5000 x 4000 x
in company
in company
x x
3000
4500 x x 2000
x
x x x 1000
4000
2003 04 05 06 07 08 2003 04 05 06 07 08
Year Year
(a) (b)
Foreshortening the vertical axis is a very common procedure. It does have the advantage of giving
extra detail but it can give the wrong impression about growth rates.
Net value of production
Visual impression 400
300
In this graph, height is the property that gives the true
$m
relation, yet the impression of a much greater increase is 200

given by the volume of each money bag. 100
S
S S
2006 2007 2008
Year

A non-linear scale on an axis or on both axes
Consider the following two graphs.
500 500
400 300
Particles / unit area

Particles / unit area
300 200
200
100
100
2004 05 06 07 08 2004 05 06 07 08
Year Year
(a) (b)
Both of these graphs show the same numerical information. But graph (a) has a linear scale on
the vertical axis and graph (b) does not. Graph (a) emphasises the ever-increasing rate of growth of
pollutants while graph (b) suggests a slower, linear growth.
Worked Example 19
The following data give wages and profits for a certain company. All figures are in millions of dollars.
Year 1990 1995 2000 2005

Wages 6 9 13 20
% increase in wages 25 50 44 54
Profits 1 1.5 2.5 5
% increase in profits 20 50 66 100
Now consider the graphs:

Wages and profits (% increase)
20
18
Wages and profits ($m)
16 Wages 100
14 Profits
12 75
10
8 50
6 Wages
4 25
2 Profits
1990 1995 2000 2005 1990 1995 2000 2005

Year Year
(a) (b)
Consider the following questions.

a Do the graphs accurately reflect the data?
b Which graph would you rather have published if you were:
i an employer dealing with employees requesting pay increases?
ii an employee negotiating with an employer for a pay increase?
Think Write
a 1 Look at the scales on both axes. All scales are Graphs do represent data accurately.
a
linear. However, quite a different picture of wage
2 Look at the units on both axes. Graph (a) has and profit increases is painted by graphing
y-axis in $ while graph (b) has y-axis in %. with different units on the y-axis.
b i 1 Compare wage increase with profit increases. b i The employer would prefer graph
(a) because he/she could argue that
2 The employer wants high profits.
employees’ wages were increasing at a
greater rate than profits.

ii 1 Consider again the increases in wages and profits. ii The employee would choose graph (b),
2 The employee doesn’t like to see profits arguing that profits were increasing at a
increasing at a much greater rate than wages. great rate while wage increases clearly
lagged behind.
Appropriate graphs
Exercise 5E Wheat production in South-East Asia
and misuse of graphs
Othe
1 The sector graph at right shows the production of wheat
r
in our region.
Indonesia
a Which country produces the most wheat?
b Of the three countries shown, which one produces the least
wheat? New Australia
c What reasons would you give for Australia being able to Zealand
produce more wheat than New Zealand?
d From this graph, are you able to tell how much wheat is
produced in each country?
2 The sector graph at right shows the results of a survey

on how students travel to school.
a How many degrees are there in a circle?
b If 24 students were surveyed, by what angle (taken Bus
at the centre of the graph) will each student be Bike
represented?
c Use a protractor to determine the angles of each sector
in the graph. Car
d Copy and complete the table at right: Walking
(Hint: To find the frequencies, divide each sector Train
angle by your answer to part b.)
e What fraction of the students travel by bike?
f What is the ratio of walkers to bus travellers? Transport to school
g Students travelling by which mode of
Type of transport Frequency
transport are represented by 12.5% of the
sector graph? Bus
Bike
Walking
Train
Car
24
3 WE18 The following table shows the number of people unemployed in each state and territory of
Australia.
State/territory Unemployed
New South Wales 213 000
Victoria 152 000
Queensland 141 000
Western Australia 67 000
South Australia 52 000
Tasmania 21 000
Australian Capital Territory 9 000
Northern Territory 8 000
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics.
Find the sector angle for each state and draw a sector graph to show this information.

4 The figure and table below show various time periods during the week, and the number of fatal
accidents in New South Wales during those periods. Use the figure and table to answer the
questions.
Day of week
Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Midnight
I J
3 am
A B
9 am
C D E
3 pm
F G H
9 pm
I J I
Midnight
For example, time period I is from 9 pm on Sunday, Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday
nights to 3 am the following mornings.
Fatalities in a particular year
Time period A B C D E F G H I J
Fatal accidents 58 48 115 25 18 73 52 68 42 64
a What time of the day is represented by letter D?

b i How many hours per week are represented by the C period?
ii How many hours are there, overall, in the week?
iii What percentage of the total number of hours in a week is represented by the C period (correct
to 1 decimal place)?
c How many hours per week are represented by the J period?
d What was the total number of fatal accidents for this particular year?
e Why is this number different from the number of fatalities for this year (620)?
f How many fatal accidents were there during time period F?
g During what time period were there 18 fatal accidents?
h Which time period was the worst for the number of fatal accidents?
i What percentage of the total number of fatal accidents occurred during the C period (correct to
1 decimal place)?
j Why do you think the F and G periods were kept separate as 2 different periods?
k What would be the most likely cause of fatal accidents in the I time period?
5 The average number of phone calls made per week by a sample of 56 people is listed below.
21, 50, 8, 64, 33, 58, 35, 61, 3, 51, 5, 62, 16, 44, 56, 17, 59, 23, 34, 57, 49, 2, 24, 50, 27, 33,
55, 7, 52, 17, 54, 78, 69, 53, 2, 42, 52, 28, 67, 25, 48, 63, 12, 72, 36, 66, 15, 28, 67, 13, 23,
10, 72, 72, 89, 80
a Organise the data into a grouped frequency distribution table using groupings of 0−9, 10−19 and
so on.
b Display the data as a combined histogram and frequency polygon.
6 Construct the following:
a a frequency distribution table using intervals 12−15, 16−19, . . . and
b a combined histogram and frequency polygon for the following data.
Class sizes at Mathsville High

38 24 20 23 27 27 22 17 30 26
25 16 29 26 15 26 19 22 13 25
21 19 23 18 30 20 23 16 24 18
12 26 22 25 14 21 25 21 31 25

7 We19 This graph shows the dollars spent on research in a company for 2000, 2004 and 2008. Draw
another bar graph that minimises the appearance of the fall in research funds.
1.6
1.5
Research funds ($m)

1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
2000 2004 2008
Year
8 Examine this graph of employment growth in a company.
Growth of total employment, 1974–2008
6
5
Total employment
4
(hundreds)
3
2
1
0
1974 1981 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008
Why is this graph misleading?
9 Examine this graph. International visitor arrivals,
by month of visit – 2005
a Redraw this graph with the vertical axis
showing percentage of total arrivals starting 11
% of total arrivals
10
at 0.
9
b Does the change in visitor arrivals appear
8
to be as significant as the original graph 7
suggests? 6
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Source: Overseas Arrivals and Departures, Australia (3401.0).
10 This graph shows the student-to-teacher ratio in
Australia for the years 1995 and 2005.
Students to teaching staff (a),
by category of school
Government primary 1995
Catholic primary
Independent primary 2005
Total primary
Government secondary
Catholic secondary
Independent secondary
Total secondary
Total government
Total non-government
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Ratio
(a) Number of full-time equivalent students divided by the number of full-time
equivalent teaching staff.
Note: This graph should not be used as a measure of class size.

Source: ABS data available on request, National Schools Statistics collection.
a Describe what has generally happened to the ratio of students to teaching staff over the 10-year
period.
b A note says that the graph should not be used as a measure of class size. Explain why.

11 You run a company that is listed on the Stock Exchange. During the past year you have given
substantial rises in salary to all your staff. However, profits have not been as spectacular as in the year
before. The following table gives the figures for the mean salary and profits for each quarter. Draw
two graphs, one showing profits, the other showing salaries, that will show you in the best possible light
to your shareholders.
1st quarter 2nd quarter 3rd quarter 4th quarter
Profits $m 6 5.9 6 6.5
Salaries $m 4 5 6 7
12 You are a manufacturer and your plant is discharging heavy metals into a waterway. Your own chemists
do tests every 3 months and the following table gives the results for a period of 2 years. Draw a graph
which will show your company in the best light.
2007 2008
Date Jan. Apr. July Oct. Jan. Apr. July Oct.
Concentration
7 9 18 25 30 40 49 57
(parts per million)
13 This pie graph shows the break-up of national health expenditure in 2005–06 from three sources:
Australian Government, State and local government, and non-government. (This expenditure relates to
private health insurance, injury compensation insurers and individuals.)
Break-up of national
expenditure Expenditure source ($m) %
Australian Government 37 229 45
Australian Government
State and local governments

State and local 21 646 25
government
Non-government
Non-government 28 004 30
a Comment on the claim that $87 000 m was spent on health from these three sources.
b Which area contributes least to national health expenditure? Comment on its quoted percentage.
c Which area contributes the next greatest amount to national health expenditure? Comment on its
quoted percentage.
d The Australian Government contributes the greatest amount. Comment on its quoted percentage.
e Consider the pie chart.
i Based on the percentages shown in the table, what should the angles be?
ii Based on the actual expenditures, what should the angles be?
iii Measure the angles in the pie chart and comment on their values.
14 This graph shows how the $27 that a buyer pays for a CD is distributed among the departments
involved in its production and marketing.
Where your $27 goes
Other recording
Record company costs 65c
sales process $1.27 Distribution 56c
Record company
administration costs $1.54
Mechanical Record shop $7.40

royalties $1.57
Record company
profit $1.54
Advertising Royalties and costs
$1.94 to artist $3.86
Sales tax Production
$3.27 $3.40
You are required to find out whether or not the graph is misleading, to explain fully your reasoning,
and to support any statements that you make. Also,
diGital doC
WorkSHEET 5.2 a comment on the shape of the graph and how it could be obtained.
doc-10321 b Does your visual impression of the graph support the figures?

Summary
types of graphs and • A dot plot is used to display a set of scores on a scale.
stem-and-leaf plots • A sector graph (pie chart) is used for a display that allows comparison of categorical data.
• A line graph is used to show the way a quantity changes over time.
• A bar or column graph is used to show quantities associated with categorical data.
• A radar chart is a type of line graph that shows the way in which a quantity changes over time. It is
most appropriate for a period of time that repeats.
Frequency tables and • A frequency table is used to display a set of data in table form.
cumulative frequency • Ungrouped data are placed in a table and every score is displayed in the table.
• Grouped data are used for continuous data or when the scores are spread over a large range. It is
best to group data to create five to six classes. If the data are grouped, the table should display a
column for class centre.
range and • The range is the difference between the highest score and the lowest score.
interquartile range, • The interquartile range is the difference between the score at the 25th percentile and the
deciles and percentiles 75th percentile.
• The median is the score in the middle of the distribution (50th percentile).
• The median, lower quartile and upper quartile can be calculated by using an ogive (cumulative
frequency polygon).
• A percentile shows what percentage of scores are below the given score.
• A decile shows which band of 10% a score lies in.
Five-number • A five-number summary of a data set is the lower extreme, lower quartile, median, upper quartile
summaries and upper extreme.
• A five-number summary can be graphed using a box-and-whisker plot.
• A box-and-whisker plot shows the spread of a data set on a scale.
appropriate graphs • View graphical presentations carefully to detect signs of impression.

and misuse of graphs • Check that the scales on both axes are not lengthened or shortened to create a false impression.
• Check that picture graphs are not represented by volumes.

Chapter review
1 The frequency table below shows the marks achieved on a test by a group of students.
m U lt ip l e
C h oiCe
Score Frequency
15 12
16 15
17 10
18 6
19 3
20 2
How many students received a mark higher than 17?

a 3 B 10 C 11 d 18
2 Which of the following would be greatly affected by the addition of an extreme score to the data set?
a The median
B The range
C The interquartile range
d All would be greatly affected
3 For the cumulative frequency polygon below, the interquartile range of the data is:
Cumulative frequency %
25 100%
20
15
50%
10
5
0 0%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Weight
a 12 B 17 C 24 d 12 to 24
Questions 4 and 5 refer to the box-and-whisker plot shown below.
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Scale
4 The upper quartile of the data is:

a 24 B 28 C 36 d 42
5 The interquartile range is:
a 12 B 28 C 14 to 42 d 24 to 36
Sh ort 1 A survey is taken about the television stations being watched at 7:30 pm on a Monday night.
anS Wer
ABC – 27 SBS – 5 Channel 7 – 48
Channel 9 – 72 Channel 10 – 28
Show this information using a sector graph.
2 The number of absences from a school is taken over a week.
Monday – 43 Tuesday – 55 Wednesday – 34
Thursday – 45 Friday – 63
Show this information using a radar chart.

3 A cricketer keeps track of the number of wickets he took in each innings in which he bowled during a
season. The results are shown below.
0 2 3 1 0 6 4 1 1 2 0 0 4
3 2 2 3 1 0 1 1 1 2 0 1
Show this information in a frequency table.
4 The following data give the amount of cut meat (in kg) obtained from 20 lambs.
4.5 6.2 5.8 4.7 4.0 3.9 6.2 6.8 5.5 6.1
5.9 5.8 5.0 4.3 4.0 4.6 4.8 5.3 4.2 4.8
Show these data in a frequency table using a class size of 0.5 kg.
5 The table below shows the number of sales made each day over a month in a car yard.
Number of sales Frequency

0 2
1 7
2 12
3 6
4 2
5 0
6 1
Show this information in a frequency histogram and polygon.

6 The frequency table below shows the crowds at football matches for a team over a season.
Class Class centre Frequency

5000–9999 1
10 000–14 999 5
15 000–19 999 9
20 000–24 999 3
25 000–29 999 2
30 000–34 999 2
a Copy and complete the class centre column for the frequency table.
b Show the information in a frequency histogram and polygon.
7 The frequency table below shows the marks achieved by Year 11 students on their English exam.
Class Cumulative
Class centre Frequency frequency
30–39 3
40– 49 6
50–59 12
60–69 15
70–79 18
80–79 10
a Copy and complete the frequency table.
b Show the information on a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
8 Find the range of each of the following sets of scores.
a 28 24 26 24 25 29 22 27 25
b 118 2 56 45 72 43 69 84 159 0
c 1.9 0.7 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.4

9 For each of the data sets in question 8 calculate:
i the median ii the lower quartile
iii the upper quartile iv the interquartile range.
10 The cumulative frequency histogram and polygon at right shows the 45
number of goals scored by a soccer team in each match over a season. 40
Use the graph to calculate: 35
30
a the median 25
b the lower and upper quartiles 20
15
c the interquartile range. 10
5
0
0 1 2 3 4
Number of goals scored
in a soccer match
11 The cumulative frequency histogram and polygon at right 300
Cumulative
250
frequency
shows the number of apples on each tree in an orchard. 200
Use the graph to find: 150
a the median 100
50
b the lower and upper quartiles 0
c the interquartile range. .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5
34 44 54 64 74 84
12 Display the following scores in a stem-and-leaf plot. Number of apples on a tree
45 21 38 46 42 41 42 49 35 29 24 28
36 21 38 45 44 40 29 28 35 35 33 38
40 41 48 39 34 38 45 28 23 29 30 40
13 Use the stem-and-leaf plot drawn in the previous question to find:
a the range b the median c the interquartile range.
14 For the data set below, give a five-number summary.
24 53 91 57 29 69 29 15 84 6
15 Use the ogive to develop a five-number summary for the data set below.
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5 15 25 35 45
Score
16 For the box-and-whisker plot below:
a state the median
b calculate the range
c calculate the interquartile range.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
17 The number of babies born each day at a hospital over a year is tabulated and the five-number summary
is given below.
Lower extreme = 1 Upper quartile = 16
Lower quartile = 8 Upper extreme = 18
Median = 14
Show this information in a box-and-whisker plot.

18 This table shows the number of students in each year level from Years 8 to 12.
Year Number of students

8 200
9 189
10 175
11 133
12 124
Draw two separate graphs to illustrate the following:
a The principal of the school claims a high retention rate of students in Years 11 and 12 (that is,
most of the students from Year 10 continue on to complete Years 11 and 12).
b The parents claim that the retention rate of students in Years 11 and 12 is low (that is, a large
number of students leave at the end of Year 10).
ex ten d ed
1 The data set below shows the number of admissions to a hospital each day over a month. r eS p o n S e
25 20 33 41 15 18 24 40 12 29
30 38 26 20 17 23 10 11 16 23
22 27 14 11 12 14 32 24 29 33
a Using classes 10–14, 15–19, 20–24, etc., show this information in a frequency table.
b Draw a frequency histogram and polygon for the data.
c Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
d State the range of the data set.
e Use the ogive to find:
i the median ii the interquartile range.
2 The box-and-whisker plots below show the sales of two different brands of washing powder at a
supermarket each day.
Brand A
Brand B
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Scale
a State the range for Brand A.

b State the interquartile range for Brand A.
c State the range for Brand B. diGital doC
Test Yourself
d State the interquartile range for Brand B. doc-10322
e Describe the spread of the sales for each brand of washing powder. Chapter 5

ICT activities
5a types of graphs and stem-and-leaf plots 5d Five-number summaries
diGital doC interaCtiVitY
• Drawing graphs (doc-10319): Draw graphs using graphics • int-2788: Parallel boxplots — interact with distributions and
calculators and spreadsheets. (page 146) boxplots. (page 164)
• int-0802: Boxplots and five-number summary — consolidate your
5B understanding of boxplots. (page 164)
Frequency tables and cumulative frequency
diGital doC
• Spreadsheet (doc-1559): Use an Excel spreadsheet to interact with
5e appropriate graphs and misuse of graphs
frequency tables. (page 149) diGital doC
• WorkSHEET 5.1 (doc-10320): Apply knowledge of data to questions. • WorkSHEET 5.2 (doc-10321): Apply knowledge of data to questions.
(page 153) (page 176)
5C range and interquartile range, deciles and Chapter review

percentiles diGital doC
interaCtiVitY • Test Yourself Chapter 5 (doc 10322): Take the end-of-chapter test to
• int-2362: Measures of centre and spread: interact with distributions. check your progress. (page 181)
(page 154)

Answers CHAPTER 5
diSplaYinG SinGle 8 Key 14 | 3 = 14.3 14* | 8 = 14.8 2 Score Tally Frequency
data SetS Stem Leaf 4 ||| 3
exercise 5a types of graphs and 13* 8 9
5 5
stem-and-leaf plots 14 0 2 3 3
14* 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 6 5
1 Average monthly temperature (°C)
January
15 1 2 2 7 || 7
30 15* 5 6 7 9
December 25 February 8 ||| 3
20 9 D
November 15 March 9 | 1
10 10 A
5
11 a A quick graphical way of displaying 10 | 1
October 0 April
information and seeing key information 3 Score Tally Frequency
September
such as the distribution of the data
May
b 66 | 1
August June 67 ||| 3
July
68 | 6
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 Percentage of televisions being watched 69 || 2
Number of packets of chips
12.00 am
80% 70 ||| 3
10.00 pm 2.00 am c A dot plot can display only single scores
60%
and hence is best suited to discrete data. 71 5
8.00 pm 40% 4.00 am
12 a There is too great a range of scores. 72 |||| 14
20%
b The data is continuous. 73 5
6.00 pm 0% 6.00 am
13 The average daily sales in her shop over a
74 |||| 4
week, since it is a cyclical pattern
4.00 pm 8.00 am 75 || 2
14 a Stem Leaf
2.00 pm 10.00 am 4 3 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 76 | 1
12.00 pm
5 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 3 77 ||| 3
Key 4 | 3 = 43 cm 78 | 1
3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 b Stem Leaf 4
Scores
4 3 Class Class centre Tally Frequency
4 7 7 8 8 9 9 9
4 5 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 3 30–39 34.5 | 1
5 40–49 44.5 5
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Key 4 | 3 = 43 cm 50–59 54.5 5
Maximum temperature (°C)
c Stem Leaf 60–69 64.5 ||| 8

5 Key 0 | 6 = 6 4 70–79 74.5 | 6
Stem Leaf 4 3
0 6 80–89 84.5 ||| 3
4
1 3 5 7 8 4 7 7 90–99 94.5 || 2
2 0 0 5 6 6 7 8 9 4 8 8 9 9 9 5
3 1 2 2 8 5 0 0 0 0 1
4 3 6 5 2 2 3 Class Class centre Tally Frequency
5 2 5 0.6–<0.8 0.7 || 2
5
6 Key 3 | 6 = 36 0.8–<1.0 0.9 ||| 3
5
Stem Leaf Key 4 | 3 = 43 cm 1.0–<1.2 1.1 ||| 3
3 6 7 8 8 9 9
4 0 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 5 6 7 7 8 8 8 15 Categorical data does not show changes in 1.2–<1.4 1.3 | 6
5 0 2 2 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 a quantity over time. The midpoints on a 1.4–<1.6 1.5 |||| 9
6 6 8 8 line graph would have no meaning.
7 1 2 5 1.6–<1.8 1.7 | 6
8 2 exercise 5B
Frequency tables and 1.8–<2.0 1.9 |||| 4
7 Key 10 | 1 = 101 10* | 6 = 106 cumulative frequency 2.0–2.2 2.1 |||| 4
Stem Leaf 1 Score Tally Frequency
8* 6 8 6
9 2 2 ||| 3
10.5–<11.0 10.75 2
9* 5 5 5 6 6 6 8 9 3 |||| 4
10 2 2 2 3 11.0–<11.5 11.25 5
10* 7 7 7 8 8 4 | 6 11.75 8
11.5–<12.0
11 0 1 2 5 ||| 3
11* 5 12.0–<12.5 12.25 8
12 6 ||| 3 12.5–<13.0 12.75 5
12* 0 1 1 4
7 | 1 13.0–13.5 13.25 2
13 0

7 a 10 a c
Cumulative
No. of cars Frequency frequency Lifetime Class Cumulative Class
(hours) centre Frequency frequency Class Tally centre Frequency
0 2 2
20–<25 22.5 6 6 5–<10 | 7.5 11
1 8 10 27.5 25 31
25–<30 10–<15 |||| 12.5 19
2 11 21 30–<35 32.5 70 101 15–<20 17.5 5
3 6 27 35–<40 37.5 61 162
20–<25 || 22.5 2
4 2 29 40–<45 42.5 30 192
25–30 |||| 27.5 3
5 1 30 45–50 47.5 8 200
16 a Discrete
b 200
b The data is discrete and so classes need
b
30 180
160
to be separate, i.e. 0–9, 10–19 etc.
25
140 c
20 120 Class Class centre Frequency
15 100
10 80
5
60 0–9 4.5 6
40
0 20
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 10–19 14.5 7
No. of cars
.5
.5
.5
.5
.5
.5
20–29 24.5 8
42
47
22
32
37
27
8 a Lifetime of battery (hours)

No. of jelly Cumulative 30–39 34.5 5
beans Frequency frequency 11 Complete the frequency and class columns
for the frequency table below. 40–49 44.5 4
48 2 2
Class Cumulative 50–59 54.5 12
49 10 12 Class Centre Frequency Frequency
60–69 64.5 8
50 32 44 1–5 3 5 5
70–79 74.5 4
6 –10 8 7 12
51 9 53
80–89 84.5 2
11–15 13 8 20
52 5 58
16–20 18 10 30 17 a
53 2 60 Time Cumulative
21–25 23 5 35 taken (s) Frequency frequency
b 6–<8 1 1
60 12
50
Cumulative
40 Score Frequency Frequency 8–<10 4 5
30
20 3 5 5 10–<12 15 20
10
0 4 10 15 12–<14 18 38
48 49 50 51 52 53
No. of jelly beans
5 15 30 14–<16 12 50
9 a
6 10 40 16–<18 8 58
Length Class Cumulative
(cm) centre Frequency frequency 7 20 60 18–20 2 60
8 25 85 b
4–<5 4.5 6 6 Ogive of task times
9 10 95
60
5–<6 5.5 10 16
10 5 100
6.5 60 76 40
6–<7
13 B
7–<8 7.5 58 134 14 20
8–<9 8.5 8 142 Class Cumulative

Class centre Frequency frequency 6 10 14 18
9–10 9.5 4 146 Time (s)
0–<10 5 10 10 18
b 10–<20 15 8 18 Class Cumulative
140
120 20–<30 25 14 32 Class centre Frequency frequency
100 50–59 54.5 2 2
80 30–<40 35 8 40
60 40–50 45 10 50 60–69 64.5 8 10
40
70–79 74.5 5 15
20 15 a Continuous
0 b There are too many scores to consider 80–89 84.5 8 23
4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 as single scores, and continuous data
90–99 94.5 7 30
Length of oysters (cm) should always be in classes.

exercise 5C range and interquartile 15 a b Ogive of waist size
range, deciles and percentiles Maximum No. of Cumulative 150 100%

1 a 5 b 9 temperature (°C) days frequency 125
c 1 d 6.94 100
0–<5 4 4
e 89
75 50%
2 a 4 b 5 5–<10 22 26
c 6 50
10–<15 95 121
3 a 49 b 30 25
c 23 15–<20 124 245
4 a Sydney — 120 Collingwood — 40 94 339 70 80 90 100 110
20–<25 Size (cm)
b Collingwood, because the range is
lower. 25–<30 19 358 c 60 d 16
5 a 9 e 96 cm f 84 cm
30–<35 5 363
b 8 g 25%
c The range for machine A is large, only 35–40 2 365 19 a 12 b 11
because of one extreme score. b c 68% d 8%
400
55 46
6 a 5 b 25 350 e f
c 53 d 15 300 g 37 h 30 or less
250
e 74 20 a
200
150
Cumulative
7 a 5 b 9 100 Time Frequency frequency
c 2 d 4 50
e 32
0
2.5 7.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5
65–<70 2 2
Maximum temperature (°C)
8 a 2 b 1 70–<75 5 7
c 2 d 1 c Lower quartile = 13, upper quartile = 22,
interquartile range = 9 75–<80 6 13
e 4
9 a d Median = 17.5 e 0–11 80–<85 4 17
Cumulative 16 Check with your teacher. Answers depend
Score Frequency frequency 85–<90 1 18
on class size.
0 26 26 17 a 90–95 2 20
Salary Cumulative
1 31 57 (× $1000) Frequency frequency
b Ogive of time

2 22 79 15–<20 6 6 20 trial results 100%
3 8 87 20–<25 12 18 15
4 3 90 25–<30 8 26 10 50%
30–<35 7 33 5
b
90
80 35–<40 5 38 0
70 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
60
50 40–<45 1 39 Time (s)
40
30 45–50 1 40 c 6
20
10 d 90% of riders finished with a time of
0
0 1 2 3 4 b Ogive of salaries 90 seconds or less, so 18 riders finished
Score 40 100% with a time of 90 seconds or less.

35
c 1 d 2 30 e To qualify you need a time under
10 A 11 B 25 72 seconds.
20 50%
12 D 13 B 15 21 a
14 a 10
Cumulative
5 Time Frequency frequency
Class Cumulative
IQ score centre Frequency frequency 20 30 40 50 2.4–<2.8 2 2
Salary ($ × 1000)
75–<85 80 12 12 2.8–<3.2 9 11
c 11 d 26 e $33 000
85–<95 90 25 37 3.2–<3.6 7 18
f $26 500 g $21 500 h $38 500
95–<105 100 50 87 18 a
Cumulative 3.6–<4.0 9 27
105–<115 110 24 111 Waist size Frequency frequency 4.0–<4.4 2 29
115–125 120 13 124 70–<75 13 13 4.4–4.8 1 30
b 75–<80 28 41
b Ogive of baby weights
140
80–<85 46 87
120 30 100%
100
80 85–<90 30 117 25
60 20
40 90–<95 17 134 15 50%
20
0 95–<100 8 142 10
80 90 100 110 120 5
IQ Score
100–<105 7 149
c 50 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8
d i 10 ii 115 iii 104
105–110 1 150 Weight (kg)

c 75% 16 a 3 Unemployment in Australia by state
d 3.45 kg, which represents the centre or Class Cumulative
middle of the data. Class centre Frequency frequency Australian Capital Tasmania
Territory Northern Territory
e 3%
22 a 19 15–19 17 7 7 Western
Australia
b 63% 20–24 22 15 22
c 26 samples or 75%
25–29 27 4 26
d 93 °C, which means that 10% of South New South
temperature lies above this value. 30–34 32 3 29 Australia Wales
e 78 °C 35–39 37 0 29
exercise 5d Five-number summaries 40–44 42 0 29 Queensland
1 8, 15, 16.5, 18, 25 45–49 47 1 30 Victoria
2 a 23, 44, 81.5, 83.5, 92
b 1, 2, 4, 6, 7 b 30
c 8, 29, 45, 72, 93
25 Sector Sector
3 1, 3, 4, 5, 7 graph angle
20
4 40, 65, 72, 78, 100 New South Wales 213 000 116°
15 Victoria 152 000
5 15 25 30.5 39.5 50 83°
10 Queeensland 141 000 77°
6 19.6 19.9 20.1 20.25 20.8
5 Western Australia 67 000 36°
7 64 70 73 77 81 South Australia 52 000 28°
8 0
17 22 27 32 37 42 47 Tasmania 21 000 11°
Age Australian Capital Territory 9000 5°
35 40 45 50 55 60
Northern Territory 8000 4°
9 a 148 c
b 56 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Total 663 000 Total 360°
c 90 d Check with your teacher. 4 a 9 am to 3 pm on Saturday
d 92 17 a 14, 21.5, 33.5, 39, 54 b i 30 h
e 28 b 40 ii 168 h
10 a 58 c 17.5 iii 17.9%
b 31 d 39 minutes c 18 h
c 43 e You are in the fastest 50% of employees. d 563
d 27 18 a Class A = 70, Class B = 65 e Multiple fatalities in accidents
e 8 b Class A = 52, Class B = 56 f 73
11 B c Class A = 35, Class B = 40 g E (9 am to 3 pm on Sunday)
12 C d Class A as they have a lower h C (9 am to 3 pm from Monday to
13 D interquartile range. Friday)
14 a 10, 13.5, 22, 33.5, 45 19 a 18, 20, 26, 43.5, 74 i 20.4%
b b j G includes Thursday night shopping and
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 30 50 70 Age Friday as a popular night for people to
15 a 20 The scores are tightly bunched around the go out.
median. k Fatigue
Class Cumulative 5 a
Class centre Frequency frequency exercise 5e appropriate graphs and
misuse of graphs Class Class
120–129 124.5 4 4 interval centre Tally Frequency
1 a Australia
130–139 134.5 3 7 b New Zealand
c More land available 0–9 4.5 | 6
140–149 144.5 4 11
d No. We would need a total of all wheat
produced to work this out. 10–19 14.5 || 7
150–159 154.5 6 17
2 a 360°
160–169 164.5 2 19 20–29 24.5 ||| 8
b 15°
170–179 174.5 2 21 c Bus 150°, Bike 30°, Walking 120°,
30–39 34.5 5
Train 15°, Car 45°
180–189 184.5 7 28 d
Type of transport Frequency 40–49 44.5 |||| 4
b 30 Bus 10
25 50–59 54.5 || 12
Cumulative
frequency
20
15 Bike 2
10
5 Walking 8 60–69 64.5 ||| 8
0
Train 1 70–79 74.5 |||| 4
13 5
14 5
15 5
16 5
17 5
18 5
4.5
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
12
No. of hamburgers sold Car 3

c i 155 ii 140 iii 182 80–89 84.5 || 2
Total 24
d
1 Total 56
120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 e f 4:5 g Car
12

b Number of phone calls made per week Chapter reVieW 6 a
12
Frequency
10 mUltiple ChoiCe
8
6 1 C 2 B 5000–9999 7500 1
4
2 3 A 4 C
0 10 000–14 999 12 500 5
4.5 24.5 44.5 64.5 84.5 5 A
14.5 34.5 54.5 74.5
Short anSWer
15 000–19 999 17 500 9
Number of phone calls
1 20 000–24 999 22 500 3
6 a
25 000–29 999 27 500 2
Class Class ABC (54°)
interval centre Tally Frequency SBS (10°)
30 000–34 999 32 500 2
12–15 13.5 |||| 4 Channel 7 (96°) b 10
Frequency
8
16–19 17.5 || 7 Channel 9 (144°) 6
4
Channel 10 (56°) 2
20–23 21.5 | 11 0
00 00 00 00 00 00
75 12 5 17 5 22 5 27 5 32 5
24–27 25.5 ||| 13 2 Monday No. of people at a football match
70
28–31 29.5 |||| 4 60 7 a
50
40
32–35 33.5 — 0 30
Class Cumulative
Friday 20 Tuesday Class centre Frequency frequency
10
36–39 37.5 | 1 0 30–39 34.5 3 3
Total 40 40–49 44.5 6 9
50–59 54.5 12 21
b Mathsville class sizes
12 Thursday Wednesday
60–69 64.5 15 36
Frequency
10
8
6 3 70–79 74.5 18 54
4 Score Frequency
2
0 80–89 84.5 10 64
13.5 21.5 29.5 37.5 0 6
17.5 25.5 33.5
1 8 b
Class size 70
60
7 Check with your teacher. 2 5 50
40
8 Horizontal axis uses same division for 5 30
and 7 year periods 3 3 20
10
9 a Check with your teacher. 4 2 0
34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5
b No English exam mark
10 a Student to teacher ratios have improved 5 0
slightly. 6 1 8 a 7 b 159
b Country schools have smaller class sizes. c 1.4
11 Check with your teacher. 4 9 a i 25 ii 24 iii 27.5 iv 3.5
12 Check with your teacher. Class b i 62.5 ii 43 iii 84 iv 41
13 a The claim is accurate enough in the
Class centre Frequency c i 1.1 ii 0.7 iii 1.5 iv 0.8
context ($86 879 m actually). 3.5–4.0 3.75 1 10 a 2
b State and local governments. The stated b Lower = 1, upper = 3
25% is correct (rounded up from 24.9%). 4.0–4.5 4.25 4 c 2
c Non-government organisations. The 4.5–5.0 4.75 5 11 a 61
stated 30% is rounded down from b Lower = 54, upper = 70
32.2%. The percentages being quoted 5.0–5.5 5.25 2 c 16
seem to be rounded to the nearest 5%. 5.5–6.0 5.75 4 12 Key 2 | 1 = 21
d The quoted percentage (45%) has been Stem Leaf
rounded up from 42.2%. This could be 6.0–6.5 6.25 3 2 1 1 3 4 8 8 8 9 9 9
considered misleading in some contexts. 6.5–7.0 6.75 1 3 0 3 4 5 5 5 6 8 8 8 8 9
e i 162°, 90°, 108° 4 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 4 5 5 5 6 8 9
ii 154°, 90°, 116° 5 13 a 28 b 38
12
iii 154°, 78°, 128°. Even though the c 12.5
10
pie chart gives a rough picture of the 14 6, 24, 41, 69, 91 15 0, 21, 26, 32, 50
Frequency
8
relative contributions of the three 16 a 43 b 43
6
sectors, it has not been carefully drawn. c 14
4
14 a It is a circle viewed on an angle to 17
2
produce an ellipse.
0
b No, because it causes some angles to be 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 2 4 6 8 1012 14 16 18 20
larger and others to be smaller. Number of sales 18 Check with your teacher.

extended reSponSe b c
7 30
1 a
6 25
Class Cumulative
Frequency
Class centre Frequency frequency 5 20
4 15
10–14 12 7 7 3 10
15–19 17 4 11 2 5
20–24 22 7 18 1 0
0 12 17 22 27 32 37 42
25–29 27 5 23 12 17 22 27 32 37 42 No. of admissions to hospital in a day
30–34 32 4 27 No. of admissions to hospital in a day
d 34
35–39 37 1 28 e i 23 ii 13
2 a 45 b 15 c 35
40–44 42 2 30
d 7 e Check with your teacher.

Chapter 6
Summary statistics
Chapter ContentS
6a Calculating the mean
6b Median and mode
6C Standard deviation
6d Best summary statistics
6a Calculating the mean

inveStigate: average — what does it mean?
Survey a group of people about what they believe is meant by the word ‘average’. Use their answers to
interaCtivitY
describe what the word is generally understood to mean.
int-0084
Measures of centre
When looking at a set of statistics we are often asked for the average. The average is a figure that describes
a typical score. In statistics, the correct term for the average is the mean. The mean is the first of three
measures of location that we will be studying. The others are the median and the mode.
∑x
The statistical symbol for the mean is x. The formula for the mean is x = .
n
In Mathematics, the symbol ∑ (sigma) means sum or total, x represents each individual score in a list
and ∑ x is therefore the sum of the scores. The sum is divided by n, which represents the number of scores.
Chapter 6 • Summary statistics 189

Worked exaMple 1
Find the mean of the scores 17, 16, 13, 15, 16, 20, 10, 15.
think Write/diSplaY
Method 1
1 Find the total of all scores. Total = 17 + 16 + 13 + 15 + 16 + 20 + 10 + 15
= 122
122
2 Divide the total by 8 (the number of scores). Mean =
8
= 15.25
Method 2
2 Delete any existing data and enter the scores

into List 1.
3 Press 2 for CALC, then 6 for SET.

For 1Var Xlist, enter List 1 by pressing
1. This means that the scores are stored in
List 1. For 1Var Freq, enter 1 by pressing
1. This means every score entered has a
frequency of 1.
4 Press J to return to the previous screen.
Press 1 for 1Var to display all summary
statistics. The mean (x) is the first summary
statistic displayed.
As we have seen, large amounts of data are often presented in a frequency table. To calculate the mean
in such a case, we need to add an extra column to the table. This column is the f × x column. In this
column, we multiply each frequency by the score. We then total this column to find the total of all scores
and divide this by the sum of the frequency column. Written as a formula this is:
∑f ×x
x=
∑f
Worked exaMple 2
Complete the frequency table at right, Score (x) Frequency ( f ) f×x

then calculate the mean.
4 3
5 7
6 11
7 13
8 10
9 6
∑f = ∑f × x =

think Write/diSplaY
Method 1
1 Complete the f × x column by multiplying
each score by the frequency.
2 Sum the frequency and f × x columns.
Score (x) Frequency ( f ) f×x
4 3 12
5 7 35
6 11 66
7 13 91
8 10 80
9 6 54
∑ f = 50 ∑ f × x = 338
∑f ×x
3 Use the formula to calculate the mean. x=
∑f
338
=
50
= 6.76
Method 2
2 Delete any existing data and enter the

scores in List 1 and the frequencies in
List 2.

For 1Var Xlist, enter List 1 by pressing
1. For 1Var Freq, enter List 2 by
pressing 3. This means the entries in
List 2 are the frequencies corresponding
to the entries in List 1.
4 Press J to return to the previous

screen. Press 1 for 1Var to display all
summary statistics. The mean (x) is the
first summary statistic displayed.
The same method is used when the frequency table is given in terms of grouped data. In these cases,
however, to calculate the f × x column we use the class centre multiplied by the frequency. In these cases,
we obtain an estimate of the mean rather than an exact mean.

Worked exaMple 3
Complete the frequency distribution table and use it to estimate the mean of the distribution.
Class Class centre (x) Frequency ( f ) f×x
25–29 4
30–34 9
35–39 13
40– 44 12
45–50 7
∑f = ∑f × x =
think Write
1 Calculate the class centres.

2 Multiply each class centre by the
frequency to complete the f × x column.
3 Sum the frequency and the f × x column. Class Frequency
Class centre (x) ( f) f×x
25–29 27 4 108
30–34 32 9 288
35–39 37 13 481
40– 44 42 12 504
45–50 47 7 329
∑ f = 45 ∑ f × x = 1710
∑f ×x
4 Use the formula to calculate the mean. x=
∑f
1710
=
45
= 38
In most cases, when calculating the mean you will use your calculator and will need to set it to statistics
mode. Once this is done, each score is entered and the M+ function pressed. When all scores are entered,
the mean is found by using the x function.
If the data are presented in the form of a frequency distribution table, you will need to check how to
enter multiple scores. On many calculators, you press score × frequency followed by M+, but check with
your teacher as to how your calculator works.
For all statistical questions, when using your calculator clear the memory at the beginning of each
question. Most calculators will display the number of scores you have entered after each entry. This is a
useful check that you have cleared the memory and entered the data correctly.
Worked exaMple 4
Use your calculator to find the mean of:

a 10, 15, 47, 23, 56
b Score Frequency
67 10
68 23
69 35
70 28
71 12

think Write
a 1 Put your calculator on to statistics mode and a

clear the memory.
2 Press each score followed by M+.
3 Get the mean by pressing x. Mean = 30.2
b 1 Set your calculator to statistics mode and clear b

the memory.
2 Press each score × frequency then M+.
3 Get the mean by pressing x. Mean = 69.1
exercise 6a Calculating the mean

1 We 1 Calculate the mean of each of the following sets of scores.
a 4, 8, 3, 5, 5 b 16, 24, 30, 35, 23, 11, 45, 28 c 65, 92, 56, 84
d 9.2, 9.7, 8.8, 8.1, 5.6, 7.5, 8.5, 6.4, 7.0, 6.4
e 356, 457, 182, 316, 432, 611, 299, 355
2 Majid sits for five tests in Mathematics. His marks on the tests were 45%, 90%, 67%, 86% and 75%.
Calculate Majid’s mean mark on the five tests.
3 An oil company surveys the price of petrol in eight
Sydney suburbs. The results are below.
Manly 132.9 c/L
Cronulla 129.9 c/L
Wentworthville 125.5 c/L
Campbelltown 125.9 c/L
Lakemba 121.9 c/L
Liverpool 119.9 c/L
Epping 128.9 c/L
Penrith 120.9 c/L
Based on these results, calculate the mean price of
petrol in cents per litre in Sydney.
4 The seven players on a netball team have the following
heights: 1.65 m, 1.81 m, 1.75 m, 1.78 m, 1.88 m, 1.92 m
and 1.86 m. Calculate the mean height of the players on
this team, correct to 2 decimal places.
5 A golf ball manufacturer randomly tests the mass
of 10 golf balls from a batch. The batch will be
considered satisfactory if the average mass of the
balls is between 44.8 g and 45.2 g. The mass, in
grams, of those tested are:
45.19, 45.06, 45.35, 44.78, 45.47, 44.68, 44.95, 45.32, 44.60, 44.95.
Will the batch be passed as satisfactory?
6 We2 The marks out of 10 on a spelling Score Frequency f×x
test are recorded in the frequency table 4 2
at right.
5 4
6 5
∑ f ×x
b Use the formula: x = to calculate 7 9
the mean. ∑f
8 3
9 5
10 2
∑f = ∑f × x =

7 An electrical store records the number of televisions sold each week over a year. The results are shown
in the table below.
digital doC No. of
Spreadsheet televisions No. of
doc-1586
Mean sold weeks f×x
16 4
17 4
18 3
digital doC 19 6
Spreadsheet
doc-1587
20 7
Mean (diY) 21 12
22 8
23 2
24 4
25 2
∑f = ∑f × x =
b Calculate the mean number of televisions sold each week over the year. Give your answer correct
to 1 decimal place.
8 In a soccer season a team played 50 matches. The number of goals scored in each match is shown in
the table below.
No. of goals 0 1 2 3 4 5
No. of matches 4 9 18 10 5 4
a Redraw this table in the form of a frequency distribution table.

b Use your table to calculate the mean number of goals scored each game.
9 A clothing store records the dress sizes sold during the day. The results are shown in the histogram
below.
12
Frequency
10
8
6
4
2
0 8 10 12 14 16 18
Score
Find the mean of this distribution.
10 The graph below shows the distribution in the heights of one hundred 17-year-old boys.
40 Heights of 17 year old boys

35
Frequency
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
15 m
16 m
17 m
18 cm
19 m
cm
c
c
c
c
5
5
5
5
5
5
14
Class centre
a What is the class size?
b What is the modal class?
c Which class has a frequency of 20?
d Estimate the mean height of 17 year old boys.

11 MC There are eight players in a Rugby
forward pack. The mean mass of the
players is 104 kg. The total mass of the
forward pack is:
a 13 kg
b 104 kg
c 112 kg
d 832 kg
12 MC The mean height of five starting
players in a basketball match is 1.82 m.
During a time out, a player who is 1.78 m
tall is replaced by a player 1.88 m tall. What
is the mean height of the players after the
replacement has been made?
a 1.78 m
b 1.82 m
c 1.84 m
d 1.88 m
13 WE3 The table below shows a set of class marks on a test out of 100.

31–40 1
41–50 3
51–60 4
61–70 7
71–80 11
81–90 2
91–100 2
∑ f = ∑ f × x =
a Copy and complete the frequency distribution table.
b Use the table to calculate the mean class mark.
14 The graph below shows the times swum in the 100 m freestyle at an international swimming meet.
40
35
Frequency
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 50.5 51.5 52.5 53.5 54.5 55.5
Class centre
a Use the graph to complete the frequency table below
Class (time) Class centre No of swimmers Cumulative frequency

50.5
51.5
52.5
53.5
54.5
55.5
b Use the table to estimate the mean time.

15 A cricketer played 50 innings in test cricket for the following scores.
23 65 8 112 54 0 84 12 21 4
25 105 74 40 1 15 33 45 21 47
16 70 22 33 21 8 34 36 5 7
69 104 57 78 158 0 51 16 6 16
0 49 0 14 28 52 21 3 3 7
a Put the above information into a frequency distribution table using appropriate groupings.
b Use the table to estimate the batting average for this player.
16 WE4 Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean of each of the following scores,
correct to 1 decimal place.
a 11, 15, 13, 12, 21, 19, 8, 14
b 2.8, 2.3, 3.6, 2.9, 4.5, 4.2
c 41, 41, 41, 42, 43, 45, 45, 45, 45, 46, 49, 50
17 Use your calculator to find the mean from each of the following.
a Score Frequency b
30
Frequency
25
3 7 20
4 10 15
10
5 18 5
0 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
6 19
Score
7 38
8 27
9 10
10 5
18 The table below shows the heights of a group of people.
Height (cm) Class centre Frequency
150–<155 152 7
155–<160 157 14
160–<165 162 13
165–<170 167 23
170–<175 172 24
175–180 177 12
Calculate the mean of this distribution.

19 Seventy students were timed on a 100 m sprint during their P.E. class. The results are shown in the table
below.
Time (s) 12–13 13–14 14–15 15–16 16–17
Number 13 17 25 15 10
a Calculate the class centre for each group in the distribution.
b Use your calculator to find the mean of the distribution.
20 A drink machine is installed near a quiet beach. The number of cans sold each day over the first
10 weeks after its installation is shown below.
4 39 31 31 50 43 70 45 57 71 18 26 3 52
51 59 33 51 27 62 30 90 3 30 97 59 33 44
99 62 72 6 42 83 19 49 11 6 63 4 53 20
45 58 1 9 79 41 2 33 97 71 52 97 69 83
39 84 92 43 71 98 8 97 18 89 21 9 4 17
a Put this information into a frequency distribution table using the classes 1–10, 11–20, 21–30 etc.
b Calculate the mean number of cans sold per day over these 10 weeks.
Further development
21 The mean of 5 scores is 12.6.
a What is the total of the five scores?
b An extra score of 19.2 is added to the data set. What is the new total of the scores?
c Find the mean of the six scores.
22 The mean of 9 scores is 58. A tenth score of 19 is added to the data set. Find the new mean of the data
set.
23 The data below shows the ages of 10 people working out at the gym.
23 24 19 59 23 22 16 18 25
a Find the mean of the data set.
b One score which is vastly different to all other scores is called an outlier. What is the outlier in
this data set?
c Calculate the mean of the nine remaining scores with the outlier omitted.
d Write a sentence describing the effect that the outlier has on the mean.
24 The mean of a data set containing 8 scores is 63. After a ninth score is added the mean falls to 60. What
was the ninth score?
25 Livinia has an average score of 14 for 6 essays that she has written. What score will she need to achieve
for her next essay in order to lift her mean to 15.5?
26 Describe the effect on the mean if a score:
a greater than the mean is added to the data set
b less than the mean is added to the data set.

6b Median and mode
interaCtivitY So far we have used the mean as a measure of the typical score in a data set. Consider the case of
int-2352 someone who is analysing the typical house price in an area. On a particular day, five houses are sold in
Measures of centre the area for the following prices:
$375 000 $349 000 $360 000 $411 000 $1 250 000
For these five houses the mean price is $549 000. The mean is much greater than most of the houses in
the data set. This is because one score is much greater than all the others. For such data sets, we need to
use a different measure of location.
The median is the middle score in a data set, when all scores are arranged in order. For the above data
set, the median house price is $375 000, a much better measure of the typical house price in this area.
Worked exaMple 5
Calculate the median of the scores 3, 5, 8, 4, 4, 6, 9, 1, 6.

think Write
1 Rewrite the scores in ascending order. 1, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 8, 9

2 The median is the middle score. Median = 5
The median becomes more complicated when there is an even number of scores because there are
two scores in the middle. When there is an even number of scores, the median is the average of the
two middle scores.
Worked exaMple 6
Find the median of the scores 13, 13, 16, 12, 19, 18, 20, 18.
think Write
1 Write the scores in ascending order. 12, 13, 13, 16, 18, 18, 19, 20
2 There is an even number (8) scores, so 16 + 18
average the two middle scores. Median =
2
= 17
The median can also be calculated from the cumulative frequency column of a frequency table.
The cumulative frequency column puts the scores into order and tells us what score is in each
position. Consider the frequency distribution table below.
Score Frequency Cumulative frequency

4 1 1 The 1st score is 4.
5 6 7 The 2nd–7th scores are 5.
6 9 16 The 8th–16th scores are 6.
9 2 30 The 29th and 30th scores are 9.
There are 30 scores in this distribution and so the middle two scores will be the 15th and 16th scores. By
looking down the cumulative frequency column we can see that these scores are both 6. Therefore, 6 is
the median of this distribution.

Worked exaMple 7
Find the median for the frequency distribution at right.

Score Frequency
34 3
35 8
36 12
37 9
38 8
39 5
think Write/draW
Method 1
1 Redraw the frequency table with a
Score Frequency Cumulative frequency
cumulative frequency column.
34 3 3
35 8 11
36 12 23
37 9 32
38 8 40
39 5 45
2 There are 45 scores and so the Median = 23rd score

middle score is the 23rd score.
3 Look down the cumulative frequency = 36

column to see that the 23rd score is 36.
Method 2
2 Delete any existing data and enter the

scores in List 1 and the frequencies in
List 2.

Set the calculator up for data stored in a
frequency table as shown earlier in the
chapter and as shown by the screen at
right.
4 Press J to return to the previous

screen, then 1 to display the summary
statistics. To see the median you will
need to use the arrow keys to scroll down
the screen by three lines. Median

When the frequency table presents grouped data, the median is estimated from the ogive as shown in the
previous chapter.
There are many examples where neither the mean nor the median is the appropriate measure of the
typical score in a data set.
Consider the case of a clothing store. It needs to re-order a supply of dresses. To know what sizes to
order it looks at past sales of this particular style and gathers the following data:
8 12 14 12 16 10 12 14 16 18
14 12 14 12 12 8 18 16 12 14
For this data set the mean dress size is 13.2. Dresses are not sold in size 13.2, so this has very little
meaning. The median is 13, which also has little meaning as dresses are sold only in even-numbered
sizes.
What is most important to the clothing store is the dress size that sells the most. In this case size 12
occurs most frequently. The score that has the highest frequency is called the mode.
Worked exaMple 8
Find the mode of the scores below.

4, 5, 9, 4, 6, 8, 4, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4
think Write/diSplaY
Method 1
The score 4 occurs most often and so it is the Mode = 4
mode.
Method 2

into List 1.
3 Press 2 for CALC, then 6 for SET. Set the

calculator up for a list of scores as shown earlier
and as shown at right.
4 Press J to return to the previous screen, then

1 to display the summary statistics. To see
the mode you will need to use the arrow keys to
scroll down to the last line of the display.
Mode
When two scores occur most often an equal number of times, both scores are given as the mode. In this
situation the scores are bimodal. If all scores occur an equal number of times, then the distribution has
no mode.
To find the mode from a frequency distribution table, we simply give the score that has the highest
frequency.

Worked exaMple 9
For the frequency distribution below, state the mode.
Score 14 15 16 17 18 19
Frequency 3 6 11 14 10 7
think Write
The highest frequency is 14, which belongs to the Mode = 17

score 17 and so 17 is the mode.
When a table is presented using grouped data, we do not have a single mode. In these cases, the class
with the highest frequency is called the modal class.
exercise 6b Median and mode

1 We5 The scores of seven people on a spelling test are given below.
5 6 5 8 5 9 8
Calculate the median of these marks. digital doC
Spreadsheet
2 We6 Below are the scores of eight people who played a round of golf. doc-1588
75 80 81 76 84 83 81 82 Median
Calculate the median for this set of scores.

3 Find the median for each of the following sets of scores.
a 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 9
b 5.6, 5.2, 5.4, 5.3, 5.8, 5.4, 5.3, 5.4 digital doC
c 45, 62, 39, 88, 75 Spreadsheet
doc-1589
d 102, 99, 106, 108, 101, 103, 102, 105, 102, 101 Median (diY)
4 A factory has 80 employees. Over a two-week period the number of people absent from work each day
was recorded and the results are shown below.
3, 1, 5, 4, 3, 25, 4, 2, 4, 5
a Calculate the median number of people absent from work each day.
digital doC
b Calculate the mean number of people absent from work each day. Spreadsheet
c Does the mean or the median give a better measure of the typical number of people absent from doc-1590
Mode
work each day? Explain your answer.
digital doC
Spreadsheet
doc-1591
Mode (diY)

5 WE7 The table at right shows the number
Cumulative
of cans of drink sold from a vending
Score Frequency frequency
machine at a high school each day.
a Copy and complete the frequency 17 4
distribution table.
b Use the table to calculate the median 18 9
number of cans of drink sold each day 19 6
from the vending machine.
20 12
21 8
22 5
23 4
24 2
6 The table at right shows the number of accidents a No. of accidents No. of days
tow truck attends each day over a three-week period.
Calculate the median number of accidents attended 2 4
to by the tow truck each day.
3 12
4 3
5 1
6 1
7 The table at right shows the number of errors made by No. of errors
a machine each day over a 50-day period. Calculate the per day Frequency
median number of errors made by the machine each day.
0 9
1 18
2 13
3 6
4 3
5 1
8 MC There are 25 scores in a distribution. The median score will be the:
a 12th score
b 12.5th score
c 13th score
d average of the 12th and 13th score.
9 MC For the scores 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 9, 10 the median is:
a 5
b 6 Score Frequency
c 6.5
1 12
d 7
10 MC Consider the frequency table at right. The median 2 13
of these scores is: 3 8
a 2
b 3 4 7
c 8
5 5
d 13

11 The frequency distribution table below shows the number of sick days taken by each worker in a small
business.
Days sickness Frequency Cumulative frequency

0– 4 10
5–9 12
10–14 7
15–19 6
20–24 5
25–29 3
30–34 2
a Copy and complete the frequency distribution table.

b Calculate the median class for this distribution.
12 For the frequency distribution table in question 11:
a make a list of the class centres for the distribution
b draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon
c use the cumulative frequency polygon to estimate the median of the distribution.
13 WE8 For each of the following sets of scores find the mode.
a 2, 5, 3, 4, 5 b 8, 10, 7, 10, 9, 8, 8
c 11, 12, 11, 15, 14, 13 d 0.5, 0.4, 0.6, 0.3, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.9, 0.4
e 110, 113, 100, 112, 110, 113, 110
14 Find the mode for each of the following. (Hint: Some are bimodal and others have no mode.)
a 16, 17, 19, 15, 17, 19, 14, 16, 17 b 147, 151, 148, 150, 148, 152, 151
c 2, 3, 1, 9, 7, 6, 8 d 68, 72, 73, 72, 72, 71, 72, 68, 71, 68
e 2.6, 2.5, 2.9, 2.6, 2.4, 2.4, 2.3, 2.5, 2.6
15 WE9 Use the tables below to state the mode of the distribution.
a b c
Score Frequency Score Frequency Score Frequency
1 2 5 1 38 2
2 4 6 3 39 4
3 5 7 5 40 1
4 6 8 8 41 5
5 3 9 5 42 6
10 3 43 3
44 6
45 2
16 Consider the histogram drawn below.
40
35
Frequency
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Score
a State the mode of the distribution.

b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and ogive of the distribution.
c Use your graph to find the median of the distribution.

17 For each of the following grouped distributions, state the modal class.
a b
Class Frequency Class Frequency
1– 4 6 1–7 3
5–8 12 8–14 8
9–12 30 15–21 9
13–16 23 22–28 25
17–20 46 29–35 12
21–24 27 36– 42 11
25–28 9 43– 49 2
18 The table below shows the depth of snow during every day of the ski season.
a Redraw the table to include the class centres and cumulative frequency.
c Use the graph to estimate the median depth of snow for the ski season.
Depth (cm) Frequency

0–<50 8
50–<100 9
100–<150 12
150–<200 15
200–<250 6
250–<300 4
300–<350 2
350– 400 2
19 The weekly wage (in dollars) of 40 people is shown below.
376 592 299 501 375 366 204 359 382 274
223 295 232 325 311 513 348 235 329 203
556 419 226 494 205 307 417 204 528 487
543 532 435 415 540 260 318 593 592 393
a Use the classes $200–$249, $250–$299, $300–$350 etc. to display the information in a frequency
distribution table.
b From your table, calculate the median class.
c Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon, and use it to estimate the median wage in
the group.
20 The graph below shows the distribution in the heights of one hundred 17-year-old boys.
40 Heights of 17 year old boys

35
Frequency
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
15 m
16 m
17 m
18 cm
19 m
cm
c
c
c
c
5
5
5
5
5
5
14
Class centre
a State the modal class.

b Use the graph to draw a cumulative frequency histogram and ogive of the distribution.
c Use your ogive to estimate the median height of 17-year-old boys.

Further development
21 Consider the stem-and-leaf plot below:
Stem Leaf
60 2 5 8
61 1 3 3 6 7 8 9
62 0 1 2 4 6 7 8 8 9
63 2 2 4 5 7 8 Key 60 | 3 = 603
64 3 6 7
65 4 5 8
66 3 5
67 4
a Find the median of the data set.
b Find the mode of the data set.
c Explain the advantage of a stem-and-leaf plot when trying to find the median and mode.
22 Consider the following data set 23, 24, 20, 21, 25, 26, 28, 26.
a Find the median of the data set.
b An extra score of 56 is added to the data set. Find the new median.
c Describe the effect that the extra (outlier) score had on the median.
23 Will the addition of an outlier have any effect on the mode?
24 Consider the following set of 20 scores.
64, 34, 67, 22, 59, 72, 34, 93, 20, 82
30, 45, 27, 70, 44, 82, 71, 65, 45, 66
a Find the mode of the data set.
b Daryl put the data into a table with a class size of 10 beginning with 20–29. Find the modal class.
c Explain why the modal class will have more meaning than the mode.
25 Explain what will be meant by the term median class. Why do you think this term is seldom used?
digital doC
26 When the median of a grouped distribution is found using an ogive the result will only be an estimate WorkSHEET 6.1
of the median. Explain. doc-10323
6C Standard deviation
In the previous chapter, we discussed using the range and the interquartile range as a measure of the
spread of a data set. The most commonly used measure of spread is the standard deviation.
The standard deviation is a measure of how much a typical score in a data set differs from the mean.
interaCtivitY
The standard deviation is found by entering a set of scores into your calculator, just as you do when int-0144
you are finding the mean. Your calculator will have a function that gives the standard deviation. Standard deviation
There are two standard deviation functions on your calculator. The first, σn, is the population standard
deviation. This function is used when the statistical analysis is conducted on the entire population.
Worked exaMple 10
Below are the scores out of 100 by a class of 20 students on a Science exam. Calculate the mean
and the standard deviation.
87 69 95 73 88 47 95 63 91 66
59 70 67 83 71 57 82 65 84 69
think Write/diSplaY
Method 1
1 Enter the data set into your calculator.
2 Retrieve the mean using the x function. x = 74.05
3 Retrieve the standard deviation using the σn σn = 13.07
function.

Method 2

into List 1.
3 Press 2 for CALC, then 6 for SET. Set

the calculator up for a list of scores as shown
earlier and as shown at right.
4 Press J to return to the previous screen,

then 1 to display the summary statistics.
The population standard deviation is
displayed by the symbol xσn.
Population standard deviation
When the statistical analysis is done using a sample of the population, a slightly different standard
deviation function is used. Called the sample standard deviation, this value will be slightly higher than
the population standard deviation. The sample standard deviation will be found on your calculator using
the σn − 1 or the sn function.
Worked exaMple 11
Ian surveys twenty Year 11 students and asks how much money they earn from part-time work
each week. The results are given below.
$65 $82 $47 $78 $108 $94 $60 $79 $88 $91
$50 $73 $68 $95 $83 $76 $79 $72 $69 $97
Calculate the mean and standard deviation.
think Write/diSplaY
Method 1
1 Enter the statistics into your calculator.
2 Retrieve the mean using the x function. x = $77.70
3 Retrieve the standard deviation using the σn − 1 = $15.56
σn − 1 function, as a sample has been used.
Method 2

into List 1.

3 Press 2 for CALC, then 6 for SET. Set
the calculator up for a list of scores as shown
earlier and as shown at right.
4 Press J to return to the previous screen,

then 1 to display the summary statistics.
The sample standard deviation is displayed
by the symbol xσn − 1.
Sample standard deviation
For most examples, you will need to read the question carefully to decide whether to use the population
or the sample standard deviation.
The standard deviation can also be calculated when the data are presented in table form. This is done
by entering the data in the same way as they were when calculating the mean earlier in this chapter.
Worked exaMple 12
The table below shows the scores of a class of thirty Year 3 students on a spelling test.
Score Frequency
4 1
5 2
6 4
7 9
8 6
9 7
10 1
Calculate the mean and standard deviation.
think Write
1 Enter the data into your calculator using

score × frequency.
2 Retrieve the mean using the x function. x = 7.4
3 Retrieve the standard deviation using the σn σn = 1.4
function, as the whole population is included
in the statistics.
Once we have calculated the standard deviation, we can make conclusions about the reliability and
consistency of the data set. The lower the standard deviation, the less spread out the data set is. By
using the standard deviation, we can determine whether a set of scores is more or less consistent (or
reliable) than another set. The standard deviation is the best measure of this because, unlike the range
or interquartile range as a measure of dispersion, the standard deviation considers the distance of every
score from the mean.
A higher standard deviation means that scores are less clustered around the mean and less dependable.
For example, consider the following two students:
Student A: x = 60 σn = 5
Student B: x = 60 σn = 15
Both students have the same mean. However, student A has a standard deviation of 5 and student B has
a standard deviation of 15. Student A is far more consistent and can confidently be expected to score
around 60 in any future exam. Student B is more inconsistent but is probably capable of scoring a higher
mark than student A. This concept will be discussed further during the HSC course.

Worked Example 13
Two brands of light globe are tested to see how long they will burn
(in hours).
Brand X: 850 950 1400 875 1200
1150 1000 900 850 825
Brand Y: 975 1100 1050 1000 975
950 1075 1025 950 900
Which of the two brands of light globe is more reliable?
Think Write
1 Enter both sets of data into your calculator.

2 Choose the sample standard deviation
because a sample of each light globe brand
has been chosen.
3 Write down the sample standard deviation Brand X: σn − 1 = 190.4
for each brand. Brand Y: σn − 1 = 62.4
4 The brand with the lower standard deviation Brand Y is the more reliable as it has a lower
is the more reliable. standard deviation.
Exercise 6C Standard deviation

1 WE10 For each of the sets of scores below, calculate the standard deviation. Assume that the scores
represent an entire population and answer correct to 2 decimal places.
a 3, 5, 8, 2, 7, 1, 6, 5 b 11, 8, 7, 12, 10, 11, 14
c 25, 15, 78, 35, 56, 41, 17, 24 d 5.2, 4.7, 5.1, 12.6, 4.8
e 114, 12, 3.6, 42.8, 0.5
2 WE11 For each of the sets of scores below, calculate the sample standard deviation, correct to
2 decimal places.
a 25, 36, 75, 85, 6, 49, 77, 80, 37, 66
b 4.8, 9.3, 7.1, 9.9, 7.0, 4.1, 6.2
c 112, 25, 56, 81, 0, 5, 178, 99, 41
d 0.3, 0.3, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 0.8, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0
e 56, 1, 258, 45, 23, 58, 48, 35, 246
3 For each of the following, state whether it is appropriate to use the population standard deviation or the
sample standard deviation.

a A quality control officer tests the life of 50 batteries from a batch of 1000.
b The weight of every bag of potatoes is checked and recorded before being sold.
c The number of people who attend every football match over a season is analysed.
d A survey of 100 homes records the number of cars in each household.
e The score of every HSC student in Mathematics is recorded.
4 The band Aquatron is to release a new CD. The recording company needs to predict the number of
copies that will be sold at various music stores throughout Australia. To do so, a sample of 10 music
stores supplied information about the sales of the previous CD released by Aquatron, as shown below.
580 695 547 236 458 620 872 364 587 1207
a Calculate the mean number of sales at each store.
b Should the population or sample standard deviation be used in this case?
c What is the value of the appropriate standard deviation?
5 A supermarket chain is analysing its sales over a week. The chain has 15 stores and the sales for each
store for the past week were (in $million):
1.5 2.1 2.4 1.8 1.1 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.6 2.0 0.7 1.2 1.7 1.3
a Calculate the mean sales for the week.
c What is the value of the appropriate standard deviation?
6 WE12 Use the statistical function on your calculator to find the mean and standard deviation (correct
to 1 decimal place) for the information presented in the following tables. In each case, use the
population standard deviation.
a Score Frequency b Score Frequency c Score Frequency
3 12 45 1 75 22
4 24 46 16 76 17
5 47 47 39 77 8
6 21 48 61 78 10
7 7 49 52 79 12
50 36 80 21
81 29
7 Copy and complete the class centre column for each of the following distributions and use your
calculator to find an estimate for the mean and standard deviation (correct to 2 decimal places). In each
case use the population standard deviation.
a Class b Class
Class centre Frequency Class centre Frequency
10–12 12 31– 40 15
13–15 16 41–50 28
16–18 25 51–60 36
19–21 28 61–70 19
22–24 13 71–80 8
81–90 7
91–100 2
c Class
Class centre Frequency
0– 4 15
5–9 24
10–14 31
15–19 33
20–24 29
25–29 17

8 We13 Below are the marks achieved by two students in five tests.
Brianna: 75, 80, 70, 72, 78
Katie: 50, 95, 90, 80, 55
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation for each student.
b Which of the two students is more consistent? Explain your answer.
9 MC From Year 11, 21 students are chosen to complete a test. The scores are shown in the table below.
Class Frequency
10–19 1
20–29 6
30– 39 9
40–49 4
50–60 1
When preparing an analysis of the typical performance of Year 11 students on the test, the standard
deviation used is:
a 9.209 b 9.437
C 21 d 34.048
10 MC The results below are Ian’s marks in four exams for each subject that he studies.
English: 63 85 78 50
Maths: 69 71 32 97
Biology: 45 52 60 41
Geography: 65 78 59 61
In which subject does Ian achieve the most consistent results?
a English b Maths
C Biology d Geography
11 The following frequency distribution gives the prices paid by a car wrecking yard for a sample of
40 car wrecks.
Price ($) 0–<500 500–<1000 1000–<1500 1500–<2000 2000–<2500 2500–<3000 3000–3500

Frequency 2 4 8 10 7 6 3
Find the mean and standard deviation of the price paid for these wrecks.

12 Times (to the nearest tenth of a second) for the heats in the open 100 m sprint at the school sports are
given below.
Stem Leaf
11 0 2 3 4 4
11* 5 6 6 8 8 9
12 0 1 2 2 3 4 4
12* 6 9
Calculate the standard deviation for this set of data correct to 2 decimal places.
13 The number of outgoing phone calls from an office each day over a 4-week period is shown on the
stem plot below.
Stem Leaf
0 8 9
1 3 4 7 9
2 0 1 3 7 7
3 3 4
4 1 5 6 7 8
5 3 8
Calculate the standard deviation for this set of data and express your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.
14 The dot plot drawn below shows the number of days absent that a class of students have had in a term.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of days absent
Find the standard deviation of the data set.
15 The table below shows the life of a sample of 175 household light globes.
Life (hours) Frequency

200–<250 2
250–<300 5
300–<350 12
350–<400 25
400–<450 42
450–<500 38
500–<550 26
550–<600 15
600–<650 7
650–700 3
a Find the range of the data.

b Use the class centres to find the mean and standard deviation
in the lifetimes of this sample of light globes.
16 Crunch and Crinkle are two brands of potato crisps. Each are sold in
packets nominally of the same size and for the same price. Upon
investigation of a sample of packets of each, it is found that Crunch and
Crinkle have the same mean mass (25 g). The standard deviation of the
masses of Crunch is, however, 5 g and the standard deviation of the masses
of Crinkle is 2 g. Which brand do you think represents better value for
money under these circumstances? Why?

Further development
17 Consider the following two groups of people.
Group A Group B
160 170 170 170 170 170 180 160 170 170 110 230 170 180
Height (cm)
a Calculate the mean height of each group.
b Are the groups really the same?
c In which group would you expect the greater standard deviation?
d Calculate the standard deviation to confirm your answer.
18 Consider the set of scores 3, 5, 8, 2, 7, 4, 5, 6.
a Find the mean of the data set.
b Find the standard deviation of the data set.
c A score of 9 is added to the data set. What is the difference between this score and the mean?
d What is the standard deviation of the data set once the extra score is added?
19 Consider the data set 25, 15, 78, 35, 56, 41, 17, 21.
a Find the mean and standard deviation of the data set.
b An extra score is added to the data set. Copy and complete the table below to explore the effect
that adding an extra score has on the standard deviation.
Difference Standard deviation Standard deviation

Extra score from mean after score added (increase or decrease)
8
30
90
50
20 A data set has a mean of 48 and a standard deviation of 23. A score of 55 is added to the data set.
a What effect will adding the extra score have on the mean? Explain your answer.
b What effect will adding the extra score have on the standard deviation? Explain your answer.
21 MC A data set has a mean of 36 and a standard deviation of 8. A score of 12 is added to the data set.
What will be the effect on the mean and the standard deviation?
A The mean will decrease and the standard deviation will decrease.
B The mean will decrease and the standard deviation will increase.
C The mean will increase and the standard deviation will decrease.
D The mean will increase and the standard deviation will increase.
22 Describe in your own words, how adding an extra score to a data set will affect the standard deviation.
6D Best summary statistics

Having now examined all three measures of centre (the mean, the median and the mode), it is important to
recognise when it is appropriate to use each one. In some circumstances, one summary statistic may be more
appropriate than the others. For example, a shoe manufacturer notes that in a new style of sporting footwear:
mean size sold is 8.63
median size is 8.75
mode size is 9.
In this case, the mode is the most useful measure as the manufacturer needs to know which size sells the
most. The mean and median are of less use to the manufacturer.

Worked exaMple 14
Below are the wages of ten employees in a small business.

$420 $430 $490 $475 $465 $450 $1700 $420 $420 $440
a Calculate the mean wage.
b Calculate the median wage.
c Calculate the mode wage.
d Does the mean, median or mode give the best measure of a typical wage in this business?
think Write
a 1 Total all the wages. a Total = $5710
2 Divide the total by 10. Mean = $5710 ÷ 10

= $571
b 1 Write the wages in ascending order. b $420 $420 $420 $430 $440 $450 $465
$475 $490 $1700
$440 + $450
2 Average the 5th and 6th score to find the Median =
median. 2
= $445
c $420 is the score that occurs most often and so this c Mode = $420
is the mode.
d The mean is larger than what is typical because of d The median is the best measure of the typical
one very large wage: the mode is the lowest wage wage as the mode is the lowest score, which
and so this is not typical. Therefore, the median is is not typical, and the mean is inflated by the
the best measure. $1700 wage.
When considering the best measure of location and spread we need to consider what the effect an outlier
will have on a data set.
Consider the following set of scores: 90, 80, 85, 75, 85. For this data set
Mean = 83, Median = 85, Mode = 85
Now consider the effect that an extra score will have if it is an outlier. If a score of 20 is added to the
data set then
Mean = 72.5, Median = 82.5, Mode = 85
We can see that the addition has a significant effect on the mean, small effect on the median and no
effect on the mode.
Now consider the effect that the outlier has on the measures of spread. Before the addition of the
outlier
Range = 15, Interquartile range = 10, Standard deviation = 5.7
After the addition of the outlier to the data set these measures become:
Range = 70, Interquartile range = 10, Standard deviation = 26.2
The outlier had a large impact on the range, a significant impact on the standard deviation but very
little impact on the interquartile range. As the number of scores in the data set becomes larger the impact
of an outlier on the standard deviation is decreased, but it only takes a single outlier to have a huge
impact on the range regardless of the number of scores in the data set.
For each of these examples you will need to think carefully about the relevance of each summary
statistic in terms of the particular example.
It is important to consider that when a sample is taken the summary statistics that are found can only
be considered to be estimates of the entire population. Two or more samples that have been taken from
the same population may in fact produce different results. The larger the samples that are taken, the less
likely that this is to occur; however, samples may be subject to some variation depending on whether any
outliers may (by chance) be included.

Worked exaMple 15
Tegan and April each sample 10 apple trees from an orchard and record the number of pieces of
fruit on each. The results they obtain are given below.
Tegan 45, 38, 44, 56, 50, 55, 62, 59, 41, 42
April 12, 84, 56, 42, 68, 32, 41, 42, 70, 30
a For each data set find the mean and standard deviation.
b Describe the differences between Tegan and April’s results.
c Give possible reasons for these differences.
think Write
x = 49.2
a 1 Put Tegan’s data into your calculator and a Tegan
find the mean and standard deviation. sn = 8.4
x = 47.7
2 Put April’s data into your calculator and April
find the mean and standard deviation. sn = 21.7
b Discuss the similarity in the mean but the b The mean for both sets of data is similar although
large difference in the standard deviation. April’s is slightly smaller. The two samples have a
greatly different standard deviation as April’s sample
included outliers at both extremes of the data set.
c Think of possible reasons why there may be a c The difference in standard deviations may be
difference in the standard deviations. coincidental as April may have by chance included
a number of outliers in her sample. It is also
possible that Tegan selected all her samples from
one particular part of the orchard, hence obtaining
similar results because these plants would be subject
to similar conditions.
exercise 6d best summary statistics

1 We14 There are ten houses in a street. A real-estate agent values each house with the following results.
$350 000 $390 000 $375 000 $350 000 $950 000
$350 000 $365 000 $380 000 $360 000 $380 000
digital doC
GC program — Casio a Calculate the mean house valuation.
doc-1592 b Calculate the median house valuation.
Uv stats
c Calculate the mode house valuation.
d Which of the above is the best measure of central tendency?
2 The table below shows the number of shoes of each size that were sold over a week at a shoe store.
Size Frequency
digital doC 4 5
GC program — TI
doc-1593 5 7
Uv stats
6 19
7 24
8 16
9 8
10 7
a Calculate the mean shoe size sold.
b Calculate the median shoe size sold.
c Calculate the mode of the data set.
d Which measure of central tendency has the most meaning to
the shoe store proprietor?

3 A coffee shop records the number of coffees sold per hour over a 12 hour period. The results are shown
in the dot plot below.
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Number of coffees sold
a Calculate the mean, median and mode of the data set.

b Find the range and interquartile range of the data set.
c Explain why the range is not a good measure of spread in this data set.
4 The stem-and-leaf plot below shows the number of times that a fire engine was called out each week
over a three month period.
Stem Leaf
1 5 8 9
2 1 6 9 9
3 0 0 1 2 8
4 1
a Find the mean, median and mode of this data set.
b Is the mean a satisfactory measure of the typical score in this data set?
c Find the range and interquartile range of this data set.
d Find the standard deviation of the data set.
5 Consider the data set below
10, 10, 11, 22, 23, 27, 28, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49.
a What is the mode of the data set?
b Display the data set in a frequency table using class groupings 10–19, 20–29, etc.
c What is the modal class of the data set?
d Explain why the modal class is a more useful measure than the mode.
6 Consider the set of scores
9, 51, 51, 52, 54, 54, 56, 56, 56, 60.
a There is an outlier in the data set. Explain what is meant by the term outlier.
b Find the mean, median and mode of the data set.
c Find the mean, median and mode if the outlier is removed.
d Explain the effect on each of the above measures if the outlier is removed.
7 The table below shows the crowds at football matches over a season.
Crowd Class centre Frequency

10 000–19 999 15 000 95
20 000–29 999 25 000 64
30 000– 39 999 35 000 22
40 000–49 999 45 000 15
50 000–59 999 55 000 3
60 000–69 999 65 000 0
70 000–80 000 75 000 1
a Calculate the mean crowd over the season.

b Calculate the median class.
c Calculate the modal class.
d Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
e Use the ogive to estimate the median.
f Which measure of central tendency would best describe the typical crowd at football matches
over the season?

8 MC Mr and Mrs Yousef research the typical price of a large family car. At one car yard they find
six family cars. Five of the cars are priced between $30 000 and $40 000, while the sixth is priced at
$80 000. What would be the best measure of the price of a typical family car?
a Mean b Median
c Mode d All are equally important.
9 Thirty men were asked to reveal the number of hours they spent doing housework each week. The
results are given below.
1 5 2 12 2 6 2 8 14 18
0 1 1 8 20 25 3 0 1 2
7 10 12 1 5 1 18 0 2 2
a Represent the data in a frequency distribution table. (Use classes 0– 4, 5–9, 10–14 etc.)
b Find the mean number of hours that the men spend doing housework.
c Find the median class for hours spent by the men at housework.
d Find the modal class for hours spent by the men at housework.
10 WE15 Lewis and Jim each sample 10 tyres that come off a production line. They use a machine to
measure the distance the tyres can travel before the tread is worn down. The results they obtain are
given below in thousands of kilometres.
Jim 38, 30, 32, 26, 30, 35, 32, 39, 29, 42
Lewis 22, 24, 36, 22, 28, 22, 21, 32, 30, 30
For each data set
a find the mean and standard deviation.
b describe the differences between Jim and Lewis’s results.
c give possible reasons for these differences.
11 Carmen and Jade each take a sample of the number of customers who enter a shop over 8 selected
hours in a week. Their results are shown below.
Carmen 28, 20, 22, 26, 32, 25, 72, 29, 29, 42
Jade 22, 24, 26, 22, 8, 29, 29, 32, 20, 36
a For each data set find the mean and standard deviation.
b Give a possible reason why Carmen has obtained a much greater mean and standard deviation.
12 The batting scores for two cricket players over six innings are as follows:
Player A: 31, 34, 42, 28, 30, 41
Player B: 0, 0, 1, 0, 250, 0
a Find the mean score for each player.
b Which player appears to be better if the mean result is used?
c Find the median score for each player.
d Which player appears to be better when the decision is based on the median result?
e Which player do you think would be more useful to have in a cricket team and why? How can the
mean result sometimes lead to a misleading conclusion?
13 The following frequency table gives the number of employees in different salary brackets for a small
manufacturing plant.
Position Salary ($) No. of employees

Machine operator 38 000 50
Machine mechanic 40 000 15
Floor steward 44 000 10
Manager 82 000 4
Chief executive officer 100 000 1
a Workers are arguing for a pay rise, but the management of the factory claims that workers are
well paid because the mean salary of the factory is $42 100. Are they being honest?
b Suppose that you were representing the factory workers and had to write a short submission in
support of the pay rise. How could you explain the management’s claim? Provide some other
statistics to support your case.

14 Consider the following two groups of people.
Group A Group B
160 170 170 170 170 170 180 160 170 170 110 230 170 180
a Calculate the mean height, median height and mode height for each group.
b Describe the difference between the two groups.
c For each group find the range, interquartile range and standard deviation.
15 The following data give the number of fruit that have formed on each of 30 trees in an orchard.
45 48 52 36 38 72 36 74 56 46
81 73 46 48 44 39 52 58 57 65
60 53 54 58 41 44 47 76 68 55
a Complete a frequency distribution table for the data with the class intervals being 30–39, 40–49
and so on.
c Use the ogive to find the median, lower quartile and upper quartile of the data.
d Find the interquartile range of the data.
e Use your table to estimate the mean and standard deviation of the data.
f Use the scores given in this list to find the mean and standard deviation of the data.
g Explain the difference in your answers to parts e and f.
16 MC The addition of a single outlier to a data set is most likely going to have the greatest effect on
A the mean
B the median
C the mode
D all of the above
17 MC The addition of a single outlier to a data set is most likely going to have the greatest effect on
A the standard deviation
B the range
C the interquartile range
D all of the above
18 A data set is given as 12, 12, 16, 17, 22, 24, 24, 30. This data set is bimodal.
a Explain what is meant by the term bimodal.
b Greg correctly identifies the two modes as being 12 and 24. However, Greg then averages these
two modes, leading to a result of 18. Explain why this result has no meaning.
Further development
19 The data below shows the age of 25 patients admitted to the emergency ward of a hospital.
18 6 16 75 24 23 82 75 25 21 43 19 84 76 30 78 24 20 63 79
a Find the mean age of the patients.
b Find the median age of the patients.
c What is the mode age?
d Do any of the measures of central tendency give a clear representation of the typical age of an
emergency ward patient? Give a reason for your answer.
20 A small business pays the following salaries (in thousands of dollars) to its employees:
38, 38, 38, 38, 46, 46, 46, 55, 100 (the manager)
a What is the salary of most workers?
b What is the mean salary?
c What is the median salary?
d The union is negotiating a salary rise for the workers. What measure would be used by:
i the union in negotiations
ii the employer in negotiations.
Explain each answer.

21 The contents of 20 randomly selected boxes of matches were counted. The following data shows the
number of matches in each box:
138, 139, 139, 141, 137, 140, 137, 141, 139, 142
140, 141, 141, 139, 141, 138, 139, 140, 141, 138.
a Find the mean, median and mode of the distribution.

b Which of the three measures best supports the manufacturer’s claim that there are 140 matches
per box?
c Is this claim by the manufacturer valid?
22 A class of mathematics students got a median mark of 54 for their end of semester test; however,
no-one actually scored this result.
a Explain how this is possible.
b How many students must have scored below 54?
23 a What is the effect of an outlier on the mean of a data set?
b When this occurs what is usually the best measure of central tendency?
c Give an example of when the mode is the most relevant measure of central tendency.
digital doC
WorkSHEET 6.2 24 a Explain why the range is an unreliable measure of spread.
doc-10324 b Does a single outlier have any effect on the interquartile range and standard deviation?
inveStigate: Wage rise
The workers in an office are trying to obtain a wage rise. In the previous year, the ten people who work in
the office received a 2% rise while the company CEO received a 42% rise.
1 What was the mean wage rise received in the office last year?
2 What was the median wage rise received in the office last year?
3 What was the modal wage rise received in the office last year?
4 The company is trying to avoid paying the rise. What statistic do you think they would quote about last
year’s wage rises? Why?
5 What statistic do you think the trade union would quote about wage rises? Why?
6 Which statistic do you think is the most ‘honest’ reflection of last year’s wage rises? Explain your answer.
Quoting different averages can give different impressions about what is normal. Try the following task.
1 Visit a local real estate agent and study the properties for sale in the window.
2 Calculate the mean, median and mode price for houses in the area.
3 If you were a real estate agent and a person wanting to sell their home asked what the typical property
sold for in the area, which figure would you quote?
4 Which figure would you quote to a person who wanted to buy a house in the area?

Investigate: Best summary statistics and comparison of samples
Examine each of the following statistics.

• The typical mark in Maths among Year 11 students.
• The number of attempts taken by Year 11 and 12 students to get their driver’s licence.
• The typical number of days taken off school by Year 11 students so far this year.
1 For each of the above, gather your data by selecting a random sample.
2 Calculate the mean, median and mode for each topic.
3 Compare your results with other students who will have selected their samples from the same
population.
4 In each case, state the best summary statistic and explain your answer.

Summary
Calculating the mean • For a small number of scores, the mean is calculated using the formula:
∑x
x= .
n
• When the data are presented in a frequency table, the mean can be calculated using the formula:
∑ f ×x
x= .
∑f
• The mean can also be calculated using the statistical function on your calculator.
Median and mode • The median is the middle score of a data set, or the average of the two middle scores.
• The mode is the score with the highest frequency.
Standard deviation • The standard deviation is a measure of the spread of a data set.
• The smaller the standard deviation, the smaller the spread of the data set.
• The standard deviation is found using the statistical function on your calculator.
• When the analysis is conducted on the entire population, the population standard deviation (σn) is
used.
• When the analysis is conducted on a sample of the population, the sample standard deviation
(σn − 1) or sn, is used.
best summary • The summary statistics are the mean, median and mode.
statistics • Each summary statistic must be examined in the context of the statistical analysis to determine
which is the most relevant.
• We need to consider the impact that outliers have on the summary statistics.

Chapter review
1 For the following data set, which of the statements is correct?
M U ltip l e
3, 4, 8, 7, 3, 6, 5, 3, 4, 7 C ho iC e
a The mean is 5. b The median is 5.

C The mode is 5. d all of the above
2 For which of the following data sets is the median greater than the mean?
a 2, 6, 14, 14, 15, 16, 18 b 12, 13, 14, 14, 14, 18, 22
C 12, 15, 15, 15, 15, 18 d 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49
3 For the data set below, which statement is correct?
25, 45, 64, 48, 66, 85, 45, 27
a The mean is 50.625. b The sample standard deviation is 20.29.
C The population standard deviation is 18.98. d all of the above
4 Tracey compiles a sample of new car prices. She selects 100 new car buyers and asks what price they
paid for their car. To measure the spread of the distribution Tracey should use:
a the population standard deviation b the sample standard deviation
C both standard deviations d the mean
5 For the statistical analysis in question 4 which summary statistic would be the most appropriate?
a mean b median
C mode d standard deviation
1 Calculate the mean of each of the following sets of scores. S ho rt

a 4, 9, 5, 3, 5, 6, 2, 7, 1, 10 b 65, 67, 87, 45, 90, 92, 50, 23 a n S W er
c 7.2, 7.9, 7.0, 8.1, 7.5, 7.5, 8.7 d 5, 114, 23, 12, 25
2 Copy and complete the tables below and then use them to calculate the mean.
a b
Score (x) Frequency ( f ) f×x Score (x) Frequency ( f ) f×x
5 11 9.2 36
6 15 9.3 48
7 24 9.4 74
8 21 9.5 65
9 9 9.6 51
∑f = ∑f × x = 9.7 32
9.8 14
9.9 2
∑f = ∑f × x =
3 Complete the frequency distribution table below and use it to estimate the mean of the distribution.

21–24 3
25–28 9
29–32 17
33–36 31
37– 40 29
41– 44 25
45– 48 19
49–52 10
∑f = ∑f × x =

4 Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean of each of the following sets of scores.
a 2, 18, 26, 121, 96, 32, 14, 2, 0, 0
b 2, 2, 12, 12, 12, 32, 32, 47, 58
c 0.2, 0.3, 0.6, 0.4, 0.3, 0.7, 0.8, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.1
5 Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean of the following distributions. Where
necessary, give your answers correct to 1 decimal place.
a Score Frequency b Score Frequency
10 23 24 45
20 47 25 89
30 68 26 124
40 56 27 102
50 17 28 78
29 46
c
10–12 11 18
13–15 14 32
16–18 17 34
19–21 20 40
22–24 23 28
25–27 26 14
28–30 29 6
6 For each of the following sets of scores, find the median.
a 25, 26, 26, 27, 27, 28, 30, 32, 35
b 4, 5, 8, 5, 8, 6, 7, 10, 4, 8, 4
c 3.2, 3.1, 3.0, 3.5, 3.2, 3.2, 3.2, 3.6
d 2, 3, 7, 4, 4, 8, 5, 7, 7, 6
e 121, 135, 111, 154, 147, 165, 101, 108
7 Copy and complete each of the following frequency tables and then use them to find the median.
a b Cumulative
Cumulative
Score Frequency frequency Score Frequency frequency
0 2 54 2
1 6 55 5
2 11 56 14
3 7 57 11
4 6 58 6
5 3 59 1
60 1
c
Cumulative
Score Frequency frequency
66 8
67 10
68 12
69 14
70 7
71 5
72 4

8 a Copy and complete the frequency distribution table below.
Cumulative
Class Class centre Frequency frequency
30–39 18
40– 49 34
50–59 39
60–69 45
70–79 29
80–89 10
90–99 5
b What is the median class of this distribution?

c Display these data in a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
d Use your graph to estimate the median of the distribution.
9 For each set of scores below, state the mode.
a 2, 3, 6, 8, 4, 2, 4, 2, 6, 5, 2
b 23, 24, 19, 23, 27, 25, 31, 24, 23, 27, 27
c 1.2, 5.6, 4.7, 6.8, 4.5, 2.1
10 For each of the frequency tables below, state the mode.
a b
Score Frequency Score Frequency
1 23 14 9
2 35 15 15
3 21 16 8
4 19 17 12
5 8 18 15
19 7
20 1
11 Use the frequency table below to state the modal class.

30–33 31.5 12
34–37 35.5 26
38– 41 39.5 34
42– 45 43.5 45
46–49 47.5 52
50–53 51.5 23
12 The marks of 30 students in a Geography test are shown below.

66 47 43 80 42 92 92 90 92 77
67 87 75 72 42 60 86 53 95 78
46 87 49 70 82 92 93 71 62 67
a Calculate the mean.
c Write the value of the appropriate standard deviation.

13 To find the number of attempts most people take to get their driver’s licence, a sample of twenty Year
12 students is chosen. The results are shown below.
1 2 3 3 1 2 1 2 4 1
1 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 3
c Write the value of the appropriate standard deviation.
14 Use the statistics function on your calculator to find the mean and population standard deviation of each
of the following distributions. Give each answer correct to 3 decimal places.
a 0.7, 1.2, 0.5, 0.9, 1.3, 1.5, 0.1, 1.0, 0.4, 0.5
b 23, 254, 12, 89, 74, 15, 26, 45
c d
Score Frequency Class Class centre Frequency
26 12 10–14 12 8
27 25 15–19 17 12
20–24 22 32
28 29
25–29 27 45
29 28
30–34 32 40
30 14
35–39 37 19
40– 44 42 6
15 Below are the number of goals scored by a netball team in ten matches in a tournament.
25 26 19 24 28 67 21 22 28 18
b Calculate the median.
c Calculate the mode.
d Which of the above is the best summary statistic? Explain your answer.
16 Give an example of a statistical analysis where the best summary statistic is:
a the mean
b the median
c the mode.
e x t ended 1 The table below shows the gross annual income for a sample of 100 company executives.
r e SponS e
Income Class centre Frequency Cumulative frequency
$50 000–<$75 000 12
$75 000–<$100 000 18
$100 000–<$125 000 26
$125 000–<$150 000 24
$150 000–<$175 000 12
$175 000–$200 000 8
a Copy and complete the frequency table.

b Calculate the mean.
c Calculate the standard deviation.
d Calculate the median class
e Calculate the modal class.
f Which summary statistic best describes the typical income for a company executive?

2 In order to compare two textbooks, a teacher recommends one book to one class and another book to
another class. At the end of the year the classes are each tested; the results are detailed below.
Text A
44 52 95 76 13 94 83 72 55 81 22 25 64
72 35 48 56 59 84 98 84 21 35 69 28
Text B
65 72 48 63 68 59 68 62 75 79 81 72 64 53
58 59 64 66 68 42 37 39 55 58 52 82 79 55
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation for each class group.
b Which standard deviation did you use in part a? Explain why.
c Which class performed better?
d Which class had the more consistent results? digital doC
Test Yourself
e Could a conclusion be drawn about the better textbook from the above information? Explain your doc-10325
answer. Chapter 6

ICT activities
6a Calculating the mean 6C Standard deviation
digital doCS interaCtivitY
• Spreadsheet (doc-1586): Mean (page 194) • int-0144: Standard deviation (page 205)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1587): Mean (DIY) (page 194)
interaCtivitY 6d best summary statistics
• Measures of centre (int-0084): Interact with the mean, median and digital doCS
mode. (page 189)
• GC program — Casio (doc-1592): UV stats (page 214)
• GC program — TI (doc-1593): UV stats (page 214)
6b Median and mode • WorkSHEET 6.2 (doc-10324): Apply your knowledge of statistics to
digital doCS questions. (page 218)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1588): Median (page 201)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1589): Median (DIY) (page 201) Chapter review
• Spreadsheet (doc-1590): Mode (page 201)
digital doC
• Spreadsheet (doc-1591): Mode (DIY) (page 201)
• WorkSHEET 6.1 (doc-10323): Apply statistical measures to questions.
(page 205)
interaCtivitY
• Measures of centre (int-2352): Interact with measures of centre.
(page 198)

Answers CHAPTER 6
SUMMarY StatiStiCS 9
Frequency 16 a 14.1
Score (x) ( f) f×x b 3.4
exercise 6a Calculating the mean c 44.4
1 a 5 8 2 16 17 a 6.6
b 26.5 10 7 70 b 30.67
c 74.25
12 11 132 18 166.25
d 7.72
19 a 12.5, 13.5, 14.5, 15.5, 16.5
e 376 14 6 84
b 14.4
2 72.6% 16 2 32 20 a
3 125.7 c/L Class Class centre Frequency
18 2 36
4 1.81 m 1–10 5.5 12
5 Yes, mean mass is 45.035 g. ∑ f = 30 ∑ f × x = 370
6 a 1
11–20 15.5 6
Score Frequency f×x Mean = 12 3
21–30 25.5 5
4 2 8 10 a 10 b 170–180 cm
c 180–190 cm d 171.4 cm 31– 40 35.5 7
5 4 20 11 D 12 C 41–50 45.5 9
13 a
6 5 30 51–60 55.5 9
Class
7 9 63 centre Frequency 61–70 65.5 5
Class (x) ( f) f×x 71–80 75.5 5
8 3 24
31– 40 35.5 1 35.5 81–90 85.5 5
9 5 45
41–50 45.5 3 136.5
91–100 95.5 7
10 2 20
51–60 55.5 4 222.0
b 46.4
∑ f = 30 ∑ f × x = 210 61–70 65.5 7 458.5 21 a 63 b 82.2
b 7 71–80 75.5 11 830.5 c 13.7
7 a 22 54.1
No. of 81–90 85.5 2 171.0 23 a 25 b 59
televisions No. of 91–100 95.5 2 191.0 c 21.2
sold weeks f×x d The outlier greatly increases the mean.
∑ f = 30 ∑ f × x = 2045
16 4 64 24 36
b 68.17 25 24.5
17 4 68 14 a
26 a The mean will increase.
18 3 54 Class No. of b The mean will decrease.
Time centre swimmers f×x exercise 6b Median and mode
19 6 114 50.01–51.00 50.5 4 202.0 1 6
20 7 140 51.01–52.00 51.5 12 618.0 2 81
3 a 5 b 5.4
21 12 252 52.01–53.00 52.5 23 1207.5 c 62 d 102
53.01–54.00 53.5 38 2033.0 4 a 4 b 5.6
22 8 176
c The median is a better measure because
54.01–55.00 54.5 15 817.5
23 2 46 one large score makes the mean larger
55.01–56.00 55.5 3 166.5 than what is typical.
24 4 96 5 a
∑ f = 95 ∑ f × x = 5044.5 Cumulative
25 2 50 b 53.1 Score Frequency frequency
15 a
∑ f = 52 ∑ f × x = 1060 17 4 4
b 20.4
Class 18 9 13
centre Frequency
8 a
Frequency Score (x) ( f) f×x 19 6 19
Score (x) ( f) f×x 0 –19 9.5 20 190 20 12 31
0 4 0 20 –39 29.5 12 354 21 8 39
1 9 9 40 –59 49.5 8 396 22 5 44
2 18 36 60 –79 69.5 5 347.5 23 4 48
80 –99 89.5 1 89.5
3 10 30 24 2 50
100 –119 109.5 3 328.5
4 5 20 b 20
120 –139 129.5 0 0 6 3
5 4 20 140 –159 149.5 1 149.5 7 1
8 C
∑ f = 50 ∑ f × x = 115 ∑ f = 50 ∑ f × x = 1855 9 C
b 2.3 b 37.1 10 A

11 a 19 a 2 a 26.94 b 2.14
Days Cumulative
sickness Frequency frequency Class Cumulative c 57.51 d 0.26
Class centre Frequency frequency e 96.04
0–4 10 10 3 a Sample
$200–$249 224.5 8 8 b Population
5–9 12 22
$250–$299 274.5 4 12 c Population
10–14 7 29
$300–$349 324.5 6 18 d Sample
15–19 6 35 e Population
$350–$399 374.5 6 24 4 a 616.6 b Sample
20–24 5 40
$400–$449 424.5 4 28 c 270.97
25–29 3 43 5 a 1.44 b Population
$450–$499 474.5 2 30 c 0.48 million
30–34 2 45
$500–$549 524.5 6 36 6 a x = 4.9, σn = 1.0
b 10–14
$550–$599 574.5 4 40 b x = 48.2, σn = 1.2
12 a 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, 27, 32
c x = 78.3, σn = 2.3
b b $350–$399 x = 17.45, σn = 3.69
45 7 a
40 c b x = 56.02, σn = 14.26
35 40
30
25 35 c x = 14.95, σn = 7.49
30
20
15 25 8 a Brianna: x = 75, σn = 3.69
20
10 15 Katie: x = 74, σn = 18.28
5 10
0 5 b Brianna is more consistent because she
2 7 12 17 22 27 32 0 has a lower standard deviation.
No. of sick days 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
22 27 32 37 42 47 52 57 9 B
c 10 Weekly wage ($)
10 C
13 a 5 b 8
Median wage = $360 11 x = $1825, σn − 1 = 797
c 11 d 0.4
20 a 170–180 cm 12 θn = 0.51
e 110 b 13 θn = 15.10
14 a 17 b 148, 151 100

90 14 θn = 2.51
c No mode d 72 80
70 15 a 500
e 2.6 60
50 b x = 455.3, σn − 1 = 88.9
15 a 4 b 8 40
30 16 Crinkle, because the standard deviation
c 42, 44 20
10 in the weight of each pack is lower and
16 a 17 0 therefore you are more likely to get the
b
15 cm
16 cm
17 cm
18 cm
19 cm
cm
correct amount.
5
5
5
5
5
5
160
14
140
120
Class centres 17 a Group A = 170 group B = 170
100 b No, there appears to be greater spread in
80 c 173 cm
60 21 a 628 group B.
40
20 c Group B
b 613, 628 and 632
0
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 d Group A = 5.35 group B = 32.5
c The stem-and-leaf plot arranges all the
Class centres 18 a 5 b 1.9
scores in order, making it easier to find
c 16 c 4 d 2.2
the centre and the most frequent score.
17 a 17–20 19 a x = 36, σn = 20.4
22 a 24.5
b 22–28 b
b 25
18 a
c The outlier had only a very small effect. Standard Standard
Depth Class Cumulative 23 No, as a single outlier will not change the deviation deviation
(cm) centre Frequency frequency score that occurs the most often. Extra Difference after score increase or
0–<50 25 8 8 24 a 82 and 45 score from mean added decrease
b 60–69 8 28 21.1 Increase
50–<100 75 9 17
c The modal class shows the group that
100–<150 125 12 29 has the most scores. In this case, since 30 6 19.4 Decrease
150–<200 175 15 44 the mode is the highest score and with a
90 54 25.7 Increase
frequency of just two, it is insignificant
200–<250 225 6 50 compared to the rest of the data. 50 14 19.8 Decrease
250–<300 275 4 54 25 The middle class in a grouped distribution.
The median is estimated in grouped 20 a The mean will increase since the added
300–<350 325 2 56 score is greater than the mean.
distributions using an ogive, which is more
350– 400 375 2 58 useful. b The standard deviation will decrease as
26 This is an estimate as the individual the difference between the mean and the
b 60 score is less than the standard deviation.
Cumulative
scores are lost once put into a grouped

frequency
50
40
distribution. 21 B
30
20 22 The standard deviation will increase if the
10 exercise 6C
0 Standard deviation difference between the mean and the score
25 75 125 175 225 275 325 375 1 a 2.29 b 2.19 is greater than the standard deviation and
Depth of snow (cm) c 20.17 d 3.07 decrease if this difference is less than the
c 152 e 42.44 standard deviation.

exercise 6d best summary statistics b 6.8 c Median = 53, lower quartile = 44,
1 a $425 000 b $370 000 c 0–4 upper quartile = 60
c $350 000 d 0–4 d 16
d The median, as the mean is inflated 10 a Jim x = 33.3, sn = 5.06, Lewis x = 26.7, e Mean = 53.5, std dev. = 13.48
by one large score and the mode is the sn = 5.21 f Mean = 54.07, std dev. = 12.50
lowest price. b Lewis’s sample has a much lower mean g When scores are put into a table the
2 a 7.1 b 7 c 7 and both data sets have similar standard individual scores are lost, affecting both
d The mode, as it is the size that sells the deviations. the mean and standard deviation.
most. c This could be because Lewis and 16 A
3 a Mean = 15.5, median = 15.5, Jim took their samples from different 17 B
mode = 15, 18 machines. Check other possible answers 18 a There are two modes; that is, two scores
b Range = 10, IQR = 4 with your teacher. that occur equally most often.
c There are outliers at both ends of the 11 a Carmen x = 32.5, sn = 15.1, b The mode is about what score occurs
distribution. Jade x = 24.8, sn = 7.7 most. A mode of 18 is meaningless as
4 a Mean = 27.6, median = 29, b By chance it would appear that Jade this score does not occur most often.
mode = 29, 30 has included an outlier in her sample. 19 a 44.05
b Yes This may be because in this hour the b 27.5
c Range = 26, IQR = 11.5 shop was running some specials or a c 24 and 75
d 7.67 promotion. d No measure gives a typical score.
5 a 10 12 a Player A: 34.3 Player B: 41.8 Patients of all different ages come to
b
Class Class centre Frequency b Player B the hospital for all different reasons, so
c Player A: 32.5 Player B: 0 there is no typical age.
10–19 14.5 3 d Player A 20 a $38 000
20–29 24.5 4 e Player A would be more useful as he b $49 444
is much more consistent. The mean c $46 000
30–39 34.5 6 includes any outliers and so is affected d i The mode, as the lowest measure
40–49 44.5 7 by very large or very small data values. and the amount that more people
c 40–49
13 a 65 out of 80 earn less than the mean and get paid, makes a stronger case for
d As the mode is the only score that
another 10 only slightly more than the a pay rise.
occurs more than once. The modal class mean. Hence it is misleading. ii The mean, as the highest measure,
tells us where most scores are gathered. b The median and the mode would be makes the case for a pay rise weaker.
6 a A single score far removed from all useful in your submission as they are 21 a Mean = 139.6, median = 139.5,
others not distorted by the larger salaries as the mode = 141
b Mean = 49.9, median = 54, mode = 56 mean is. b Mode as it is the only measure
c Mean = 54.4, median = 54, mode = 56 14 a Group A — mean = 170, above 140.
d The removal of the outlier increases median = 170, mode = 170 c No, the mean is below 140, therefore
the mean and makes it a more typical Group B — mean = 170, half the boxes have fewer than
representation of the data set. median = 170, mode = 170 140 matches.
7 a 23 550 b Group B has a greater spread of scores 22 a The median was calculated by taking the
b 20 000–30 000 c Group A — range = 20, IQR = 0, average of the two middle scores.
c 10 000–20 000 std dev. = 5.77 b 12
d
Group B — range = 120, IQR = 20, 23 a An outlier makes the mean larger,
200 std dev. = 35.12 especially in a small data set.

150 15 a b Median
100 Class Cumulative c Answers will vary, example would be
50 Class centre Frequency frequency the most frequently sold clothing size.
24 a A single outlier can change the range
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30–39 34.5 4 4 greatly.
00 00 00 00 00 00 00
15 25 35 45 55 65 75 b It has only a very small effect.
Crowd number 40–49 44.5 9 13
e 21 000 Chapter revieW
50–59 54.5 9 22
f Median MUltiple ChoiCe
8B 60–69 64.5 3 25 1 A
9 a
2 A
Class Cumulative 70–79 74.5 4 29 3 D
Class centre Frequency frequency 4 B
80–89 84.5 1 30 5 B
0– 4 2 16 16
5–9 7 6 22 b Short anSWer
30 1 a 5.2
10–14 12 4 26 25
20 b 64.875
15–19 17 2 28 15
10 c 7.7
5
20–24 22 1 29 0 d 35.8
2 a 7.025
.5
.5
.5
.5
.5
.5
25–29 27 1 30
34
44
54
64
74
84
Class centre b 9.46

3 c d 58
180
160
Class Class centre Frequency f×x 140
120
100
21–24 22.5 3 67.5 80
60
40
25–28 26.5 9 238.5 20
0
.5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5
29–32 30.5 17 518.5 34 44 54 64 74 84 94
Score
33–36 34.5 31 1069.5 9 a 2 b 23, 27 c No mode
10 a 2 b 15, 18
37– 40 38.5 29 1116.5 11 46– 49
12 a 71.8 b Population c 17.3
41– 44 42.5 25 1062.5
13 a 1.95 b Sample c 0.89
45– 48 46.5 19 883.5 14 a x = 0.81, σn = 0.42 b x = 67.25, σn = 75.3
c x = 28.1, σn = 1.2 d x = 27.5, σn = 7.03
49–52 50.5 10 505.0 15 a 27.8 b 24.5
c 28 d Median
∑ f = 143 ∑ f × x = 5461.5 16 Check with your teacher.
Mean = 38.2 extended reSponSe
4 a 31.1 b 23.2 c 0.445
1 a
5 a 29.9 b 26.4 c 18.6
6 a 27 b 6 c 3.2 Cumulative
d 5.5 e 128 Income Class centre Frequency frequency
7 a 2 b 56 c 68.5 $50 000–<$75 000 $62 500 12 12
8 a
$75 000–<$100 000 $87 500 18 30
Cumulative
Class Class centre Frequency frequency $100 000–<$125 000 $112 500 26 56
$125 000–<$150 000 $137 500 24 80
30–39 34.5 18 18
$150 000–<$175 000 $162 500 12 92
40– 49 44.5 34 52
$175 000–$200 000 $187 500 8 100
50–59 54.5 39 91 b $120 000 c 35 622
60–69 64.5 45 136 d $100 000–$125 000 e $100 000–$125 000
f mean
70–79 74.5 29 165 2 a Text A: x = 58.6, σn = 25.1
Text B: x = 62.25, σn = 11.8
80–89 84.5 10 175 b Population because the whole classes’ results have been used.
90–99 94.5 5 180 c Text B
d Text B — lower standard deviation
b 50–59 e Check with your teacher.

ChapTer 7
Measurement
ChapTer ConTenTS
7a Measurements as approximations
7B Units of measurement and scientific notation
7C Ratios
7d Rates
7e Percentage change
7a measurements as approximations
How far is it from your house to school? If you live close to school you may give your answer in metres,
but if you are further away you would probably answer in kilometres. In either case your answer would
not be exact. In fact no measurement is exact. Measurements can only be taken to the degree of accuracy
that the instruments used allow.
All measurements are approximations.
No measuring instrument is perfect and different people can sometimes obtain a slightly different
reading from the same instrument. For example, one person may measure a person’s height as 162 cm
while another may get an answer of 163 cm. To reduce the likelihood of error we may repeat the same
measurement a number of times and average the result.
Worked example 1
Taylor has her height measured by 8 people. They obtain the following results:
169 cm, 169 cm, 168 cm, 170 cm, 169 cm, 169 cm, 168 cm, 168 cm.
What is the average result?
Think WriTe
1 Find the total of the 8 readings. Total = 169 + 169 + 168 + 170 + 169 + 169 + 168 + 168
= 1350
2 Divide the total by 8 to find the average. Average = 1350 ÷ 8
= 168.75 cm
As no measurement can ever be exact each measurement taken will be given to some degree of accuracy.
Significant figures
Consider each of the following measurements.
• The distance from the Earth to the Sun is 149 000 000 km.
• The distance between Sydney and Melbourne is 1040 km.
• A circle with a radius of 5 cm has an area of 78.54 cm2.
In each of the above cases the measurement is not exactly correct. As already stated, all measurements
are approximations. Each of these measurements has had a sensible and practical approximation applied.
• The distance from the Earth to the Sun has been given to the nearest one million kilometres. The
distance to the nearest kilometre is needed only for very precise scientific work.
ChapTer 7 • Measurement 231

• The distance between Sydney and Melbourne is given to the nearest kilometre. No-one travelling
between these two cities would need to know the distance with any greater degree of accuracy.
• Using the formula A = π r 2 the calculator gives the area of the circle as 78.539 816 34. Using 2 decimal
places is usually a more practical way to answer such questions.
The accuracy of every measurement taken is limited by the accuracy of the
instrument used to take the measurement. The measurement is then given to the
most practical degree of accuracy.
Measurements are usually given to a required number of significant figures. In the examples above:
• 149 000 000 km is correct to 3 significant figures
• 1024 km is correct to 4 significant figures
• 78.54 cm2 is also correct to 4 significant figures.
Significant figures are the number of non-zero digits at the beginning of a number. The zeros that fill
the remaining places are not significant and are there to maintain the correct place values. (Note: Zeros
between 2 significant figures are taken to be significant, for example, 1024 has 4 significant figures,
not 3.) Consider the situation below.
A star is a distance of 68.04 light-years away from the Earth. If the speed of light is 299 792 km/s and
a year is taken to be 365.26 days, what is the distance from the Earth to the star, in kilometres?
A light-year is the distance that light will travel in 1 year. Therefore:
1 light-year = 299 792 × 60 × 60 × 24 × 365.26
= 9 460 975 039 488 km
Distance = 68.04 × 9 460 975 039 488
= 643 724 741 686 764 km
With such large numbers it is not usually necessary to be so exact. We could say that the distance was
approximately 644 000 000 000 000 km. In this example we have rounded the distance off, correct to
3 significant figures.
In this example, the zeros are not significant figures. When rounding off, however, we must include
them, so that each significant figure has its correct place value.
When rounding a number off to 3 significant figures, we cut the number off after the first three non-
zero digits and round off using the same rules as for decimal places. We then fill out the remaining
places with zeros.
Worked Example 2
Round each of the following numbers off to the required number of significant figures.
a 25 854 789 652 (2 significant figures)
b 63 879 258 (1 significant figure)
Think Write
a 1 Rounding off to 2 significant figures, so we a

look at the third significant figure.
2 This digit is 8, so take the second significant 26 000 000 000
figure up by 1 and fill out the remaining places
with zeros.
b 1 Rounding off to 1 significant figure, so we b
look at the second significant figure.
2 This digit is 3, so it is ignored and the 60 000 000
remaining places are filled out with zeros.
Significant figures can also be used to round off decimals. Care must be taken when reading a question
to see if you are being asked to round off using significant figures or decimal places. Zeros at the front of
a decimal are not considered to be significant figures. For the decimal 0.000 254 878 the first significant
figure is the 2. If we round off to 2 significant figures 0.000 254 878 ≈ 0.000 25.
When rounding off decimals to a set number of significant figures, the zeros at the front must be left
in place but there is no need to fill out remaining places with zeros.

Worked Example 3
Round each of the following numbers off to the number of significant figures indicated.
a 0.005 254 8 (3 significant figures) b 0.014 725 8 (2 significant figures)
Think Write
a 1 Rounding off to 3 significant figures, so we look at the a

fourth significant figure.
2 This digit is 4, so it and the following digits are ignored. 0.005 25
b 1 Rounding off to 2 significant figures, so we look to the b
third significant figure.
2 This digit is 7, so the second significant figure must be 0.015
increased by 1.
Exercise 7A Measurements as approximations

1 WE1 The capacity of a jug is measured by 5 people to be 750 mL, 752 mL, 749 mL, 753 mL and
748 mL. Calculate the average of these 5 readings.
2 The distance between two towns is given on 4 different maps as 79 km, 81 km, 77 km and 80 km.
Calculate the average of these 4 readings.
3 At a swimming carnival there are 4 timekeepers to record the winning time. In the 50 m freestyle they
take the time of the winner to be 36.4 secs, 36.25 secs, 36.3 secs and 36.15 secs. What time should be
allocated to the winner of the race?
4 In an international diving competition there are 7 judges. Each judge awards the competitor a score out
of 10. The scores given to a particular diver were
6.8, 6.9, 6.7, 6.6, 7.9, 6.7, 6.2.
a What is the average score of the 7 judges? (Answer correct to 1 decimal place.)
b What is most noticeable about this set of scores?
c To eliminate bias the rules of diving state both the highest and lowest scores are to be disregarded
and the remaining five scores should be averaged. What is the final score given to this diver?
(Answer correct to 1 decimal place.)
5 WE2 Round each of the following off to the number of significant figures indicated.
a 24 587 258 (2) b 236 500 258 (1) c 8 782 568 (3)
d 4587 (1) e 654 200 (1) f 287.35 (3)
6 WE3 Round each of the following off to the number of significant figures indicated.
a 0.032 579 81 (2) b 0.003 658 (1) c 0.001 498 758 (3)
d 6.256 677 158 (4) e 68.254 (3) f 0.000 201 47 (1)
7 Write the distance 146 565 992 km correct to:
a 1 significant figure b 2 significant figures
c 3 significant figures d 5 significant figures.
8 MC When rounded to 2 significant figures, 0.035 81 is equal to:
A 0.03 B 0.04 C 0.035 D 0.036
9 MC The distance between two cities is 2986 km. Rounded to 2 significant figures, this distance becomes:
A 29 km B 2900 km c 2986.00 km d 3000 km
10 MC 45.5698 = 45.57 when it is rounded to which degree of accuracy?
A 2 decimal places b 4 significant figures
C Both A and B d Neither A nor B
Further development
11 By first rounding each number correct to one significant figure, estimate the value of each of the
following calculations.
a 183 + 58 b 78 × 11 c 632 + 169
d 1010 ÷ 98 e 17 × 19 f 476 ÷ 11 + 52
Chapter 7 • Measurement 233

g (51 + 68) × 12 h 68 + 19 × 9 i 5 × (78 − 59)
j 42 × 8 + 18 × 5 k 176 ÷ 18 + 689 l 473 × 276
12 MC The number 6.831 is rounded to 6.83. The number has been rounded correct to:
A 2 decimal places B three significant figures
C both A and B D neither A or B
13 MC A number rounded to three significant figures is 4.80. The number could have been:
A 4.79 B 4.794 C 4.798 D 4.81
14 The length of a block of land is measured in mm by 8 people who obtained the following results.
21 568, 21549, 21598, 21 572, 21 566, 21 581, 21 576, 21 570
a Find the average of the eight measurements and give your answer correct to four significant
figures.
b First round each measurement correct to four significant figures and then take the average of the
eight measurements giving your answer correct to four significant figures.
c Find the average of the original measurements if we first discard both the highest and the lowest
measurement. Give your answer correct to four significant figures.
7B Units of measurement and

scientific notation
By now you should be familiar with all of the main units of measuring length, mass and capacity.
Units of length
Units of length are based on the metre. There are four units kilometres
commonly used for measuring length: the millimetre (mm), × 1000 ÷ 1000
centimetre (cm), metre (m) and kilometre (km). metres
10 millimetres = 1 centimetre × 100 ÷ 100
100 centimetres = 1 metre centimetres
1000 metres = 1 kilometre
× 10 ÷ 10
The flow chart at right shows how to convert units of millimetres
measurement.
Units of mass
The same method can be used to convert units of mass. There tonnes
are three main units of mass: the gram (g), kilogram (kg) and × 1000 ÷ 1000
tonne (t). kilograms
1000 grams = 1 kilogram × 1000 ÷ 1000
1000 kilograms = 1 tonne grams
Remembering these conversions can be aided by a flow chart.
Units of capacity
Capacity is the measure of liquid volume. The three common kilolitres
units used to measure capacity are: millilitres (mL), litres (L) × 1000 ÷ 1000
and kilolitres (kL). litres
1000 millilitres = 1 litre × 1000 ÷ 1000
1000 litres = 1 kilolitre millilitres
The flow chart for converting these units is similar to that for
mass.
With these units of measurements it is important to recognise the use of prefixes.
The prefix ‘kilo’ means 1000 times larger: 1 kilometre = 1000 metres, 1 kilogram = 1000 grams and
so on.
Similarly, the prefix ‘milli’ means 1000 times smaller: 1000 millimetres = 1 metres,
1000 millilitres = 1 litre.

Worked Example 4
Complete each of the following:

a 30 mm = ____ cm b 3.2 kg = ___ g
c 0.65 t = ___ kg d 0.8 L = ___ mL.
Think Write
a Changing millimetres to centimetres: divide by 10. a 30 mm = 30 ÷ 10 cm

= 3 cm
b To change kilograms to grams: multiply by 1000. b 3.2 kg = 3.2 × 1000 g
= 3200 g
c To change tonnes to kilograms: multiply by 1000. c 0.65 t = 0.65 × 1000 kg
= 650 kg
d To change litres to millilitres: multiply by 1000. d 0.8 L = 0.8 × 1000 mL
= 800 mL
More complex are the units used for area. Area is expressed in square units with the exception of the
hectare.
Consider the case of a square with a side length of 1 cm which is the same as 10 mm.
1 cm 10 mm
The area can be calculated as 1 cm2 (using a side length of 1 cm) or 100 mm2 (using a side length of
10 mm). As they are in fact the same sized square it can be concluded that 1 cm2 = 100 mm2.
Now consider a square of side length 1 m or 100 cm.
1m 100 cm
The area can be calculated as 1 m2 (using a side length of 1 m) or 10 000 cm2

(using a side length of 100 cm). As they are also the same size it can be concluded
that 1 m2 = 10 000 cm2.
The area conversions are the square of the linear conversions.
One hectare is defined to be equivalent to a square of side length 100 m.
Therefore 1 ha = 10 000 m2. 100 m
km2
× 1 000 000 ÷ 10 000
hectares
× 10 000 ÷ 10 000
m2
× 10 000 ÷ 10 000
cm2
× 100 ÷ 100
mm2

Similarly we can find the conversion between units of volume by considering equal sized cubes.
1 cm 10 mm
The volume can be calculated as 1 cm3 (using a side length of 1 cm) or 1000 mm3 (using a side length
of 10 mm). As they are in fact the same sized cube it can be concluded that 1 cm3 = 1000 mm3.
1m 100 cm
The volume can be calculated as 1 m3(using a side length of 1 m) or 1 000 000 cm3 (using a side
length of 100 cm). As they are also the same size it can be concluded that 1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3.
÷ 103 ÷ 1003 ÷ 10003
Cubic Cubic Cubic Cubic

millimetres centimetres metres kilometres
(mm3) (cm3) (m3) (km3)
× 103 × 1003 × 10003
Worked example 5
Complete each of the following.

a 4 cm2 = ___ mm2 b 54.2 ha = ___ km2 c 8000 mm3 = ___ cm3 d 4.74 m3 = ___ cm3
Think WriTe
a 1 cm2 = 100 mm2 so multiply by 100. a 4 cm2 = 400 mm2
b 1 km2 = 100 ha so divide by 100. b 54.2 ha = 0.542 km2
c 1 cm3 = 1000 mm3 so divide by 1000. c 8000 mm3 = 8 cm3
d 1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3 so multiply by 1 000 000. d 4.74 m3 = 4 740 000 cm3
For very large or very small numbers we use significant figures together
with scientific notation. If you look up in the sky at night, the closest
star you can see is approximately 41 600 000 000 000 kilometres
away.
This measurement has been given correct to 3 significant figures. It
can also be written as 4.16 × 1013 km, which is in scientific notation
correct to 3 significant figures.
41 600 000 000 000 = 4.16 × 1013 and is entered as 4.16 EXP 13. The
appearance of this on the calculator display will vary with different
types of calculators.
An example of a very small measurement is the width of a human
hair. This may be 0.000 000 041 365 mm. In scientific notation, correct
to 2 significant figures, we would write this as 4.1 × 10−8 mm.

Worked example 6
Write each of the following measurements in scientific notation, correct to 3 significant figures.
a 25 473 269 000 km b 0.000 004 583 12 g c 499.85 L
Think WriTe
a 1 Look at the fourth significant figure. a

2 This digit is a 7, so the third significant figure must be
increased by 1.
3 The decimal place must be moved 10 places left to be 2.55 × 1010
between the first 2 significant figures.
b 1 Look at the fourth significant figure. b
2 This digit is a 3, so it and the following digits are
ignored.
3 The decimal place must be moved 6 places right to be 4.58 × 10−6
c 1 Look at the fourth significant figure. c
2 This digit is an 8, so the third significant figure must be
increased by 1. As this digit is a 9, the previous digit
must be increased until a number other than 9 is reached.
3 The decimal place must be moved 2 places left to be 5.00 × 102
Units of measurement and

exercise 7B
scientific notation
1 We 4 Copy and complete each of the following.
a 70 mm = cm b 600 cm = m c 5000 m = km
d 9 cm = mm e 12 m = cm f 9 km = m
g 86 mm = cm h 9.2 km = m i 2400 m = km
j 6.4 cm = mm k 11.25 m = cm l 2.2 cm = mm
2 Copy and complete the following.
a 8000 g = kg b 3000 kg = t c 7t= kg
d 5 kg = g e 9500 kg = t f 2350 g = kg
g 5.5 t = kg h 4.84 kg = g
a 2000 mL = L b 11 000 L = kL c 4 kL = L
d 15 L = mL e 4800 L = kL f 8650 mL = L
g 7.9 kL = L h 12.8 L = mL
diGiTal doC
a 240 s = min b 360 min = h c 72 h = days Spreadsheet
doc-1459
d 5 days = h e 7h= min f 3h= min Converting metric units
g 2 years = days h 3 years = months i 4 years = weeks
j 36 h = days k 1 week = h l 450 min = h
5 Richard is planning to have a garage built. The garage is 5.2 m long, 2.4 m wide and 2.5 m high. All
builders, however, work in millimetres. What are the dimensions of the garage, in millimetres?
6 Peter is a truck driver. When he is passing through a small country town a detour takes him to a road
that has a 4 tonne weight limit on all vehicles. Peter’s truck, including its load, is 3850 kg. How many
kilograms under the weight limit is the truck?

7 A factory is producing orange juice. One kilogram of oranges will produce 400 mL of freshly squeezed
juice. How many litres of orange juice can be produced from 4.5 tonnes of oranges?
8 We5 Complete each of the following.
a 23 400 m2 = _____ km2 b 0.06 cm2 = ____ mm2 c 5 500 000 cm2 = ____ m2
d 0.008 m2 = ____ cm2 e 0.73 km2 = ____ m2 f 200 mm2 = ____cm2
g 49 000 m2 = ___ ha h 5 ha = ____ km2
9 Complete the following.
a 3000 mm3 = ___ cm3 b 4.2 m3 = ___ cm3 c 40 cm3 = ___ mm3
d 6000 cm3 = ___ m3 e 82 500 mm3 = ___ cm3 f 1 m3 = ___ mm3
10 We6 Write each of the following measurements in scientific notation, correct to 2 significant figures.
a 471 591 400 km b 7 415 200 000 000 mm c 12 850 t
d 0.002 369 g e 0.222 221 L f 0.002 99 s
11 The distance between the planet Mars and the Sun is given by
the World Book Encyclopedia as 227 900 000 km.
a Do you think this answer is correct to the nearest kilometre?
b To how many significant figures has this distance been
given?
c Give this distance correct to 2 significant figures.
12 Copy and complete each of the following measurement
conversions.
a 2.4 × 106 mm = m b 9.1 × 108 m = km
c 4.6 × cm =
106 mm d 4.9 × 105 kg = t
e 3.45 × 10 t =
7 kg f 8.11 × 106 kg = g
g 8.9 × 107 L = kL h 1.09 × 1010 kL = L
i 7.1 × 103 L = mL
13 Scientists in a laboratory measure the diameter of a certain microbe to be 0.000 000 2 mm, and growing
by 0.000 000 000 5 mm/day. What will be the diameter of the microbe in 10 days? (Answer in scientific
notation.)
14 A light-year is defined as the distance travelled by light in one year. If light travels at 2.991 × 105 km/s,
calculate in scientific notation the size of a light-year, correct to 3 significant figures. (1 year = 365.26 days)
Further development
15 Builders generally work in millimetre measurements. A hardware store sells plasterboard in the
following sizes. Convert each measure to metres.
a 1800 mm × 900 mm b 2400 mm × 900 mm c 2700 mm × 1200 mm
16 A marathon is an athletic event run over a distance of 42.2 km. At the Olympic Games the event starts
and finishes with a lap of the stadium which has a circumference of 400 m. Calculate in metres the
distance that is run outside of the stadium.
17 Mario goes to the timberyard to buy three lengths of timber, 2100 mm, 65 cm and 4.25 m. Calculate the
cost of the timber if it sells for $7.60 per metre.
18 Write each of the following numbers in scientific notation, correct to three significant figures.
a 4378 b 56 450 867 c 87 444 000 000
d 230 098 e 0.01225 f 0.000 785 4
g 0.528 874 24 h 27.897 469 8
19 A rectangle measures (3.54 × 106) mm by (4.987 × 109) mm.
a Find the perimeter of the rectangle correct to two significant figures.
b Find the area of the rectangle correct to two significant figures.
20 A pipeline is built using sections measuring (5.82 × 104) mm. The total length of the pipeline is
(1.84 × 106) mm.
diGiTal doC
WorkSHEET 7.1 a How many full sections are needed?
doc-10326 b What will be the length of the final section needed to complete the pipeline?

7C Ratios
Zhong and Hasam invest money in a business. Zhong invests $25 000 and Hasam invests $30 000. The
business made a profit of $33 000 in the first year. If their profit is to be fairly shared, how much should
each of the partners receive? We need a simple method for comparing the investment of each partner. We
do this by using ratios.
A ratio is a comparison of two or more quantities measured in the same units. For example, a ratio
can be used to compare two quantities of money in dollars, two distances in kilometres or two masses in
grams. However, we can’t use a ratio to compare quantities of different types. For example, a ratio can’t
compare a distance with a mass.
A ratio can be simplified by dividing each quantity by the highest common factor (HCF). When this is
done, we say the ratio has been fully simplified. The ratio is then easier to use in solving problems.
Worked Example 7
Fully simplify the following ratios.

a 24 cm : 32 cm
b $3.60 : $2.10
c 3 m : 80 cm
Think Write
a 1 Write down the question, ignoring units. a 24 : 32

2 Divide both numbers by the HCF (8). 3 : 4
b 1 Write down the question. b $3.60 : $2.10
2 Write both money quantities as cents. 360 : 210
3 Divide by the HCF (30). 12 : 7
c 1 Write the question. c 3 m : 80 cm
2 Change metres to centimetres. 300 : 80
3 Divide by the HCF (20). 15 : 4
Once we are able to write ratios, we can use them to compare quantities. We do this by comparing the
two parts of the ratio. We can consider each part of the ratio as consisting of a number of shares. If we
know the value of one part of the ratio we can find the value of one share and hence find the other part of
the ratio. This is known as the unitary method.
Worked Example 8
Jane and Brooke’s heights are in the ratio 9 : 10. If Jane is 162 cm tall,
how tall is Brooke?
Think Write
1 Model the problem by comparing the Jane : Brooke

ratio to the known information. 9 : 10
162 cm : ???
2 Compare the known part of the ratio 9 shares = 162 cm
(Jane’s height).
3 Divide by 9 to find 1 share. 1 share = 18 cm
4 Multiply 1 share by 10 to find the unknown 10 shares = 180 cm
part of the ratio.
5 Give a written answer. Brooke is 180 cm tall.
Returning to the problem at the start of this section, we can use ratios to divide a quantity into
unequal parts.

Worked example 9
Zhong and Hasam invest money in a business. Zhong

invests $25 000 and Hasam invests $30 000.
a What is the ratio of these investments?
b If the business makes a profit of $33 000 in the
first year, how much should each of the partners
receive?
Think WriTe
a 1 Write down the whole ratio. a $25 000 : $30 000

2 Divide by the HCF (5000). 5:6
b 1 Sum the parts and make this equal to $33 000. b 11 shares = $33 000
2 Divide $33 000 by 11 to find 1 share. 1 share = $3000
3 Zhong receives 5 shares so multiply 1 share by 5. 5 shares = $15 000
4 Hasam receives 6 shares so multiply 1 share by 6. 6 shares = $18 000
5 Give a written answer. Zhong’s share is $15 000 and Hasam’s share
is $18 000.
exercise 7C ratios
1 We 7 Fully simplify each of the following ratios.
a $20 : $4 b 50 cm : 45 cm c 300 g : 800 g
d 560 km : 240 km e 35 t : 21 t f 375 mL : 500 mL
g 15c : 80c h 4 weeks : 52 weeks i 800 mm : 550 mm
j 1250 mL : 300 mL k 80 cm : 1 m l $1 : 60c
m 1 kg : 250 g n 400 mL : 1 L o 40 min : 1 h
p $4 : 20c q 750 kg : 2 t r 900 L : 3 kL
s 3 min : 45 s t 600 g : 10 kg u 1.25 L : 500 mL
v $10 : $6.50 w 3.6 km : 800 m x 3 t : 450 kg
2 mC The ratio 3 h : 45 min fully simplified is:
a 3 : 45 B 1 : 15 C 180 : 45 d 4:1
3 mC The ratio 80 cm : 2 km fully simplified is:
diGiTal doC a 40 : 1 B 1 : 2500 C 2:5 d 1 : 125
Spreadsheet
doc-1467 4 We 8 The ratio of boys to girls in a class is 5 : 4. If there are 15 boys in the class, how many girls
ratios are there?
5 In a school, the ratio of students to teachers is 35 : 2. If the school has 60 teachers, how many students
attend the school?
6 The ratio of the weight of a male elephant to a
female elephant is 10 : 9. If the male elephant
weighs 1400 kg, what does the female
elephant weigh?
7 In a cordial mixture, the ratio of syrup to water
is 2 : 15.
a How much water must be added to a 1 litre
bottle of syrup?
b How much cordial will this mixture make?
8 In a cricket match, the ratio of Australia’s score
to England’s score is 5 : 3. If England made
192 runs, how many did Australia make?

9 In Parliament, the ratio of Liberal members to Labor members is 4 : 3. If there are 63 Labor members of
the Parliament, how many Liberal members are there?
10 MC In her yearly exams, the ratio of Rita’s Maths mark to her English mark was 8 : 7. If she scored
56% in English, what did she score in Maths?
a 49% b 63% c 64% d 72%
11 Tom and Rachael divide $1000 in the ratio 7 : 3. How much should each receive?
12 Natalie and Kathy share a job in the ratio 3 : 2. If their job is a 35 hour per week job, how many hours
does each person work?
13 In a game of netball a team scored 45 goals. The goals were scored by the goal shooter and the goal
attack in the ratio 7 : 2. How many goals were scored by the goal attack?
14 A game of AFL at the Sydney Olympic Stadium attracts a crowd of 80 000 people. The ratio of Sydney
supporters to Collingwood supporters is 11 : 5. How many Collingwood supporters are at the game?
15 MC A fruit punch drink is to be made for a party. It consists of orange juice, pineapple juice and apple
juice in the ratio 5 : 3 : 2. If we want to fill a 9 litre bucket with the punch, how much pineapple juice
will be needed?
a 0.9 L b 2.7 L c 3 L d 5 L
16 A radio station plays 14 songs in one hour. Of these, 4 are by Australian artists.
a What is the ratio of Australian music to overseas music played during this hour?
b If during a week this ratio is maintained, how many tracks by Australian artists will be played if a
total of 2100 tracks are played?
17 WE 9 Sandra and Kevin purchase a Lotto entry. The entry costs $24.80. Sandra puts in $15.50 and
Kevin the rest.
a How much does Kevin put towards the cost of the Lotto entry?
b What is the ratio of their contributions?
c If the entry wins a prize of $640 000 and they agree to share the winnings in the same ratio as
their contributions, how much should each receive?
18 A concrete mix is made from sand, cement and gravel in the ratio 3 : 2 : 1. How much of each component
will be needed to make 150 kg of concrete?
19 At the Commonwealth Games, Australia won 60 gold, 75 silver and 30 bronze medals.
a Simplify the ratio of gold : silver : bronze medals.
b If at the Olympic Games medals were won in the same ratio, how many gold medals would be
won if Australia won a total of 33 medals?

20 Monica and Vicky share a two bedroom flat. Monica’s bedroom has an area of 15 m2, while Vicky’s has
an area of 12 m2.
a What is the ratio of the area of Vicky’s bedroom to Monica’s?
b The rent on this flat is $180 per week and they agree that the rent should be split in the ratio of
their bedroom areas. How much should they each contribute to the rent?

Further development
21 The ratio of Michael’s height to Neville’s height is 4 : 5 and the ratio of Neville’s height to Raymond’s
height is 4 : 5. Find the ratio of Michael’s height to Raymond’s height.
22 The ratio of Vicky’s earnings to Kerrie’s earnings is 6 : 5. The ratio of Kerrie’s earnings to Sonya’s
earnings is 8 : 5. Given that Vicky earned $720 calculate the amount that Kerrie earned.
23 Fully simplify each of the following ratios.
1 1 1
a 0.8 : 0.36 b 3% : 0.5% c : d 0.9 : 1 4
3 4
1 2 1 7
e 65% : 1 f :14 g 50% : 1.4 : h 0.07 : 49%
2 3 8
1 1
24 To make a sauce, 4of a cup of concentrate is to be mixed with cups of water. This mixture is in a
22
recipe that serves 4 people.
2
a In a restaurant a large mixture is being made that uses of a cup of concentrate. How much water
3
needs to be added?
b How many people can be served using the mixture?
25 Two stroke petrol of varying blends is made by mixing petrol and oil in different ratios.
a Find the amount of petrol to be added to 600 mL of oil in a 16 : 1 blend.
b A second blend is 32 : 1. Find the amount of oil in 6.6 L of this fuel.
c One litre of each blend is mixed. Find the ratio of the combination fuel.
d How much 32 : 1 blend must be added to one litre of the 16 : 1 blend to make a 20 : 1 blend?
26 Given a : b = 4 : 5 and b : c = 4 : 7 find the ratio c : a.
7d rates
It is the last day of a test cricket match between Australia and India. To win the match, Australia needs to
make 280 runs in 80 overs. How many runs per over do they need to score?
This question requires us to work with rates. A rate is a comparison of two quantities of a different
type. In this example we need to compare runs with overs.

Worked Example 10
What quantities are being compared in each of the following rates?

a 60 km/h b $2.50/kg c 1500 kL/year
Think Write
a A kilometre is a measure of distance. An hour is a a 60 km/h compares distance with time.

measure of time.
b $2.50 is an amount of money. Kilograms is a b $2.50/kg compares money with mass.
measure of mass.
c A kilolitre is a measure of capacity. Years are a c 1500 kL/year compares capacity with time.
measure of time.
Rates, like ratios, often need to be simplified. To simplify a rate, we divide the first quantity by the
second quantity. A rate is always simplified to a single unit.
Worked Example 11
Simplify each of the following rates fully.

a 240 km in 3 hours b $29.96 for 40 litres c 280 runs in 80 overs
Think Write
a 1 Rewrite the original rate. a 240 km in 3 hours

2 Divide the first quantity by the second = 80 km in 1 hour
quantity. (240 ÷ 3)
3 Write the answer as a simplified rate. = 80 km/h
b 1 Rewrite the original rate. b $29.96 for 40 litres
2 Divide the first quantity by the second = $0.749 for 1 litre
quantity. (29.96 ÷ 40)
3 Write the answer as a simplified rate. = 74.9 c/L
c 1 Rewrite the original rate. c 280 runs in 80 overs
2 Divide the first quantity by the second = 3.5 runs in 1 over
quantity. (280 ÷ 80)
3 Write the answer as a simplified rate. = 3.5 runs/over
Once we are able to simplify rates, we can use them to solve problems. Solving problems usually
involves multiplying or dividing quantities and rates. In each example, we need to carefully think about
which of these we need to do and clearly set out the working steps.
Worked Example 12
Giovanni is a plumber who charges $22.50/h for labour. What will be his labour charge for a job
that takes 4 hours?
Think Write
1 $22.50 for 1 hour, so multiply by 4 to calculate $22.50 × 4 = $90.00

the labour charge.
2 Give a written answer. Giovanni charges $90.00 for 4 hours labour.
A common example of where a rate must be used is when modifying a recipe for a set number of
people. A recipe may be given to serve 4 people but we may need to modify it to serve, say, 6. In such a
1
case, each ingredient would need to be multiplied by 1 2 .

Worked Example 13
Below are the ingredients to make a banana pudding for 6 people.

4 bananas 10 mL lemon juice 2 eggs
20 g castor sugar 250 g coconut 20 g apricot jam
Janice is having 9 people to dinner. Modify this recipe to serve 9.
Think Write
1 Divide 9 by 6 to calculate the Multiplication factor = 9 ÷ 6

1
multiplication factor. = 12
1 1
2 Multiply each ingredient by 1 2 . b ananas = 4 × 1 12 lemon juice = 10 mL × 1 2
= 6 = 15 mL
eggs = 2 × 1 1 castor sugar = 20 g × 1 12
2
= 3 = 30 g
1 1
coconut = 250 g × 1 2 apricot jam = 20 g × 1 2
= 375 g = 30 g
In a few examples a rate can compare two measurements of the same type. For example, a
concentration of medicine may contain a mass/weight rate or a mass/volume rate. This is where we are
measuring the concentration of a certain substance. The concentration is the amount of one substance
that is contained within another.
Worked Example 14
The concentration of pentoxyverine citrate in a cough mixture is 15 mg/100 mL. A person should
not consume more than 9 mg of pentoxyverine citrate per day. If one dose of the cough medicine is
10 mL, what is the maximum number of doses a person can have per day?
Think Write
1 Calculate the amount of pentoxyverine 1 dose = 10 mL, so 100 mL = 10 doses

citrate in one dose of cough mixture. 15 mg of pentoxyverine in 100 mL of cough mixture
means 15 mg of pentoxyverine citrate in 10 doses or
1.5 mg of pentoxyverine citrate in 1 dose.
2 Divide the maximum amount of 9 ÷ 1.5 = 6
pentoxyverine citrate that can be
consumed per day by the amount in
each dose.
3 Give a written answer. A person can have a maximum of 6 doses of cough
mixture per day.
We need to be able to use the conversion facts for measurement to convert between rates. We should
be able to convert km/h to m/s and other similar rates. This is done by changing each unit separately at
each stage of the conversion while keeping the equivalent rate.
Worked Example 15
Convert the speed 20 m/s into km/h.

Think Write
1 Convert 20 m/s to m/min by multiplying 20 m/s = 1200 m/min

by 60.
2 Convert 1200 m/min to m/h by multiplying = 72 000 m/h
by 60.
3 Convert 72 000 m/h to km/h by dividing = 72 km/h
by 1000.

Exercise 7D Rates
1 WE10 What quantities are being compared in each of the following rates?
a 80 km/h b $2.50/kg c $12.40/h
d 50 g/L e 4 goals/game f 2 °C/min
g 5.1 m/s h 200 g/m2 i 78.9 c/L
j 6 s/kg k 40 L/100 km l 2 m/year
2 WE11 Simplify each of the following rates (where necessary answer to 1 decimal place).
a 270 km in 3 hours b $32 for 8 kg c 250 runs in 50 overs
d 10 degrees in 2 h e $65 for 4 h f 90 m2 with 4 kg
g 600 m in 80 s h $223 in 5 days i 500 km on 65 L
j 23 goals in 8 games k 400 kL for 32 days l $42.68 for 55 L
3 MC George buys 600 g of bacon at the delicatessen for $5.94. As a rate this is equal to:
A $3.56/kg B 99 c/kg C $9.90/kg D $35.64/kg
4 Josie takes her car to the mechanic for a service. The mechanic worked on the car and charged Josie
$68.50 for 2 12 hours labour. At what rate has she been charged for labour?
5 After 15 minutes of hard exercise, Roula’s heart beat 520 times in the next 4 minutes. What is her heart
rate in beats per minute?
6 Judy wants to leave Melbourne at 6:00 am bound for Sydney, a distance of 1040 km. She needs to be in
Sydney by 8:00 pm that evening. If she allows for 2 hours as rest breaks, what speed must she average
to arrive in time? (Answer to the nearest whole number.)
7 The race record for the Melbourne Cup is 3 min 16.9 s held by Kingston Rule. The Melbourne Cup is
run over 3200 m.
How many seconds did Kingston Rule take?

a
What was the average speed of Kingston Rule in metres per second, to 1 decimal place?
b
8 Kristel’s car is filled with petrol. After travelling 345.6 km she found that her car had used 48 L of
petrol. What was the fuel consumption of Kristel’s car in km/L?
9 More commonly, fuel consumption is expressed in L/100 km. A car travels 400 km on 48 L of petrol.
What would be the fuel consumption in L/100 km?
10 MC Hugo’s car used 56 litres of petrol on a trip of 400 km.
Statement 1: Hugo’s fuel consumption is 7.14 km/L, correct to 2 decimal places.
Statement 2: Hugo’s fuel consumption is 14 L/100 km.
Which of the above statements is true?
A 1 only B 2 only C Both 1 and 2 D Neither 1 nor 2
11 WE12 Jodie is paid $11.23 per hour for her job at the bank. How much does she earn in a week if she
works 42 hours?

12 A patient in hospital is placed on an intravenous drip. The medication is given to the patient at a rate of
15 drips/min. Each drip is 0.25 mL. How much medication will the patient receive in 4 hours?
13 We13 Below are the ingredients for seafood mornay.
600 g of rice 300 g of pink salmon 1 egg
60 g of butter 30 g of plain flour 450 mL of milk
90 g of shredded cheese 75 g of breadcrumbs
This recipe serves 6 people. Modify the recipe so that it will serve 8 people.
14 The ingredients below make 15 chocolate cookies.
300 g of brown sugar 90 g of oil 30 g of cocoa powder
120 g of self-raising flour 120 g of plain flour 90 g of choc bits
60 g of white chocolate
Modify the recipe to make 10 chocolate cookies.
15 We14 A sore throat treatment contains 7.5 g/100 mL of povidone. If the intake of povidone must not
exceed 3 grams per day and each dose of the sore throat treatment is 5 mL, calculate the maximum
number of doses a person can take each day.
16 A dietary supplement for cattle requires that the bull be fed 2.5 g/kg weight. Calculate the amount of
the dietary supplement required for a 760 kg bull.
17 A river is flowing at a rate of 2 m per second. Given that every metre of river contains 3500 litres of
water, calculate the amount of water that flows through the mouth of the river each hour.
18 A swimming pool has a volume of 150 m3. Given that 1 m3 = 1000 L of water, calculate the length of
time that it will take to fill a pool using a hose with a flow rate of 40 L/min.
19 We15 Convert a speed of 15 m/s to km/h.
20 Convert each of the following rates.
a 90 km/h to m/s b 2.5 m/s to km/h
c 8 mL/m to L/km d 8 km/L to L/100 km
diGiTal doC
Spreadsheet 21 mC Which of the following is the most economical fuel consumption?
doc-1464
Speed converter a 10 km/L B 10 L/100 km
C 12 km/L d 12 L/100 km
22 The instructions on a 1 kg bag of lawn food say to use 125 g/m2 of lawn. Nora buys 5 bags of the lawn
food. Does she have enough to do a lawn that is 43 m2 in area? Explain your answer.
23 A car uses 45 L of petrol on a 432 km trip.
a Write the fuel consumption in km/L.
b How much fuel will the car use on a 324 km trip at the same rate?
Further development
24 A car can travel at an economy rate of 14.5 L/100 km of city driving and 9.6 L/100 km of country
driving.
a Calculate the petrol used on a journey of 460 km of which 330 km was country driving.
b Find the overall economy rate for the journey.
25 A Year 7 science class makes two salt water solutions. The first solution has 20 g of salt per litre and
the second solution has 50 g of salt per litre. If 2 litres of the first solution is mixed with 5 litres of the
second solution find the number of grams per litre of salt in the mixture.
26 7500 cars can pass along a toll road each hour. The toll for the road is $4.50.
a Express the maximum earnings for the road as a rate per hour.
b Given that the road operates at capacity for 4 hours per day, 75% capacity for 6 hours per day and
40% capacity for 12 hours per day calculate the daily earnings for the road.
27 The instructions on a container of weed killer say to mix 10 grams of the powder with 5 litres of water.
This mixture will cover an area of 30 m2.
a Express the mixture as a rate in simplest form.
b Express the coverage of the solution as a rate in simplest form.
c How much powder should be added to 14 litres of water?
d What area will the solution in part c cover?
e The powder can be bought in a 125 g jar. Once mixed what area will this cover?

28 A certain bathroom cleaner mixes 25 grams of concentrate with 2 litres of water.
a Calculate the amount of water to be mixed with 20 grams of the concentrate.
b For a particular bathroom mould, the instructions say to triple the concentrate. To treat this mould
how much of the concentrate should be added to 500 mL of water?
29 A farm irrigation system requires 100 megalitres of water per year to water a 24 hectare farm. The
water supply for the farm can provide 400 000 L of water per day.
a Express the water requirement as a rate in litres per hectare per day. (Give your answer correct to
three significant figures.)
b The farmer hopes to expand his farm but can access no further water. Calculate the maximum area
of the farm that can be irrigated using the existing system. Give your answer to the nearest hectare.
7E Percentage change

You should be familiar with increasing and decreasing an amount by a percentage. We will now examine
consecutive percentage changes.
Consider the case of a pair of rollerblades that is usually priced at $120. The price rises by 20% but
then a discount of 20% is applied. The price does not revert to $120 because the increase and decrease
are 20% of different amounts.
Worked Example 16
The price of a pair of rollerblades is $120. The price is increased by 20% and then decreased by
20%. Calculate the new price of the rollerblades.
Think Write
1 Increase $120 by 20%. 120% of $120

= 120 ÷ 100 × $120
= $144
2 Decrease $144 by 20%. 80% of $144
= 80 ÷ 100 × $144
= $115.20

Exercise 7E Percentage change
1 WE16 The cost of a stereo system is $750. The price is increased by 10% and then decreased by 10%.
Calculate the new price of the stereo.
2 Calculate each of the following.
a Increase 25 km by 5% and decrease the result by 5%.
b Decrease 560 kg by 15% and then increase the result by 15%.
c Increase 4 hours by 40% and then decrease the result by 40%.
3 The time taken to travel between two towns is 2 hours. A new section of road decreases the travelling
time by 5%.
a Calculate the new travelling time between the two
towns.
b An accident then increases the travelling time on a
particular day by 20%. Calculate the time taken to travel
between the two towns.
4 Increase $150 by 10% and then increase the result by 10%.
5 Decrease 250 kg by 5% and then decrease the result by 5%.
6 Are each of the following calculations equal?
a 50 litres is increased by 10% and then the result is
increased by 20%.
b 50 litres is increased by 20% and then the result is
increased by 10%.
7 A carpenter purchases $600 worth of items from a hardware
store. He receives a 5% discount for paying cash and a
further 2.5% trade discount. Calculate what he pays for the
items.
8 The price of a $200 tool kit is increased by 25%.
a Calculate the new price of the tool kit.
b The price of the tool kit is then reduced back to $200
during a sale. Calculate the percentage discount that has been applied.
9 Increase $280 by 10% and decrease the result by 5%.
10 Decrease $13.50 by 20% and then increase the result by 20%.
Further development
11 Find the single percentage increase that is equivalent to successive increases of 15% and 5%.
12 An item is increased in price by 10%. Find the percentage discount that is applied to reduce the item
back to its original price.

13 Tori claims that if an item is discounted by 5% and then 10% it does not matter what order the
discounts are applied. Is Tori correct? Use calculations to justify your answer.
14 Find the single discount equivalent to successive discounts of 20% and 10%.
15 If there is a percentage increase and decrease of the same percentage, is the overall effect an increase or
decrease? Does it matter the order in which the operations are applied. diGiTal doC
WorkSHEET 7.2
16 How many price increases of 10% are needed to double the original price of an object? doc-10327

Summary
measurements as • All measurements are approximations.
approximations • Every measuring instrument is limited in the degree of accuracy that it allows.
• To obtain greater accuracy, a measurement should be repeated several times.
• Rounding to a given number of significant figures is an alternative to rounding to a given number
of decimal places, and is more appropriate for large numbers.
• Zeros at the beginning or end of any number are not significant but are used to fill place values.
• The method of rounding off for significant figures is the same as rounding for decimal places. Look
at the first digit after the cut off point. If this digit is 5 or greater the previous digit is increased by 1,
other digits are ignored, and zeros are put in their place if necessary to fill place values.
Units of measurement • Measures of length: 10 mm = 1 cm, 100 cm = 1 m, 1000 m = 1 km
and scientific notation • Measures of mass: 1000 g = 1 kg, 1000 kg = 1 t
• Measures of capacity: 1000 mL = 1 L, 1000 L = 1 kL
• Measures of area: 1 cm2 = 100 mm2, 1 m2 = 10 000 cm2, 1 ha = 10 000 m2, 1 km2 = 100 ha
• Measures of volume: 1 cm3 = 1000 mm3, 1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3
• Large numbers will be written in scientific notation and rounded to a set number of significant
figures.
• For such numbers move the decimal point between the first two significant figures and multiply by
the corresponding power of 10 to the number of places moved. This power of 10 will be positive
for numbers greater than 1 and negative for numbers between 0 and 1.
• When writing the result to such a question do not write all digits, round to the given or an
appropriate number of decimal places.
ratios • A ratio is a comparison of two quantities of the same type.
• Ratios often need to be simplified, and this is done by dividing each part by the highest common
factor.
• When a quantity needs to be divided in a given ratio, we add the parts of the ratio to find the total
number of shares, then divide the quantity by this number to find the value of one share. Each part
of the ratio can then be calculated by multiplying this by the number of shares in each part.
rates • A rate is a comparison of two quantities of different types.
• To simplify a rate, we compare the first quantity with one unit of the second quantity.
• Many problems involve using rates and these questions must be read carefully to determine
whether to multiply or divide to solve the problem.
percentage change • Percentage change involves increasing or decreasing an amount by a percentage.
• When more than one percentage change is to be done, each must be carried out separately.

Chapter review
1 One litre of water has a mass of 1 kg. What would be the mass of 1 mL of water?
m U lTip l e
a 1g B 10 g C 100 g d unknown C ho iC e
2 The diameter of a human hair is 0.000 045 6 mm. In scientific notation this is equal to:
a 4.56 × 10−4 B 4.56 × 10−5 C 4.56 × 104 d 4.56 × 105
3 Which of the following is the greatest speed?
a 100 km/h B 30 m/s C 1.5 km/min d 2500 km/day
4 The ratio of a tree’s height to its girth is 15 : 4. If the height of the tree is 26.25 m, the girth is:
a 1.75 m B 6.5625 m C 7m d 98.4375 m
1 The girth of a tree is measured by five people to be 152 cm, 160 cm, 158 cm, 155 cm, 156 cm. What is S ho rT
a n S W er
the best measurement that should be given for the tree’s girth?
2 A group of surveyors measure the height of a bridge to be 32.6 m, 32.7 m, 32.5 m, 35.6 m, 32.7 m, 32.4 m.
a Find the average of their readings.
b It is suggested that one surveyor made a large error in her measurement and the measurement should
be discarded. What would be the average reading if the greatest outlying score is disregarded?
3 Write each of the following correct to the number of significant figures stated in the brackets.
a 3 458 258 [2] b 49 718 564 [4] c 0.000 097 252 [2] d 1.587 362 458 5 [4]
4 Copy and complete each of the following.
a 90 mm = cm b 6m= cm c 6.7 km = m
d 4800 m = km e 6.9 cm = mm f 11.25 m = cm
g 9000 g = kg h 9500 kg = t i 4.84 kg = g
j 11 000 L = kL k 4550 mL = L l 12.8 L = mL
m 300 s = min
5 An elevator has a capacity of 1.3 tonnes. If 18 people who each weigh an average of 66 kg are on the
elevator, how much under the capacity is the total weight?
6 Write each of the following measurements in scientific notation.
a 60 000 000 km b 400 000 mm c 147 000 000 m
d 643 000 t e 0.8739 t f 0.000 574 g
g 0.002 874 mL h 0.005 874 g
7 Copy and complete each of the following.
a 5.2 × 105 cm = mm b 9.1 × 107 g = kg c 3.45 × 107 t = kg
8 Simplify each of the following ratios.
a 9 : 12 b 64 : 48 c 90 m : 150 m
d 40 min : 25 min e $5 : 80c f 500 m : 3 km
g 40 min : 3 h h 600 g : 2 kg
9 Jane and Allan share an amount of money in the ratio 5 : 3. If Jane’s share of the money is $600, what is
Allan’s share?
10 Divide $2000 in the ratio 3 : 7.
11 Yasmin and Carrie purchase a lottery ticket for $5. Yasmin paid $3.50 and Carrie paid $1.50 for the ticket.
a What is the ratio of their investments in the ticket?
b If the ticket won $250 000, how much should each receive?
12 Simplify each of the following rates.
a $2.50 for 10 L b 80 km in 2 h c $42 for 5 h d 3 h for 2 kg
13 A car is travelling at 90 km/h. How far will it travel in 7 hours at this rate?
14 Eric earns $12.45/h. How many hours does he need to work to earn more than $400?
15 If petrol costs $1.27/L, how much petrol can be bought for $40?
16 The cost of a refrigerator is $900. The price is then increased by the manufacturer by 10%. When on
sale, the refrigerator is sold at a discount of 10%. Calculate the sale price of the refrigerator.

e x T ended 1 On a set of building plans the length of a rectangular house is given as 20 500 mm.
r e SponS e a State this length in metres.
b Daryl measures the length of the house in metres, correct to 1 decimal place. State the maximum
error of his measurement in millimetres.
c Calculate the maximum percentage error in Daryl’s measurement.
d The width of the house is given as 8000 mm. Daryl calculates the area of the house as
164 000 000 mm2. Give this measurement in scientific notation.
2 At a certain point in the orbit of the planets Earth and Mars, the distance for a spacecraft to travel from
Earth to Mars is 55 750 450 km.
a Give this distance correct to 3 significant figures.
b Calculate the percentage error when the distance is rounded to 3 significant figures. Give the
diGiTal doC percentage error correct to 1 significant figure.
Test Yourself
c The spacecraft takes 2 years to travel to Mars. Calculate the speed of the spacecraft in kilometres
doc-10328
Chapter 7 per hour, correct to 2 significant figures.

ICT activities
7B Units of measurement and scientific notation 7e percentage change
diGiTal doCS diGiTal doC
• Spreadsheet (doc-1459): Converting metric units (page 237) • WorkSHEET 7.2 (doc-10327): Apply your knowledge of measurement
• WorkSHEET 7.1 (doc-10326): Apply your knowledge of measurement to questions. (page 249)
Chapter review
7C ratios diGiTal doC
diGiTal doC • Test Yourself Chapter 7 (doc 10328): Take the end-of-chapter test to
• Spreadsheet (doc-1467): Ratios (page 240) check your progress. (page 252)
7d rates To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au

diGiTal doC
• Spreadsheet (doc-1464): Speed converter (page 246)

Answers CHAPTER 7
meaSUremenT c 4.6 × 107 mm d 4.9 × 102 t i Money/capacity j Time/mass
exercise 7a
e 3.45 × 1010 kg f 8.11 × 109 g k Capacity/distance l Distance/time
measurements as
g 8.9 × 104 kL h 1.09 × 1013 L 2 a 90 km/h b $4/kg
approximations i 7.1 × 106 mL
1 750.4 mL
c 5 runs/over d 5°/h
13 2.05 × 10−7 mm e $16.25/h f 22.5 m2/kg
2 79.25 km 14 9.44 × 1012 km g 7.5 m/s h $44.60/day
3 36.275 secs 15 a 1.8 m × 0.9 m
4 a 6.8 i 7.7 km/L j 2.875 goals/game
b 2.4 m × 0.9 m
b One score is much greater than all others. k 12.5 kL/day l 77.6 c/L
c 2.7 m × 1.2 m
c 6.7 3 C
16 41 400 m
5 a 25 000 000 b 200 000 000 17 $53.20 4 $27.40/h
c 8 780 000 d 5000 18 a 4.38 × 103 b 5.65 × 107 5 130 beats/min
e 700 000 f 287 c 8.74 × 1010 d 2.30 × 105 6 87 km/h
6 a 0.033 b 0.004 e 1.23 × 10−2 f 7.85 × 10−4 7 a 196.9 s b 16.3 m/s
c 0.001 50 d 6.257 8 7.2 km/L
g 5.29 × 10−1 h 2.79 × 101
e 68.3 f 0.0002 9 12 L/100 km
19 a 1.0 × 1010 b 1.8 × 1016
7 a 100 000 000 km b 150 000 000 km 10 C
20 a 31 b 35 800 mm
c 147 000 000 km d 146 570 000 km 11 $471.66
8 D exercise 7C ratios 12 900 mL
9 D 1 a 5:1 b 10 : 9 c 3:8 13 800 g of rice
10 C d 7:3 e 5:3 f 3:4 400 g of pink salmon
11 a 260 b 800 c 800 g 3 : 16 h 1 : 13 i 16 : 11 1 egg (nearest whole number)
d 10 e 400 f 100 j 25 : 6 k 4:5 l 5:3 80 g of butter 40 g of plain flour
g 1200 h 270 i 100 m 4:1 n 2:5 o 2:3 600 mL of milk 120 g of shredded cheese
j 420 k 710 l 150 000 p 20 : 1 q 3:8 r 3 : 10 100 g of breadcrumbs
12 C s 4:1 t 3 : 50 u 5:2 14 200 g of brown sugar
13 C v 20 : 13 w 9:2 x 20 : 3 60 g of oil
14 a 21 570 mm b 21 570 mm
2 D 20 g of cocoa powder
c 21 570 mm
3 B 80 g of self-raising flour
4 12 80 g of plain flour
exercise 7B Units of measurement and
5 1050 60 g of choc bits
scientific notation 6 1260 kg 40 g of white chocolate
1 a 7 cm b 6m c 5 km
7 a 7.5 L b 8.5 L 15 8
d 90 mm e 1200 cm f 9000 m
8 320 16 1.9 kg
g 8.6 cm h 9200 m i 2.4 km
9 84 17 25 200 000 L
j 64 mm k 1125 cm l 22 mm
10 C 18 62 hours 30 minutes
2 a 8 kg b 3t c 7000 kg
11 Tom gets $700 and Rachael gets $300. 19 54 km/h
d 5000 g e 9.5 t f 2.35 kg
12 Natalie works 21 hours and Kathy works 20 a 25 m/s b 9 km/h
g 5500 kg h 4840 g
14 hours. c 8 L/km d 12.5 L/100 km
3 a 2L b 11 kL c 4000 L 13 10
d 15 000 mL e 4.8 kL f 8.65 L 21 C
14 25 000
g 7900 L h 12 800 mL 22 No, she has enough lawn food for only
15 B
4 a 4 min b 6h c 3 days 40 m2.
16 a 2:5 b 600
d 120 h e 420 min f 180 min 23 a 9.6 km/L b 33.75 L
17 a $9.30 b 5:3
g 730 or 731 days 24 a 50.53 L b 11 L / 100 km
c Sandra — $400 000, Kevin — $240 000
h 36 months
1
i 208 weeks j 1 days 25 41.4 g / L
18 Sand 75 kg, cement 50 kg and gravel
1 2 26 a $33 750 b $448 875
k 168 h l 7 h 25 kg
2
19 a 4:5:2 b 12 27 a 2g/L
5 5200 mm long, 2400 mm wide and b 6 m2 / L (or 0.167 L /m2)
20 a 4:5
2500 mm high c 28 g d 84 m2
b Vicky pays $80 and Monica pays $100.
6 150 kg e 375 m2
21 16 : 25
7 1800 L 28 a 1.6 L b 18.75 g
22 $375
8 a 0.0234 km2 b 6 mm2 c 550 m2 29 a 11 400 L / ha / day
d 80 cm2 e 730 000 m2 f 2 cm2 23 a 20 : 9 b 6:1 c 4:3
b 35 ha
g 4.9 ha h 0.05 km2 d 18 : 25 e 13 : 30 f 8 : 15
9 a 3 cm3 b 4 200 000 cm3 g 20 : 56 : 35 h 1:7
exercise 7e percentage change
c 40 000 mm3 d 0.006 m3 24 a 6 3
2
b 10 1 $742.50
e 82.5 cm3 f 1 000 000 000 mm3 2 a 24.9375 km b 547.4 kg
25 a 9.6 L b 200 mL
10 a 4.7 × 108 km b 7.4 × 1012 mm c 3 h 21 min 36 s
c 24 : 1 d 647 mL
c 1.3 × 10 t
4
d 2.4 × 10−3 g 3 a 1 h 54 min b 2 h 16 min 48 s
26 35 : 16
e 2.2 × 10−1 L f 3 × 10−3 s 4 $181.50
11 a No. It is accurate to the nearest hundred exercise 7d rates 5 225.625 kg
thousand kilometres. 1 a Distance/time b Money/mass 6 Yes, each equals 66 L.
b 4 c Money/time d Mass/capacity 7 $555.75
c 230 000 000 km e Goals/games f Temperature/time 8 a $250 b 20%
12 a 2.4 × 103 m b 9.1 × 105 km g Distance/time h Mass/area 9 $292.60

10 $12.96 11 20.75% 4 a 9 cm b 600 cm c 6700 m 10 $600 : $1400
12 9.09% d 4.8 km e 69 mm f 1125 cm 11 a 7 : 3
13 Tori is correct. Check with your teacher to g 9 kg h 9.5 t i 4840 g b Yasmin $175 000, Carrie $75 000
see if appropriate calculations have been j 11 kL k 4.55 L l 12 800 mL 12 a 25 c/L b 40 km/h
used. m 5 min c $8.40/h d 1.5 h/kg
14 28% 5 112 kg 13 630 km
15 The overall effect is a decrease and the 14 33 h
6 a 6 × 107 km b 4 × 105 mm
order does not matter. 15 31.5 L
c 1.47 × 108 m d 6.43 × 105 t
16 8 16 $891
e 8.739 × 10−1 t f 5.74 × 10−4 g
g 2.874 × 10−3 mL h 5.874 × 10−3 g
ChapTer reVieW
7 a 5.2 × 106 mm exTended reSponSe
mUlTiple ChoiCe b 9.1 × 104 kg 1 a 20.5 m
1A 2 B 3 B 4 C c 3.45 × 1010 kg b 50 mm
ShorT anSWer 8 a 3:4 b 4:3 c 0.24%
1 156 cm
c 3:5 d 8:5 d 1.64 × 108
2 a 33.1 m b 32.6 m e 25 : 4 f 1:6 2 a 55 800 000 km
3 a 3 500 000 b 49 720 000 g 2:9 h 3 : 10 b 0.09%
c 0.000 097 d 1.587 9 $360 c 3200 km/h

Chapter 8
Perimeter, area and volume
Chapter ContentS
8a Perimeter of plane shapes
8B Area of plane shapes
8C Field diagrams
8D Applications of area
8e Volume of prisms
8a perimeter of plane shapes

The perimeter of a plane figure is the total length of the outside boundary of that figure. For some
figures, a formula can be used to calculate the perimeter. In others, the lengths of each side need to be
added.
Shape Square Rectangle Circle

l
l r
b
Formula for P = 4l, where l is the side P = 2(l + b), where l is the P = Circumference
calculating length length and b is the breadth C = 2π r, where r is the
perimeter or width radius
As 2r = d (diameter),
C = πd
All other shapes have their perimeters calculated by adding their side lengths.
WorkeD exaMple 1
Find the perimeter of each of the following shapes. (Where appropriate, state your answer correct
to 2 decimal places.)
a 12 cm b c
7 cm
5 cm
5 cm
think Write
a The shown shape is a parallelogram. Add the side a P = 5 + 12 + 5 + 12

lengths. = 34 cm
Chapter 8 • Perimeter, area and volume 257

b 1 The given shape is a circle, whose radius is b C = 2π r
given. Write the formula for the circumference
that contains the radius.
2 Identify the value of r. r=7
3 Substitute the values of r and π into the C=2×π×7
formula and use a calculator to evaluate, = 43.98 cm
correct to 2 decimal places.
c The shape is a regular hexagon. There are 6 sides c P=6×5
of equal length, so the perimeter is 6 times the side = 30 cm
length.
Some figures will require a calculation to be made in relation to one or more sides.
WorkeD exaMple 2
Find the perimeter of the following shape, correct to 2 decimal places.
7 cm 120°
think Write
1 The perimeter consists of two straight sides Curved length = 120

360
×C
and an arc. The length of the arc is 120
360
of the = 120 × 2πr
360
circumference of a circle with radius 7 cm.
= 120
360
×2×π×7
= 14.66 cm
2 Add the arc length and the length of the straight P = 14.66 + 7 + 7
sides. = 28.66 cm
This calculation may extend to the use of Pythagoras’ theorem to find one of the side lengths before
finding the perimeter.
WorkeD exaMple 3
Find the length of side PQ in triangle PQR, correct to 3 significant R

figures.
16 m
Find the perimeter of triangle PQR, correct to 3 significant 9m
figures.
P a Q
think Write
1 Write Pythagoras’ theorem (a2 + b2 = c2). a2 = c2 − b2

2 Substitute the lengths of the known sides. a2 = 162 − 92
3 Evaluate the expression. = 256 − 81
= 175
4 Find the answer by finding the square root. a = 175
= 13.2 m
5 Add all sides together to find the perimeter. P = 16 + 9 + 13.2
= 38.2 m

Exercise 8A Perimeter of plane shapes
WE1 Where appropriate in this exercise, give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
1 Find the perimeter of each of the following shapes.
a 10 cm b 15 mm c
9 cm 0
3 cm 5 mm
d 2 cm e f 8 cm
3 cm
5 cm 6 cm
4 cm
12 cm
g 2 cm h 2 cm
1 cm
1 cm
2.5 cm 5 cm
1.5 cm 4 cm
5 cm
3 cm
2 Find the perimeter of each of the following:

a a rectangle 20 cm by 12 cm
b a regular hexagon of a side length 15 mm
c an equilateral triangle of a side length 12 cm
d a circle of diameter 25 cm
e an isosceles triangle with its base 12 mm and equal sides of length 16 mm each.
3 WE2, 3 Find the perimeter of each of the following shapes.
a b c 10 cm
135°
30 cm
21 cm
d 14 cm e 100 m f
20 m 14 cm
30 cm
7 cm
g 10 cm h i
8 cm 20º 28 mm
22 cm
15 cm 60 mm

4 Find the perimeter of the shapes below.
a 35 cm b 14 cm
7 cm
25 cm
8cm 2 cm 8 cm
4cm 14 cm
5 A rectangular paddock 38 m by 27 m is fenced with 5 rows of wire. What is the total length of wire needed?
6 MC Which of the following shapes has the same perimeter to the nearest cm as
the circle shown?
28 cm
A 30 cm B
14 cm
29 cm
C 30 cm D 8 cm
6 cm
15 cm
10 cm
7 MC Which of the following measurements cannot represent a perimeter?

Note: There may be more than one correct answer.
a 70 mm3 b 3 m c 4.8 km d 12 cm2
8 The length of a rectangular pool is twice its breadth (or width). If the perimeter of the pool is 81 m, find
its dimensions.
9 A length of masking tape, 100 cm long, is wrapped once around the edges of a rectangular block. How
long is the block if its width is 15 cm?
10 A circle has a circumference of 81.64 cm. What is its radius?
11 An athletic track has four lanes. The lanes are 1 m apart. If the inside lane is exactly 400 m, with 100 m
straights, find the lengths of the other three lanes.
12 An equilateral triangle has side lengths given as (x + 2) cm. If the perimeter is 42 cm, what is the
value of x?
13 A figure has a perimeter of 64 mm. Azi suggests it is a square of side length 16 mm; Robyn suggests
it is a rhombus of side length 16 mm; Lauren suggests it is a square of side length 8 mm and Simon
suggests it is a 20 mm by 12 mm rectangle. Comment on the suggestions made by each person.
14 A bundle of rope is cut into pieces to lay on the ground to mark a soccer field along those lines. The
layout of the pieces is shown below. The marks on each end of the field are identical. What is the total
length of rope required?
110 m
16.2 m
5.4 m
9m 40 m 18 m 60 m

15 The track for a school cross-country competition is shown below. Checkpoints are labelled by the
letters A, B, C etc. What is the total distance in this cross-country competition?
Scale
A B E 50 m 150 m
D 0 100 m
N
C F
Start
Finish
G
Trees
Bushes
Plantation
Bridge
Oval
H Building
Road
16 A timber gate is 2 m wide by 900 mm high. The gate, which consists of a rectangular frame, is to have a
single diagonal brace. Calculate the length of timber needed to build the gate, correct to the nearest metre.
17 Find the perimeter of each of the following figures.
a b 16 mm c
20 mm
15 10 60 mm 21.6
9.2
12 12.4
d e f 610 cm x
12 m 28 m
6m 430 cm
16 m 24 m
920 cm
18 Calculate the perimeter of each of the following figures.
a b b
12.4
a
34
6.2
21.2
20 30
c d 4.6
m
9.2
m
3.4
12.6 mm
6
9.
d
c
10.6 mm
19 Consider the figure at right. Find the length of: F
a AC
E
b AD A
c AE D
d AF 1m
B C
Leave each answer in square root form.

8B Area of plane shapes
Area is a measure of the amount of space within a closed shape. As we have seen in chapter 7, area is
measured in square units.
Most common shapes have a formula we can use to find the area of that shape.
Square A = s2 (s = side length)
Rectangle A = l × b (l = length, b = breadth)
Triangle A = 12 bh (b = base, h = height) or using Heron’s formula A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

a + b + c
(a, b, c are side lengths) s = semi-perimeter  s = 
 2 
Parallelogram A = bh (b = base, h = height)
Rhombus A = 12 × D × d (D = long diagonal, d = short diagonal)
Trapezium A = 12 (a + b)h (a, b = parallel sides, h = height)
Worked Example 4
Find the area of the figures below.

a b c
19 mm
62 mm 9.4 cm
8.5 m 12.8 cm
Think Write
a 1 Write the formula. a A = s2
2 Substitute the side length. = 8.52

3 Calculate the area. = 72.25 m2
b 1 Write the formula. bA=l×b
2 Substitute the length and the breadth. = 62 × 19

3 Calculate the area. = 1178 mm2
1
c 1 Write the formula. c A= ×b×h
2
2 Substitute the base and the height. = 12 × 12.8 × 9.4
3 Calculate the area. = 60.16 cm2
Worked Example 5
Find the area of each of the following shapes.

a b c 5.9 cm
18 m
9m m
26
7.2 cm
14 m
11.4 cm

Think Write
a 1 Write the formula. aA=b×h
2 Substitute the base and height. = 14 × 9

3 Calculate the area. = 126 m2
1
b 1 Write the formula. bA= 2
×D×d
2 Substitute the diagonal lengths. =

1
× 18 × 26
2
3 Calculate the area. = 234 m2
1
c 1 Write the formula. c A= 2
× (a + b) × h
2 Substitute the sides and height. =

1
× (5.9 + 11.4) × 7.2
2
3 Calculate the area. = 62.28 cm2
Circles
The area of a circle can only be found exactly in terms of π. The area of a circle is found using the
formula A = π r 2. To get a numerical answer an approximation needs to be made.
Area of composite figures

A composite figure is one that is made up of a composition of simple figures. By breaking the figure into
these simple shapes we can find the area of the total shape by adding the area of each simple figure.
Worked Example 6
Find the area of each of the following composite shapes.

C
AB = 8 cm
EC = 6 cm
FD = 2 cm
A F B
E
Think Write
1 ACBD is a quadrilateral but there is no formula Area ACBD = Area ABC + Area ABD
to get its area. The figure can be split into two
triangles: ABC and ABD.
1
2 Write the formula for the area of a triangle Atriangle = 2 bh
containing base and height.
3 Identify the values of b and h for ABC. ABC: b = AB = 8, h = EC = 6
1
4 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into the Area of ABC = 2
× AB × EC
formula and, hence, calculate the area of ABC. 1
= ×8×6
2
= 24 cm2
5 Identify the values of b and h for ABD ABD: b = AB = 8, h = FD = 2

exercise 8B area of plane shapes
1 We4a Find the area of each of the squares below.
a b c
DiGital DoC
Spreadsheet
doc-1472
area converter (DiY) 8 cm 3.6 km
29 mm
d e f 12.5 cm
3.7 cm
DiGital DoC
GC program — Casio 2.9 m
doc-1473
Mensuration 2 We4b Find the area of each of the rectangles below.
a b c
3m 27 mm 47 cm
9m
38 mm 62 cm
d 2.2 km e 3.85 m f
DiGital DoC 49.7 km
GC program — TI
doc-1474 6.4 m
Mensuration
34 m
6.3 m
3 We4c Find the area of each of the triangles below.
a b c
DiGital DoC
Spreadsheet
doc-1475 12 m 6.2 cm
perimeter and area
9.4 cm 76 mm
9m 82 mm
d e 6.3 km f
3.7 m
4.2 m 8.4 km
9.7 m
4 We5a Find the area of each of the parallelograms below.

a b c
6m
36 cm 7.8 m
12 m
17 cm 9.3 m
d e f
38 mm
12.8 km 87 mm 80 cm
8m
16.9 km
5 We5b Find the area of each of the rhombuses below.
a b c
31
9c
7.7
mm
m
cm m
15 m 8.8
47m

d e f
3m
km
20.9 m 10.2 m
.25
39 cm
14
25
.25
km
6 WE5c Find the area of each of the trapeziums below.

a 3m b 26 mm c 5.6 m
4m
97 mm 3.2 m
7m
58 mm
8.4 m
d 1m e 2.8 m f 3.6 cm
3.65 m 5.4 cm
12 m 9.5 cm
9m 0.4 m
7 Find the area of each of the following circles correct to 2 decimal places.
a b c
7.3 cm 41.8 cm
11.6 cm
8 Look at the figure below.
3 m 12 m 7m
20 m
a Find the area of the outer rectangle.

b Find the area of the inner rectangle.
c Find the shaded area by subtracting the area of the inner rectangle from the area of the outer
rectangle.
9 Find the shaded area in each of the following.
a b
14 m 8m
5 cm
10 m
5 cm
16 m 9 cm
c d
3m 8m
8m 12 m
8m
5m
9m
10 m 12 m

10 Find the area of the following shapes.
a b c
30° 18 cm
17 mm 70°
12 cm
345°
11 WE6 Find the area of the following composite shapes.

a 20 cm b 40 m c 8 cm
3 cm 2 cm
28 m 4 cm
15 cm
d e f
28 cm
2.1m 18 cm
3.8 m
5 cm
12 cm
12 MC The area of the triangle at right is:

A 36 cm2
B 54 cm2 15 cm
C 108 cm2 12 cm
D 1620 cm2
9 cm
13 MC Which of the two statements is correct

for the two shapes at right? 19 cm 19 cm
38 cm 38 cm
Statement 1. The rectangle and parallelogram have equal areas.

Statement 2. The rectangle and parallelogram have equal perimeters.
A Statement 1
b Statement 2
c Both statements
d Neither statement
14 MC The area of the figure at right is:
A 54 m2 17 m
B 165 m2
c 225 m2 15 m
d 255 m2 7m
15 Len is having his lounge room carpeted. Carpet costs $27.80/m2.
The lounge is rectangular with a length of 7.2 m and a width of 4.8 m. 15 m
a Calculate the area of the lounge room.
b Calculate the cost of carpeting the room.

Further development
16 A rectangular garden in a park is 15 m long and 12 m wide. A concrete path 1.5 m wide is to be laid
around the garden.
a Draw a diagram of the garden and the path.
b Find the area of the garden.
c What are the dimensions of the rectangle formed by the path?
d Find the area of concrete needed for the path.
17 Find the area of each of the following composite figures.
a b
4m
6m
100 mm
c 42 cm d
40 cm
36 cm
e 240 m f 3m
160 m
6m
2.4 m
g h
80 m
120 m 16 cm
18 Find the area of glass in the window shown.

Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
0.9 m
0.8 m
1.8 m

19 A National Park has an area of 500 000 ha.
a Calculate the area in square kilometres.
b A mining company wants to claim 4% of the National Park for their industry. Calculate the
number of square metres they are claiming.
8C Field diagrams
Surveyors are often required to draw scale diagrams and to calculate the area of
irregularly shaped blocks of land. This is done using a traverse survey. In this
survey, a diagonal (traverse) is constructed between two corners of the block. The
diagonal is then measured.
From this diagonal each other corner is sighted at right angles to the diagonal.
Each of these lines, called an offset, is measured.
These offsets then divide the block into triangles and quadrilaterals, hence we can
calculate the area.
The results of a traverse survey are displayed in a field diagram.
The measurements through the centre of the field diagram are the points at which
the offsets are taken. 100 metres is the length of the diagonal. At the sides are the
measurements from the diagonal to the corners.
C
100
interaCtiVitY B 45 75 40 D
70
int-2407
Field diagram
20 30 E
0
A
The field diagram can then be drawn as

a scale diagram and the area calculated,
as shown on the following page.

Worked Example 7
Use the field diagram on the previous page to:

a draw a scale diagram of the field (use 1 mm = 1 m)
b calculate the area of the field.
Think Write/draw
a 1 Draw a 100 mm line. a C

A2 A3
2 Draw in all offsets at the appropriate points 25
on the traverse line. 45 40
B 5
D
3 Join all corners of the field.
50
A4
4 Write all measurements on your diagram. A1
30
E
20
A5
A
1 1 1
b 1 Calculate the area of the four triangles and b A1 = × b × h A2 = × b × h A3 = ×b×h
2 2 2
the trapezium. 1 1 1
= 2
× 75 × 45 = 2
× 25 × 45 = 2
× 30 × 40
= 1687.5 m2 = 562.5 m2 = 600 m2
1 1
A4 = 2
× (a + b) × h A5 = 2
×b×h
1 1
= 2
× (40 + 30) × 50 = 2
× 20 × 30
= 1750 m2 = 300 m2
2 Add the areas together. Area = 1687.5 + 562.5 + 600 + 1750 + 300
= 4900 m2
Worked Example 8
Consider the field book entry at right. 50

a Draw a scale diagram of the field.
15 30
b Use your diagram to find the perimeter of the field.
Think Write/draw
15 20
1 Draw a 50 mm line.
0
2 Draw in all offsets at the appropriate points
in the traverse line.
3 Join all corners of the field.
20
15
4 Write all measurements on your diagram.
20
15
5 Measure each side length.

6 Add the side lengths to find the perimeter. P = 34 + 25 + 40 + 25
= 124 m

When you draw a scale diagram of the block of land, you can use measurement to find the perimeter.
inVeStiGate: land survey
1 Find an area of land in or near your school and conduct a traverse survey of it.
2 Draw a scale diagram of the area of land.
3 Calculate the area of the land.
4 Find the perimeter of the block.
exercise 8C Field diagrams C

50
1 We7 At right is a surveyor’s field diagram of a block of land.
B 25 40
a Draw a scale diagram of the block of land, using the
scale 1 mm = 1 m.
b Calculate the area of the block of land.
15 20 D
0
A
D
2 We8 For the field diagram shown at right: 80
a draw a scale diagram of the block of land using the C 42 65
scale 1 mm = 1 m
b calculate the area of the block of land 40 28 E
c use measurement to find the perimeter. B 35 10
0
A
3 Use the field diagrams below to calculate the area of each block of land.
a C b D c D
70 75 100
C 23 70 C 30 90
B 40 40 B 40 30 50 30 E
30 15 D 20 20 E B 30 40 20 F
0 0 0
A A A
Further development C
4 For the diagram at right sketch the surveyor’s field diagram.
25 m
35 m
B
5 Consider the field diagram drawn below.

45 m
D
100
C 20 75 25 m
D
B 25 55 20 m
20 45 E
A
0
A
Is the shortest path from A to D via E or via B and C?

6 For the field diagram in question 5 determine if the area ABCD or AED is larger.
DiGital DoC
WorkSHEET 8.1 7 A traverse line is 100 metres long from point A to point B. Alan is to set an offset at C 25 metres at
doc-10329 right angles to the traverse line. Where should Alan set the offset to maximise the area of ABC?

8D Applications of area
In an earlier section we found the area of plane shapes. This needs to be applied to a wide range of
practical situations. In many cases this will require drawing a diagram.
Worked Example 9
A clock has a minute hand that is 6 cm long and an hour hand that is
3 cm long. In one full revolution of each band, the minute hand would
R
sweep out a larger circle than the hour hand. What is the difference in
6 cm r
the area they cover (to the nearest square centimetre)?
3 cm
Think Write
1 The area required is the area between two A = outer area − inner area
circles. Write down the appropriate formula. = π R2 − π r2
2 Identify the value of R (radius of larger R = 6, r = 3
circle) and the value of r (radius of smaller
circle).
3 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into A = π × 62 − π × 32
the formula and evaluate. = 113.097 − 28.274
= 84.823 cm2
4 Write an answer sentence with the value The difference in area covered by the two hands is
rounded to the nearest square centimetre. approximately 85 cm2.
Exercise 8D Applications of area

1 WE9 Look at the figure at right.
a Find the area of the outer rectangle. 3m 7m
12 m
b Find the area of the inner rectangle.
c Find the shaded area by subtracting the area of the
20 m
inner rectangle from the area of the outer rectangle.
2 A sheet of cardboard is 1.6 m by 0.8 m. The following shapes are cut from the cardboard:
• a circular piece of radius 12 cm
• a rectangular piece 20 cm by 15 cm
• 2 triangular pieces of base 30 cm and height 10 cm
• a triangular piece of side length 12 cm, 10 cm and 8 cm.
What is the area of the remaining piece of cardboard?
3 A rectangular block of land, 12 m by 8 m, is surrounded by a concrete path 0.5 m wide. Find the area
of the path.
4 Concrete slabs 1 m by 0.5 m are used to cover a footpath 20 m by 1.5 m. How many slabs are needed?
5 A city council builds a 0.5 m wide concrete path around the garden as shown below.
12 m
5m
8m 3m
Find the cost of the job if the workman charges $40.00 per m2.
6 A yacht race consists of 12 laps around a triangular course. The triangle is equilateral with each side
810 m. Find the total length of the race, in kilometres.

7 A box is built to contain 12 tennis balls, as shown in the
figure at right.
If the radius of each tennis ball is 4.6 cm, find the perimeter
of the smallest possible rectangle that will contain the balls.
8 A block of land is in the shape of a square with an equilateral
triangle on top. Each side of the block of land is 50 m.
a Draw a diagram of the block of land.
b Find the perimeter of the block of land.
c Find the area of the block of land.
9 An athletics track consists of a rectangle with two semicircular ends. The dimensions are shown in the
diagram below.
70 m 82 m
90 m
The track is to have a synthetic running surface laid. Calculate the area which is to be laid with the
running surface, correct to the nearest square metre.
10 A garden is to have a concrete path laid around it. The garden is rectangular in shape and measures
40 m by 25 m. The path around it is to be 1 m wide.
b Calculate the area of the garden.
c Calculate the area of the concrete that needs to be laid.
d If the cost of laying concrete is $17.50 per m2, calculate the cost of laying the path.
11 Len is having his lounge room carpeted. Carpet costs $27.80/m2. The lounge is rectangular with a
length of 7.2 m and a width of 4.8 m.
a Calculate the area of the lounge room.
b Calculate the cost of carpeting the room.
Further development
12 A rectangular garden in a park is 15 m long and 12 m wide. A concrete path 1.5 m wide is to be laid
around the garden.
b Find the area of the garden.
c What are the dimensions of the rectangle formed by the path?
d Find the area of concrete needed for the path.
13 A family-size pizza is cut into 8 equal slices. If the diameter of the
1 cm
pizza is 33 cm, find (to the nearest square centimetre) the area of
the top part of each slice. 0.5 cm
14 The collectable plate shown at right is 22 cm in diameter and has 22 cm

a golden ring that is 0.5 cm wide.
Find (to 1 decimal place) the area of the golden ring if its outer
edge is 1 cm from the edge of the plate.
15 Early-model vehicles had a single

windscreen-wiper blade to remove 120 cm
water from the windscreen. (The
bus at right has two single blades 60 cm
of this type.) 140°
Using the dimensions given in
the diagram: 45 cm
a what area (to the nearest whole
number) did the blade cover?
b what percentage (to 1 decimal
place) of the windscreen was
cleared?

8e Volume of prisms
The volume of a solid shape is the amount of space within that shape. interaCtiVitY
Consider the prism at right which has been built with cubes with sides of int-1150
1 cm. Maximising the volume
of a cuboid
We can see by counting squares that the area of the base is 15 cm2. The
height of the prism is 3 cm, and if we count the remaining cubes we find that
the volume of the prism is 57 cm3.
inVeStiGate: exploring the volume of a prism
Build the prism that has been drawn above. Count the number of cubes that have been used to build
the prism. Build other prisms and count the area of the base, the height and find the volume. Show that
the volume can be found by multiplying the area of the front face (base) by the height perpendicular to
the front face.
When prisms are drawn, they are usually drawn lying down so that we can see the base.
Hence, using the above example we can see that the volume of a prism can be calculated using the
formula:
V=A×h
where A is the area of the base and h is the height.
WorkeD exaMple 10
Calculate the volume of the prism at right.
think Write A = 63 cm2 5 cm

1 Write the formula. V=A×h
2 Substitute the area of the base and the height. = 63 × 5
3 Calculate the volume. = 315 cm3
For some prisms we can develop a more specific formula for volume, without separately calculating the
area of the base.
Cube
The front face of the cube is a square of side length s and the height is s.
V=A×h
V = s2 × s since A = s2 for a square.
V = s3 This becomes the formula used for the volume of a cube. s
WorkeD exaMple 11
Find the volume of the cube at right.
think Write
1 Write the formula. V = s3 6.8 cm
2 Substitute the side length. = 6.83

3 Calculate the volume. = 314.432 cm3

Rectangular prism
Now consider a rectangular prism with a length of l, a breadth of b and a
height of h. h
Substituting into the formula: b
V=A×h l
V = l × b × h since A = l × b.
Worked Example 12
Calculate the volume of the rectangular prism at right.

12 mm
Think Write 29 mm
47 mm
1 Write the formula. V=l×b×h
2 Substitute the length, breadth and height. = 47 × 29 × 12
3 Calculate the volume. = 16 356 mm3
Cylinders
A cylinder can be considered to be a circular prism. Consider the cylinder at right
with a radius of r and a height of h. Substituting into the formula h
V=A×h
r
V = π r 2h
since for a circle A = π r .
2
We also need to be aware of the relationship between volume and capacity. Capacity refers to the
amount of liquid that a container holds. Capacity is measured in millilitres, litres and kilolitres.
A volume of 1 cm3 = 1 mL and 1 m3 = 1000 L.
Worked Example 13
Find the capacity of a cylinder with a radius of 1.3 m and a height of 7.8 m.
Think Write
1 Write the formula. V = π r 2h

2 Substitute the radius and the height. = π × (1.3)2 × 7.8
3 Calculate the volume in m3. ≈ 41.412 m3
4 Calculate the capacity by multiplying the Capacity = 41.412 × 1000
volume by 1000. = 41 412 L
For any other prism, to calculate the volume we calculate the area of the base first and then use the
formula V = A × h.

WorkeD exaMple 14
Calculate the volume of the triangular prism at right.
7.9 cm
5.6 cm 1.2 cm
think Write
1
1 Calculate the area of the triangular base. A= 2
×b×h
1
= 2
× 5.6 × 7.9
= 22.12 cm2
2 Write the volume formula. V=A×h
3 Substitute the area and the height. = 22.12 × 1.2
4 Calculate the volume. = 26.544 cm3
exercise 8e Volume of prisms

1 We10 Calculate the volume of each of the solids below.
a b c
DiGital DoC
A = 24 cm2 5 cm Spreadsheet
A = 57 cm2 4 cm doc-1481
A = 19 cm2 12 cm Volume
d e f
18 mm
9.2 m
A = 15.93 mm2 A = 77.7 cm2 7.7 cm
A = 27.9 m2
2 A prism has a base area of 74.5 m2 and a height of 3.1 m. Calculate the volume.
3 We11 Calculate the volume of each of the cubes below.
a b c
5 cm
2.4 m
13 m
d e f
29 mm
8.2 m
5.64 m
4 We12 Find the volume of each of the rectangular prisms below.

a b c
3.7 m
3 cm
4 cm
6 cm 42 mm 4.5 m
6.3 m
13 mm
9 mm

d e f 20.5 m
16.5 m
50 mm 12.5 m
3.2 m
4.2 m
9 mm
9 mm
5 WE13 Calculate the volume of each of the cylinders below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c 27 cm
6 cm
12 m 13 cm
12 cm
3m
d e 18.5 cm f 3 mm
15 cm
9 cm
25 cm
47 cm
6 WE14 For each of the following triangular prisms find:

i the area of the front face
ii the volume of the prism.
a b
6 cm
8 cm
12 cm
8 cm
3 cm 5 cm
c d
3.4 m
12.5 m
3.2 m
2.7 m 1.5 m
7.8 m
7 Find the volume of each of the following prisms by first calculating the area of the front face.
a b
15 m
5m
5m 10 m
15 m 20 m
5m
c d
3.1 cm
19 m
10 m
12 m
2.4 cm
1.7 cm

8 In each of the following, the prism’s front face is made up of a composite figure. For each:
i calculate the area of the front face
ii find the volume of the prism.
a 4 cm b
4m
20 cm 10 cm
8m
10 cm
16 cm 9m
c d 12 m
8 cm 3m
15 cm
12 cm 6m
6 cm 12 m
20 cm 18 m
9 MC The shape at right could be described as a:

a cube
b square prism
c rectangular prism
d both B and C
10 MC The area of the front face of a prism is 34.67 cm2, and the height is 3.6 cm. The volume of the
prism is:
a 38.27 cm2 b 38.27 cm3
c 124.12 cm2 d 124.812 cm3
11 MC The dimensions of a rectangular prism are all doubled. The volume of the prism will increase by
a factor of:
a 2 b 4
c 6 d 8
12 A refrigerator is in the shape of a rectangular prism. The internal dimensions of the prism are 60 cm by
60 cm by 140 cm.
a Find the volume of the refrigerator in cm3.
b The capacity of a refrigerator is measured in litres. If 1 cm3 = 1 mL, find the capacity of the
refrigerator in litres.
13 A semi-trailer is 15 m long, 2.5 m wide and 2.7 m high. Find the capacity of the semi-trailer in m3.
14 A petrol tanker is shown below.
12 m
2m
The tank is cylindrical in shape. The radius of the tank is 2 m and the length is 12 m. Calculate:
a the volume of the tank, correct to 3 decimal places
b the capacity of the tank, to the nearest 100 litres. (1 m3 = 1000 L).
10 m
15 At right is a diagram of a concrete slab for a house.
a Calculate the area of the slab.
b The slab is to be 10 cm thick. Calculate the volume of concrete needed for 2.5 m
15 m
the slab. (Hint: Write 10 cm as 0.1 m.) 10 m
c Concrete costs $45.50/m3 to lay. Calculate the cost of this slab.

16 A rectangular roof is 14 m long and 8 m wide.
When it rains, the water is collected in a
cylindrical tank.
a Calculate the volume of water collected on the
roof when 25 mm of rain falls.
b How many litres of water does the roof collect?
c The cylindrical tank has a radius of 1.8 m and is
2.4 m high. What is the capacity of the tank, in
litres?
d By how much does the depth of water in the tank
rise when the rain falls? Answer in centimetres,
Further development
17 Find the volume of each of the following shapes.
a Shaded b CSA = 116 mm2
area = 33 cm2
3.5 cm
10.5 mm
>
>
c d
> >
>
0.5 m 8 cm
Shaded
55 cm2 area = 42 cm2
18 The figure below shows a concrete paver in the shape of a trapezoidal prism.
60 cm
50 cm
50 cm
1.2 m
Calculate the number of pavers that will have a total volume of 10 m3.
19 An apple has a volume of 512 cm3. 160 apples are packed into the box drawn below.
40 cm
38 cm
60 cm
Calculate the amount of wasted space in the box.
20 Find the volume of the following figure.
60 cm
1.4 m
1.8 m
2m
21 A cube has a volume of 778.688 cm3. Find the side length.

DiGital DoC
WorkSHEET 8.2 22 A rectangular prism has a square base, and the height is twice the length of the other two sides. Find the
doc-10330 dimensions of the prism given that it has a volume of 600 cm3.

Summary
perimeter of plane • The perimeter of a plane shape is the total length of the boundary forming the figure.
shapes • There is a formula for the perimeter of a square (P = 4l ), a rectangle (P = 2(l + b)) and for the
circumference of a circle (C = π d, C = 2π r). All other shapes will have their perimeter found by
simply adding all the side lengths.
• To find the perimeter of some irregular shapes you will need to calculate a side length using a
known formula or Pythagoras’ theorem.
area of plane shapes • Area formulas that you will need to remember
– Square A = s2
– Rectangle A=l×b
1
– Triangle A = 2 bh
– Parallelogram A = bh
1
– Rhombus A=2×D×d
1
– Trapezium A = 2 × (a + b) × h
– Circle A = π r2
• Composite areas are calculated by breaking the plane shape into smaller regular figures.
Field diagrams • To calculate the area and perimeter of an irregular shape a traverse survey is used to draw a field
diagram from which a scale drawing is made.
• Areas are found by dividing the irregular area into trapeziums and triangles.
• Perimeters can be found using the scale diagram
applications of area • Practical area questions often require you to first draw a diagram.
• A worded question may also require a worded answer
Volume of prisms • The volume is the amount of space inside a solid shape.
• Volume formulas that you will need:
Cube V = s3
Rectangular prism V=l×b×h
Cylinder V = π r 2h
1
Cone V = 3 π r 2h
4
Sphere V = 3π r 3
• Any other prism has its volume calculated by using the formula V = A × h, where A is the area of
the base and h is the height.

Chapter review
1 Examine the diagram at right. 16 cm
M U lt ip l e
C h oiCe a The circles cover an area of approximately:
a 50 cm2 B 101 cm2
C 201 cm2 D 402 cm2
b The shaded area is approximately:
a 55 cm2 B 146 cm2
C 155 cm2 D 206 cm2
2 A rectangular garden measures 5 m by 4 m. A path 1 m wide is to be built around the garden. The area
of the concrete is:
a 10 m2 B 20 m2
2
C 22 m D 35 m2
3 A cylindrical tank has a radius of 2.5 m. When 43 mm of rain falls the amount of water collected by the
tank is closest to:
a 8L B 84 L
C 840 L D 8440 L
Sh ort 1 Find the perimeter of the following shapes.

anS Wer
a 14 mm b c
13 cm
12 cm
20 mm
°
7 cm
20
5 cm 9 cm
d e
3.2 m
cm
cm
24 16 cm
.3
21
4 cm 5.5 m 1.5 m
18 cm
2.5 m
2 Find the area of each of the figures drawn below.

a b c
6.3 cm
32 mm
17.9 cm
5.2 cm 74 mm
d e 35 cm f
26
80 cm
m
mm
m
43 15 cm
3m
70 cm
3 Find the area of each of the triangles drawn below.

a b
9 cm
40 cm
15.5 cm
18.2 cm

c d
40 m
12.5 cm 35 m
12.5 cm C
95
4 At right is the field diagram for a block of land.
70 25 D
a Use the scale 1 mm = 1 m to draw a scale diagram of the block of land.
b Calculate the area of the block of land.
B 36 30
0
A
82
5 Draw a scale diagram to find the area and perimeter of the represented by the field
diagram at right. 46 45
32 37
15 26
0
6 A rectangular block of land 2.8 m × 25 m is surrounded by a concrete path 1 m wide.
a Find the area of the path.
b Find the cost of concreting at $45 per square metre.
7 Use the formulas to calculate the volume of each of the following cubes, rectangular prisms and
cylinders.
a b c
3.8 m
4.6 m
29 mm 11.6 m
6.5 cm
d e f
18 mm
13 cm
41 cm 32 mm
3 cm
8 cm
3 cm
8 A prism has a base area of 45 cm2 and a height of 13 cm. Calculate the volume.
1 A silo is in the shape of a cylinder with a diameter of 5 m and a height of 20 m. ex ten D eD

r eS p o n S e
a The silo is to have a square fence built around it. The fence is to come no closer than 1 m at any
point to the silo. Calculate the perimeter of the fence.
b The area between the fence and the silo is to be grassed. Calculate the grassed area correct to the
nearest square metre.
c The silo is half full of grain. Given that each cubic metre of grain weighs 165 kg, calculate the
weight of the grain in the silo in tonnes.
2 A cylinder has a radius of ‘r’ and a height of ‘h’. Gary has a cylinder with the same radius but is twice DiGital DoC
Test Yourself
as tall. Gwenda has a cylinder of the same height but double the radius. Determine whether Gary or doc-10331
Gwenda has the cylinder with the greater volume. Justify your answer. Chapter 8

ICT activities
8B area of plane shapes DiGital DoCS
• Spreadsheet (doc-1481): Volume (page 275)
DiGital DoCS
• WorkSHEET 8.2 (doc-10330): Apply your knowledge of measurement
• Spreadsheet (doc-1472): Area converter (DIY) (page 264)
• GC program — Casio (doc-1473): Mensuration (page 264)
• GC program — TI (doc-1474): Mensuration (page 264)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1475): Perimeter and area (page 264) Chapter review
DiGital DoC
8C Field diagrams • Test Yourself Chapter 8 (doc-10331): Take the end-of-chapter test to
interaCtiVitY check your progress. (page 281)
• int-2407: Field diagram (page 268)
DiGital DoC To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
• WorkSHEET 8.1 (doc-10329): Apply your knowledge of measurement
8e Volume of prisms
interaCtiVitY
• int-1150: Maximising the volume of a cuboid (page 273)

Answers CHAPTER 8
periMeter, area anD 10 a 37.70 cm2 b 870.09 mm2 9 2513 m2
c 819.96 cm2 10 a
VolUMe 11 a 123.29 cm2 b 1427.88 m2
1m
exercise 8a perimeter of plane shapes c 52 cm2 d 30.4 m2 25 m
1 a 26 cm b 40 mm e 78 cm2 f 2015.50 cm2
c 56.55 cm d 24 cm 40 m
12 B
e 15 cm f 31 cm 13 A
g 10 cm h 30 cm
b 1000 m2
14 B
2 a 64 cm b 90 mm
c 134 m2
15 a 34.56 m2 b $960.77
c 36 cm d 78.54 cm
d $2345
16 a 1.5 m
e 44 cm
11 a 34.56 m2
3 a 77.12 cm b 74.99 cm 12 m
b $960.77
12 a 1.5 m
c 43.56 cm d 95.99 cm 15 m
e 262.83 m f 71.98 cm
12 m
g 42.43 cm h 174.55 cm
b 180 m2 15 m
i 163.98 cm
c 18 m long and 15 m wide
4 a 148.54 cm
d 90 m2
b 47.14 cm b 180 m2
17 a 13 927 mm2 b 30.2832 m2
c 54.27 cm c 18 m long and 15 m wide
c 2936.64 cm2 d 2313.88 cm2
5 650 m 2 d 90 m2
e 28 346.9 m f 21.6 m2
6A 13 107 cm2
g 4573.45 m2 h 402.12 cm2
7 A, D 2 14 65.2 cm2
18 2.71 m
8 27 m × 13.5 m 15 a 2474 cm2
19 a 5000 km2
9 35 cm 10 12.99 cm b 34.4%
b 200 000 000 m2
11 406.28 m, 412.57 m, 418.85 m exercise 8e Volume of prisms
12 12 cm exercise 8C Field diagrams 1 a 120 cm3 b 228 cm3
13 Azi’s, Robyn’s and Simon’s suggestions 1 a C b 1125 m2
c 228 cm3 d 256.68 m3
are correct as their figures have a perimeter 10 e 286.74 mm3 f 598.29 cm3
B
of 64 mm. Lauren is incorrect as her 25 2 230.95 m3
suggested figure has a perimeter of 32 mm. 25 3 a 125 cm3 b 13.824 m3
14 658.95 m 20 c 2197 m3 d 24 389 mm3
15 Approx. 2250 m. Answers may vary. D
15 e 179.406 144 m3 f 551.368 m3
16 8m 4 a 72 cm3 b 4914 mm3
17 a 50 b 144.33 mm A
c 104.895 m3 d 56.448 m3
c 60.74 d 60 m 2 a Check with your teacher.
b 3727.5 m2 c 234 m e 4050 mm3 f 4228.125 m3
e 84.93 m f 2767.92 cm 5 a 1357.2 cm3 b 339.3 m3
18 a 124.69 b 65.13 mm 3 a 1925 m2 b 2667.5 m2
c 3650 m2 c 29 772.9 cm3 d 3817.0 cm3
c 39.57 d 25.44 m e 26 880.3 cm3 f 13.3 cm3
19 a 2 b 3 4 C
90 6 a i 12 cm2 ii 60 cm3
c 2 d 5
b i 24 cm2 ii 288 cm3
B 35 65
exercise 8B area of plane shapes c i 4.59 m2 ii 6.885 m3
1 a 64 cm2 b 841 mm2 d i 12.48 m2 ii 156 m3
c 12.96 km2 d 8.41 m2 7 a 187.5 m3 b 875 m3
20 25 D
e 13.69 cm2 f 156.25 cm2 c 2280 m3 d 6.324 cm3
0
2 a 27 m2 b 1026 mm2 A 8 a i 200 cm2 ii 2000 cm3
c 2914 cm2 d 109.34 km2 b i 99 m2 ii 792 m3
e 130.9 m2 f 40.32 m2 5 It will be shorter to travel via B and C. c i 204 cm2 ii 1224 cm3
3 a 54 m2 b 29.14 cm2 6 The area AED is larger. d i 153 m2 ii 1836 m3
c 3116 mm2 d 20.37 m2 7 50 metres from A 9D
e 26.46 km2 f 6.845 m2 exercise 8D applications of area 10 D
4 a 72 m2 b 612 cm2 1 a 140 m2 b 36 m2 11 D
c 72.54 m2 d 216.32 km2 c 104 m2 12 a 504 000 cm3 b 504 L
e 3306 mm2 f 6.4 m2 2 11 707.92 cm2 13 101.25 m3
5 a 67.5 cm2 b 728.5 mm2 3 21 m2 14 a 150.796 m3 b 150 800 L
c 33.88 m2 d 179.91 km2 4 60 15 a 175 m2 b 17.5 m3
e 106.59 m2 f 0.585 m2 5 $840 c $796.25
6 a 20 m2 b 4074 mm2 6 29.16 km 16 a 2.8 m3 b 2800 L
c 22.4 m2 d 60 m2 7 128.8 cm c 24 429 L d 27.5 cm
e 5.84 m2 f 26.82 cm2 8 a b 250 m 17 a 115.5 cm3 b 1218 mm3
7 a 167.42 cm2 b 422.73 cm2 c 2750 cm3 d 336 cm3
c 1372.30 cm2 18 44.45
8 a 140 m2 b 36 m2 19 9280 cm3
c 104 m2 20 6.12 m3
50 m
9 a 144 m2 b 68.5 cm2 21 9.2 cm
c 10 m2 d 80 m2 c 3582.5 m2 22 6.694 cm × 6.694 cm × 13.389 cm

Chapter reVieW 4 a C d 984 cm3
e 367.57 cm3
MUltiple ChoiCe 25 25 D f 57 905.84 mm3
1 a C b A 8 585 cm3
40
2 C
36 extenDeD reSponSe
3 C B
30
1 a 28 m
Short anSWer
A b 29 m2
1 a 48 mm b 16.44 cm c 32.4 t
c 54 cm d 49.3 cm b 2897.5 m2 2 Gary
e 13.4 m 5 Area = 3417.5 m2 V = π × r 2 × 2h
2 a 27.04 cm2 b 112.77 cm2 6 a 59.6 m2 = 2πr2h
c 2368 mm2 d 559 mm2 b $2682 Gwenda
e 787.5 cm2 f 2.4 m2 7 a 274.625 cm3 V = π × (2r)2 × h
3 a 180 cm2 b 141.05 cm2 b 24 389 mm3 = 4πr2h
c 78.125 cm2 d 700 m2 c 202.768 m3 Gwenda’s cylinder is larger.

ChapTer 9
Similar figures and
trigonometry
ChapTer ConTenTS
9a Similar figures and scale factors
9B Solving problems using similar figures
9C Calculating trigonometric ratios
9d Finding an unknown side
9e Finding angles
9F Applications of right-angled triangles
9a Similar f igures and scale factors

Have you ever read a road map or looked at plans for a house? The map or the plan is a scaled
down version of the roads or house. When two objects are identical, except one is a reduction or an
enlargement of the other, the objects are said to be similar. Maps and plans are practical examples of
similarity.
Maps and plans both use a scale. The scale tells us how many times larger an object is in reality
compared to the plan. For example, a house plan may use a scale of 1 : 100. This means that if a wall is
1 cm long on the plan, it is 100 cm (or 1 m) in reality. All the angles shown on the plan are the same as
in reality. If two walls meet at right angles on the plan, they meet at right angles in reality.
Similar figures are in proportion and have the same shape. That is, each pair of corresponding sides
are in the same ratio and each pair of corresponding angles are equal.
To show that two triangles are similar, we can show that either of the above conditions is true. The
symbol for similarity is three vertical lines (|||). inTeraCTiviTy
For triangles, if two pairs of corresponding sides are in the same ratio and the angles they include are int-2403
equal then they are similar. Similarity
Worked example 1
In the figure at right, show that !ABC ||| !XYZ. X
B C Y Z
Think WriTe
1 ∠BAC and ∠YXZ are equal. ∠BAC = ∠YXZ

2 ∠ACB and ∠XZY are equal. ∠ACB = ∠XZY
3 ∠ABC and ∠XYZ are equal. ∠ABC = ∠XYZ
4 Make a conclusion. !ABC ||| !XYZ (3 pairs of equal angles)
ChapTer 9 • Similar figures and trigonometry 285

Worked Example 2
Show that the triangles LMN and PQR are similar. P
L 15 cm
12 cm
4 cm 5 cm
M 3 cm N Q 9 cm R
Think Write
1 Simplify the ratio LM : PQ. LM : PQ = 4 : 12

= 1 : 3
2 Simplify the ratio MN : QR. MN : QR = 3 : 9
= 1 : 3
3 Simplify the ratio LN : PR. LN : PR = 5 : 15
= 1 : 3
4 Make a conclusion. !LMN ||| !PQR (3 pairs of sides in equal ratio)
To determine if other figures are similar, we need to examine the ratio of sides.
Worked Example 3
Determine if the rectangles ABCD and PQRS P Q

are similar.
A B
4m 15 m
D 10 m C
S 6m R
Think Write
1 Simplify the ratio of corresponding AD : RS = 4 : 6

sides AD and RS. = 2 : 3
2 Simplify the ratio of corresponding CD : QR = 10 : 15
sides CD and QR. = 2 : 3
3 Make a conclusion. The rectangles are similar as their corresponding
sides are in equal ratio.
When we examine similar figures we can state the ratio of sides between the two figures. The number
by which we multiply measurements on the first figure to get the measurements on the second figure is
called the scale factor.
The scale factor is calculated by replacing the first part of the ratio of sides with one. The second part
of the ratio is then calculated and is the scale factor.
Worked Example 4
The two figures at right are similar. 7.5 cm

a What is the ratio of their sides? 3 cm
b What is the scale factor?
6 cm
15 cm

Think Write
a 1 The 6 cm side corresponds to the 15 cm side. a 6 : 15 = 2 : 5

Write this as a ratio and simplify.
2 The 3 cm side corresponds to the 7.5 cm side. 3 : 7.5 = 30 : 75
Check that this simplifies to the same ratio. = 2 : 5
3 Make a conclusion. The similar figures are in the ratio 2 : 5.
1
b 1 The scale factor is written by comparing one b 2 : 5 = 1 : 2
2
unit on the first figure with the second.
1
2 Make a conclusion. The scale factor is 2 2.
A special case of similarity occurs when the scale factor is 1. These shapes are identical and are called
congruent figures.
Exercise 9A Similar f igures and scale factors

1 WE1 Prove that ABC ||| ZYX. A X Y
B C Z
2 Prove that ABC ||| EDC. A B
D E
3 WE 2 Prove that LMN ||| PQR. P

L
10 cm 8 cm
5 cm 4 cm
M 6 cm N Q 12 cm R
4 Prove that ABC ||| FED. A D

16 cm
12 cm 12 cm F 12 cm
16 cm
B 9 cm C E
5 Prove that LMN ||| RST. L

R
M N S T
Chapter 9 • Similar figures and trigonometry 287

6 Prove that VWX ||| VYZ. V
W X
Y Z
7 WE 3 Determine if the rectangles ABCD and W 15 cm X

WXYZ are similar.
A 5 cm B 6 cm
2 cm
D C Z Y
8 Determine if the rectangles KLMN and P 8 cm Q

PQRS are similar. L 7 cm M
3 cm 4 cm
K N S R
9 WE 4 The figures at right are similar. A C P R

a What is the ratio of sides? B Q
b What is the scale factor? 4 cm 6 cm
E 8 cm D T 12 cm S
10 The figures at right are similar. 16 cm 40 cm

a What is the ratio of sides? 4 cm
b What is the scale factor? 10 cm
6 cm
15 cm
11 In the figure below, !MNO ||| !MPQ.
Calculate the ratio of sides.
M
6 cm
N O
3 cm
P Q
12 On a set of house plans, a measurement

of 5 cm represents a wall which is
10 m long. Calculate the scale factor.
13 On a map, a distance of 3 cm represents
an actual distance of 60 km. Calculate
the scale factor.
Further development
14 Scale factors can be given as comparative distances or as ratios. Convert each of these scale factors,
given as comparative distances, to ratios.
a 1 mm to 1 m b 2 cm to 16 m c 4 cm to 25 m
d 40 cm to 1 m e 20 cm to 10 cm f 375 mm to 1 m

15 Write each of the ratios in question 14 as a rule with the real life (RL) as the subject of a formula in
terms of scale length (SL). For example part (a) RL = 1000 × SL.
16 A scale plan for the construction of a television unit is drawn. The scale of the plan is 3 cm to 20 cm.
The height of the unit on the plan is 15 cm.
a What will be the real life height of the unit?
b The real life width of the unit is to be 125 cm. What will be the scale width of the unit on the
plan?
17 In a furniture catalogue you decide to buy a bookcase that is 74 cm high. Below is a diagram of the
bookcase with the measurements as shown on a scale diagram.
1.85 cm
4.35 cm 0.55 cm
a What is the scale used?

b Find the length and width of the bookcase.
18 The photo at right is of a 30 metre tall tree.
a The tree is 5 cm tall in the photo. Find the
scale factor as a ratio.
b The diameter of the tree is 1.2 m. Find the
diameter of the tree in the photo.
19 State whether each of the following statements are
true or false.
a All squares are similar.
b All rectangles are similar.
c All triangles are similar.
d All equilateral triangles are similar.
e All circles are similar.
Investigate: Enlarging a f i gure
We can draw similar figures using an enlargement factor. We will enlarge the triangle below by a
scale factor of 2.
1 Mark a point, P, external to the figure. This point is A
called the centre of enlargement.
P
B C
2 Measure the distance from P to the vertex, A. A′

Mark a point twice this distance away in a A
straight line. Label this point A′.
P
B C
3 Repeat step 2 for the vertices A'

B and C.
A
B C
B' C'

4 Join the points A′, B′ and C′. A'
B C
B' C'
Investigate: Investigating scale factors
1 Draw a figure on clear plastic so that it can be placed on an overhead projector.

2 Place the overhead projector 2 m from the screen and focus the image. Measure the lengths on the image
and state the scale factor.
3 Repeat step 2, placing the overhead projector 3 m, 4 m and 5 m from the screen.
4 Deter mine if there is a relationship between the scale factors and the distance from the projector to the screen.
Investigate: Similar triangles
Two triangles are similar if they have the same shape but not necessarily the same size. One is an
enlargement or reduction of the other. This means that the corresponding angles of the triangles have
to be equal (to make them the same shape) and the ratio of their corresponding sides must be constant
(making one smaller or larger than the other). As with congruent triangles, we do not need to know
all the information about the three sides and three angles to determine if a pair of triangles is similar.
Certain minimum information is sufficient. Let us investigate.
1 Draw the ABC shown (it is not drawn to scale). A
Draw XYZ, larger than ABC with ∠X = ∠A,
70°
∠Y = ∠B and ∠Z = ∠C. Measure the lengths of
the sides of the two triangles. Determine the ratios
XY YZ
of the lengths of the corresponding sides ,
AB BC
ZX 60° 50°
and . Are these ratios constant (within the limits B C
CA
of the accuracy of the constructions)? Does it appear that !XYZ is a true enlargement of ABC?
Repeat the process, drawing XYZ smaller than ABC. Is !XYZ similar to !ABC? T
2 Construct the two triangles shown where
TVW is twice the size of DEF. D 2 cm
1 cm
The ratio of their corresponding sides is V 4 cm
E 2 cm
TV VW WT
constant as = = = 2. Measure 1.5 cm
DE EF FD 3 cm
their corresponding angles. Are the two triangles F
similar? W
3 Construct GHJ and QRS to the Q
measurements shown at right. G
6 cm
Find the ratio of their corresponding 3 cm
sides (as in part 1) and measure all H 30° J 30°
angles. What do you conclude? 2 cm R S
4 cm
4 Draw the right-angled triangles KLM
and NPU to the dimensions given. N
Again, find the ratio of their
corresponding sides (as in part 1) K
and measure all angles. What do you
7.5 cm
conclude?
5 Summarise the results of your 5 cm
investigation. What are the minimum
requirements to ensure the similarity
L M P U
of two triangles? 3 cm 4.5 cm

9B Solving problems using similar f igures
We can use similar figures to solve many problems. By setting up similar triangles we can calculate
measurements of objects such as trees, which we are unable to physically measure. Another example is
house plans. In this case, the ratio of sides becomes the scale of the plan making it similar to the house itself.
Consider the case where we want to measure the height of a tree too tall for us to physically measure.
Using shadows we can create two similar triangles.
Worked Example 5
A tree casts a shadow 7.5 m long. At the same time a 1-metre

ruler casts a shadow 60 cm long. Calculate the height of the tree.
h
Think Write
1m
1 The triangles are similar because all three
7.5 m 60 cm
angles are equal.
2 Write the shadow lengths as a ratio and 7.5 m : 60 cm = 750 : 60

simplify. = 25 : 2
3 Write a proportion and solve to find the h = 25
height of the tree. 1 2
h = 12.5 m
We use a similar method when reading maps or plans. The map is a similar figure to the place being
mapped. We use the scale given on the map to calculate the distance between two places.
Worked Example 6
The scale on a road map is given as 1 cm = 5 km. Jodie uses her ruler and finds the distance between
the towns Huxley and Brownville is 6.2 cm. Calculate the distance between these two towns.
Think Write
1 Multiply 6.2 cm by the given scale. 6.2 cm × 5 cm/km = 31 km

The actual distance between Huxley and Brownville is
3 Give a written answer.
31 km.
In the case of plans, the scale is often stated as a ratio. The method of solution is the same.
Worked Example 7
The scale on a house plan is 1 : 150. The front of the house measures 8.5 cm on the plan. Calculate
the actual length of the front of the house.
Think Write
1 Multiply the measurement by the scale. 8.5 cm × 150 = 1275 cm

2 Change the units from cm to m. = 12.75 m
3 Give a written answer. The front of the house is 12.75 m long.
House plans are a very common application of similar figures. As we saw in the previous section, plans
are drawn using a ratio as the scale factor. Measurement enables us to calculate all dimensions within the
house. Corresponding angles on similar figures are equal and so the angles on the plans will be the same
as the angles in reality.

Worked Example 8
Below is a plan for a house.
WC Bathroom Bed 3
Kitchen/Dining
Bed 2
Lounge
Bed 1
Scale 1:100
a Calculate the dimensions of the house. b Calculate the area of the lounge room.
Think Write
a 1 Measure the length and width of the house on a Length of house on plan = 12 cm
the plan. Width of house on plan = 10 cm
2 Multiply each of these measurements by 100. Actual length of house = 12 cm × 100
= 1200 cm
= 12 m
Actual width = 10 cm × 100
= 1000 cm
= 10 m
3 Write your answer. The dimensions of the house are 12 m by 10 m.
b 1 Measure the length and width of the lounge b Length of lounge room on plan = 6 cm
room on the plan. Width of lounge room on plan = 6 cm
2 Multiply each of these measurements by 100. Actual length of lounge room = 6 cm × 100
= 600 cm
=6m
Actual width of lounge room is also 6 m.
3 Calculate the area of the lounge room. A = 62
A= 36 m2
4 Write your answer. The area of the lounge room is 36 m2.
House plans are also drawn with a view of what the house will look like from the outside. These
diagrams are called elevations. For example, the front elevation is what the house will look like from the
front. Elevations are also drawn using a scale.

Worked Example 9
The diagram below shows the front elevation of a house.
Scale 1:100
a Calculate the height of the eaves on the lower side of the house.
b Measure the angle of the pitch of the roof.
Think Write
a 1 Measure the height on the plan for the lower a Height on the plan = 3.5 cm
side of the house.
2 Multiply the plan measurement by 100. Actual height = 3.5 cm × 100
= 350 cm
= 3.5 m
3 Write your answer. The height of the eaves is 3.5 m.
b 1 Measure the angle that the slope of the roof b Angle to horizontal = 45°
makes with the horizontal.
2 Write your answer. The angle of the pitch of the roof is 45°.
Exercise 9B Solving problems using similar f igures

1 WE 5 A tree casts a shadow 2.5 m long. At the same time
a 1-metre ruler casts a shadow 40 cm long, as shown
in the figure. Calculate the height of the tree.
2 A building casts a shadow 9.5 m long. At the same time
a 1-metre ruler casts a shadow 25 cm long.
a Draw a diagram to represent this situation. 1m
b Calculate the height of the building.
2.5 m 40 cm
3 Kerry is 170 cm tall and her shadow measures 50 cm.
At the same time a flagpole casts a shadow which is 3 m long.
a Draw a diagram to represent this situation.
b What is the ratio of sides in the similar triangles formed?
c Calculate the height of the flagpole.
4 An artist holds his brush so that the top and bottom of the brush 1m
line up with the top and bottom of a tree. The brush is 10 cm long
and is held 1 m away from the artist’s eye. The tree is 100 m away
from the artist. Calculate the height of the tree. 100 m
5 MC A tree casts a 6 m shadow. At the same time a 1-metre ruler casts a shadow 1.2 m long. The ratio
of sides in the similar figures formed is:
a 5 : 6 B 5 : 1 C 6 : 1 D 10 : 1

6 We 6 A map gives the scale as being 1 cm = 10 km. Two towns are shown as being 6 cm apart on the
map. What is the actual distance between the two towns?
7 On a map where the scale is given as 1 cm = 4 km, calculate the actual distance where the distance on
the map is measured as:
a 5 cm b 9 cm c 6.5 cm d 12.8 cm e 0.9 cm f 4 mm.
8 On a map where the scale is given
as 1 cm = 5 km, what should the
distance on the map be when the
actual distance is:
a 20 km? b 45 km?
c 22 km? d 340 km?
e 8 km? f 37.5 km?
9 mC The scale on a map is given as
1 cm = 4 km. If the distance between
two points on the map is 3.8 cm, then
the actual distance between these two
points is:
a 15.2 cm B 3.8 km
C 4 km d 15.2 km
10 mC On a map the scale is given as 1 cm = 5 km. The distance from Freewell to Taleton is 64 km.
How far apart should they be drawn on the map?
a 0.078 125 cm B 12.8 cm C 320 cm d 12.8 km
11 We 7 The scale on a set of house plans is given as 1 : 500. Calculate the length of the house frontage if
it is shown as 4 cm on the plans.
12 A set of house plans is to be drawn using a scale of 1 : 400. The side of the house is to be 16 m long.
Calculate the length that this should be drawn on the plans.
13 We 8 Below is the site plan for a block of land.
N
Shed
House
Garden
bed
Garage Driveway
Garden bed
Scale 1:250
a What are the dimensions of the block of land? b What are the dimensions of the house?

14 A house plan is shown below.
Lounge Bed 3 Bed 4 Family
Pantry
Kitchen
Bed 1 Bed 2 Bathroom
Toilet
Laundry
Scale 1:150
a Calculate the dimensions of the house.
b What are the dimensions of the lounge room?
15 WE 9 Below is the front elevation of a house, drawn to scale.
Scale 1:100
a Calculate the height of the peak of the roof.

b Calculate the height of the eaves.
c Measure the angle of the pitch of the roof.
Further development
16 Solve each of the following by drawing a pair of similar triangles.
a A low bridge casts a shadow that is 1.44 metres long at the opening. A handyman’s truck is
2.5 metres high. To determine if the truck will pass under the bridge the handyman gets out of

the truck and finds that a 1.5 m rod casts a 90 cm shadow. Will the truck pass under the bridge?
b Steve Hooker is Australia’s pole vault gold medallist from the Beijing Olympics. Steve’s
1.8 m pole casts a 96 cm shadow on the ground at the same time as the bar he is about to vault
casts a 2.4 m shadow. How high is the bar on the pole vault?
c The fire brigade need to rescue people from atop a building. Their 15 m ladder casts a 20 m shadow
while the building casts a 24 m shadow. What length ladder is needed?
17 Andrew is 1.8 m metres tall and plays basketball. He casts a 60 cm shadow on the court at the same
time as the basketball pole casts a 1 metre shadow. If the basketball ring is 45 cm below the top of the
pole, how high must Andrew reach to slam dunk the basketball?
18 A triangle with sides 18 cm, 36 cm and 48 cm is similar to a triangle that has a measure of 8 cm down
the longest side.
a What is the scale factor?
b What is the perimeter of the smaller triangle?
19 A data projector is to be set up to project onto a screen that is
1.5 m high.
The image is projected from a point behind the lens such that A
B
AB = 10 cm and the image height is 5 cm. What is the maximum
>
>
distance that the projector can be placed from the screen? Lens
Slide
20 A rectangle has dimensions 8 cm by 12 cm.
a What is the area of the rectangle?
b A similar rectangle is drawn with scale factor 2 : 5. Projector
screen
What will be the dimensions of the larger rectangle?
c Find the area of the larger rectangle.
d What is the ratio of the two areas?
e What do you notice when you compare your answer to part d to the scale factor?
Investigate: Scale drawing of the classroom
Draw a scale diagram showing the floor plan of the classroom you are now in. On your diagram show
the location of all desks, cupboards, the blackboards and any other features of the room.
21 The figure below is a survey plan of a street.
Lot X
7.219
23.0 13
.21
9
27.499
5.0
187
607
189
4
110
38.
.91
23.0
21.0
21.0
38
630 m2
796 m2
30.0 15
.0
What is the area in square metres of Lot 110?

a
What is the length and breadth of Lot 110?
b
What scale has been used to draw the survey plan?
c
Redraw Lot 110 using a 1 : 500 scale.
d
The area of Lot 187 is not shown. Find this area.
e
Before the metric system was introduced, the area of house blocks was measured in perches
f
(1 perch = 25.3 m2).
i A block of land with an area of 42 perches is advertised for sale at $160 000. Convert the area
to square metres and find the price per square metre.
ii One lot is 850 m2 and another is 28 perches. Which is the larger?

g Lot 110 is for sale at $119 700, and Lot 189 is for sale at $159 500.
i Which lot represents the best value per square metre?
ii What features of a block of land might attract a purchaser even though its dollar value per square
metre may be higher than surrounding blocks? (Comparing the positions of Lots 110 and 189 can
assist in your answer, but include as many other features as possible.)
22 The plan at right shows a simple design of
a kitchen.
a What is the scale used in this plan? 250 cm
b Find the dimensions of the fridge
c Find the length of the side marked x.
Cupboard Fridge
d Find the area of cupboard space (i.e. the space
space not taken up by the fridge or cook top).
x cm
Cook top
inveSTigaTe: house plans
1 Try to obtain a set of plans to a house.

a What is the scale on the plans?
b What are the dimensions of the house?
c What is the total area of the house?
2 What symbols are used on the house plans to indicate the following:
a a door
b a window
c cupboards
d any other significant features?
3 Using a suitable scale, draw a set of plans for your house. Include a floor plan of your house and a front
elevation.

Trigonometry is the study of triangles. Trigonometry allows us to calculate the lengths of sides and size
of angles in different types of triangles. In this chapter we will be looking at right-angled triangles. The
hypotenuse side is the longest side of a right-angled triangle.
In trigonometry, we need to be able to name the two shorter sides
as well. We do this with reference to a given angle, and label them Hypotenuse
Opposite
opposite and adjacent. They are the sides opposite and adjacent θ
to the given angle. The diagram shows the sides labelled with Adjacent
respect to the angle, θ.
inveSTigaTe: looking at the tangent ratio
The tangent ratio is a ratio of sides in similar right-angled I

triangles, such as those in the diagram. ∠BAC is common to G digiTal doC
Spreadsheet
each triangle and is equal to 30°. We are going to look at the
E doc-1626
ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side in each triangle. Tangent
You can do this either on your calculator or by completing C
the spreadsheet ‘Tangent’ from the Maths Quest General
Mathematics Preliminary Course ebook. A
Complete each of the following measurements and H F D B
calculations.

1 a BC = _______ mm b AB = _______ mm c BC = _______
AB
DE
2 a DE = _______ mm b AD = _______ mm c = _______
AD
FG
3 a FG = _______ mm b AF = _______ mm c = _______
AF
HI
4 a HI = _______ mm b AH = _______ mm c = _______
AH
Remember that ∠BAC is common to each triangle. In each of the above, part c is the ratio of the
opposite side to the adjacent side of ∠BAC. What do you notice about each of these answers?
Trigonometry uses the ratio of side lengths to calculate the lengths of sides and the size of angles.
The ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side is called the tangent ratio. This ratio is fixed for any
particular angle.
The tangent ratio for any angle, θ, can be found using the result:
opposite side
tan θ =
adjacent side
In the investigation above we found that for a 30° angle the ratio was 0.58. We can find a more
accurate value for the tangent ratio on a calculator by pressing b and entering 30.
For all calculations in trigonometry you will need to make sure that your calculator is in DEGREES
MODE. For most calculators you can check this by looking for a DEG in the display.
When measuring angles:
1 degree = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds
You need to be able to enter angles using both degrees and minutes into your calculator. Most
calculators use a DMS (Degrees, Minutes, Seconds) button or a $ button. Check with your teacher to
see how to do this.
Worked Example 10
Using your calculator, find the following, correct to 3 decimal places.

8
a tan 60° b 15 tan 75° c d tan 49°32′
tan 69°
Think Write/display
a Press b and enter 60. a tan 60° = 1.732
b Enter 15, press * and b, enter 75. b 15 tan 75° = 55.981

8
c Enter 8, press / and b, enter 69. c = 3.071
tan 69°
Method 1
d Press b, enter 49, press DMS , enter 32, press DMS . d tan 49°32′ = 1.172
Method 2
1 From the MENU select RUN.
2 To set the calculator up to accept degrees, minutes

and even seconds, press OPTN , 6 for more
options, then 5 for ANGL. The screen should
appear as shown.

3 Now to find the trigonometric ratio, enter tan 49 and
press 4 for degrees; enter 32 and press 4 for
minutes; then press w.
The tangent ratio is used to solve problems involving the opposite side and the adjacent side of a right-
angled triangle. The tangent ratio does not allow us to solve problems that involve the hypotenuse.
The sine ratio (abbreviated to sin) is the name given to the ratio of the opposite side and the
hypotenuse.
inveSTigaTe: looking at the sine ratio
The tangent ratio is the ratio of the opposite side and the adjacent side in a right-angled triangle. The
sine ratio is the ratio of the opposite side and the hypotenuse. Look back to the right-angled triangles digiTal doC
Spreadsheet
used in the tangent investigation on pages 297–8. doc-1627
Complete each of the following measurements and calculations by using your calculator or the Sine
spreadsheet ‘Sine’ from the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course eBookPLUS.
As we saw earlier, ∠BAC is common to all of these similar triangles, and so in this exercise, we look
at the ratio of the side opposite ∠BAC to the hypotenuse of each triangle.
1 a BC = _______ mm b AC = _______ mm c BC = _______

AC
2 a DE = _______ mm b AE = _______ mm DE
c = _______
AE
3 a FG = _______ mm b AG = _______ mm FG
c = _______
AG
4 a HI = _______ mm b AI = _______ mm HI
c = _______
AI
In this exercise, part c is the ratio of the opposite side to ∠BAC to the hypotenuse. You should again
notice that the answers are the same (or very close, allowing for measurement error).
In any right-angled triangle with equal angles, the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse will
remain the same, regardless of the size of the triangle. The formula for the sine ratio is:
opposite side
sin θ =
hypotenuse
The value of the sine ratio for any angle is found using the sin function on the calculator.
sin 30° = 0.5
Check this on your calculator.
Worked example 11
Find, correct to 3 decimal places:

18
a sin 57° b 9 sin 45° c d 9.6 sin 26°12′.
sin 44°
Think WriTe/diSplay
a Press s and enter 57. a sin 57° = 0.839
b Enter 9, press * and s, enter 45. b 9 sin 45° = 6.364

18
c Enter 18, press / and s, enter 44. c = 25.912
sin 44°
d Enter 9.6, press * and s, enter 26, press DMS , d 9.6 sin 26°12′ = 4.238
enter 12, press DMS .

A third trigonometric ratio is the cosine ratio. This ratio compares the length of the adjacent side and
the hypotenuse.
inveSTigaTe: looking at the cosine ratio
Look back to the right-angled triangles used in the tangent investigation on pages 297–8.
digiTal doC Complete each of the following measurements and calculations. You may do so by using the
Spreadsheet
doc-1628
spreadsheet ‘Cosine’ from the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course eBookPLUS.
Cosine
1 a AB = _______ mm b AC = _______ mm AB
c = _______
AC
2 a AD = _______ mm b AE = _______ mm AD
c = _______
AE
3 a AF = _______ mm b AG = _______ mm AF
c = _______
AG
4 a AH = _______ mm b AI = _______ mm AH
c = _______
AI
Again for part c, you should get the same answer for each triangle. In each case, this is the cosine
ratio of the common angle BAC.
The cosine ratio is found using the formula:
adjacent side
cos θ =
hypotenuse
To calculate the cosine ratio for a given angle on your calculator, use the cos function. On your
calculator check the calculation:
cos 30° = 0.866
Worked example 12
Find, correct to 3 decimal places:

21.3 4.5
a cos 27° b 6 cos 55° c d .
cos 74° cos 82°46′
Think WriTe/diSplay
a Press c and enter 27. a cos 27° = 0.891
b Enter 6, press * and c, enter 55. b 6 cos 55° = 3.441

21.3
c Enter 21.3, press / and c, enter 74. c = 77.275
cos 74°
4.5
d Enter 4.5, press * and c, enter 82, press d = 35.740
cos 82°46′
DMS , enter 46, press DMS .
Similarly, if we are given the sin, cos or tan of an angle, we are able to calculate the size of that
angle using the calculator. We do this using the inverse functions. On most calculators these are the
2nd function of the sin, cos and tan functions and are denoted sin−1, cos−1 and tan−1.
Worked example 13
Find θ, correct to the nearest degree, given that sin θ = 0.738.

Think WriTe/diSplay
1 Press 2nd F [sin−1] and enter 0.738.

2 Round your answer to the nearest degree. θ = 48°

So far, we have dealt only with angles that are whole degrees. You need to be able to make calculations
using minutes as well. On most calculators, you will use the DMS (Degrees, Minutes, Seconds) function
or the $ function.
Worked Example 14
Given that tan θ = 1.647, calculate θ to the nearest minute.

Think WRITE/DISPLAY
Method 1
1 Press 2nd F [tan–1] and enter 1.647.
2 Convert your answer to degrees and minutes θ = 58°44′
by pressing DMS .
Method 2
2 As with a scientific calculator, press !

[tan−1] and enter 1.647, then press w.
3 Display the angle options by pressing K,

6 for more choices, and then 5 for
ANGL.
4 The function for getting the answer displayed

in degrees, minutes and seconds is accessed
by pressing 5.
Exercise 9C Calculating trigonometric ratios

1 WE10 Calculate the value of each of the following, correct to 3 decimal places.
8.6
a tan 57° b 9 tan 63° c d tan 33°19′
tan 12°
15 48
a sin 37° b 9.3 sin 13° c d
sin 72° sin 67°40′
6
a cos 45° b 0.25 cos 9° c d 5.9 cos 2°3′
cos 24°
4 Calculate the value of each of the following, correct to 4 significant figures.
a sin 30° b cos 15° c tan 45°
d 48 tan 85° e 128 cos 60° f 9.35 sin 8°
4.5 0.5 15
g h i
cos 32° tan 20° sin 72°

5 Calculate the value of each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
a sin 24°38′ b tan 57°21′
c cos 84°40′ d 9 cos 55°30′
e 4.9 sin 35°50′ f 2.39 tan 8°59′
19 49.6
g h
tan 67°45′ cos 47°25′
0.84
i
sin 75°5′
6 We13 Find θ, correct to the nearest degree, given that sin θ = 0.167.
7 Find θ, correct to the nearest degree, given that:
a sin θ = 0.698 b cos θ = 0.173 c tan θ = 1.517.
8 We14 Find θ, correct to the nearest minute, given that tan θ = 17.169.
9 Find θ, correct to the nearest minute, given that:
a tan θ = 0.931 b cos θ = 0.854 c sin θ = 0.277.
Further development
10 Find the value of each of the following trigonometric ratio pairs. Give your answers correct to
4 decimal places.
a sin 40°, cos 50° b sin 70°, cos 20°
c sin 13°, cos 77° d sin 84°, cos 6°
11 What did you notice about the relationship between sin and cos in question 10? Use this to complete
each of the following.
a sin 30° = cos ___ b cos 75° = sin ___
c sin 28° = ____ d cos 45° = sin ___
12 Find:
a sin 23° b cos 23°
sin 23°
c
cos 23° d tan 23°.
13 Find:
a sin 67° b cos 67° c (sin 67°)2 + (cos 67°)2.
14 Use your answer to question 13 to find (sin 34°)2 + (cos 34°)2. Check your answer with your calculator.
15 Fred tries to solve sin θ = 1.2 on his calculator, however an error statement is returned.
a Explain why there is no solution to this question.
digiTal doC
WorkSHEET 9.1 b What is the only trigonometric ratio that can possibly equal 1.2?
doc-10332

We can use the trigonometric ratios to find the length of one side of a right-
hyp
angled triangle if we know the length of another side and an angle. Consider x opp
the triangle at right. 30°
In this triangle we are asked to find the length of the opposite side and 14 cm
have been given the length of the adjacent side. adj
opposite x
We know from the formula that: tan θ = . In this example, tan 30° = . From our calculator
adjacent 14
we know that tan 30° = 0.577. We can set up an equation that will allow us to find the value of x.
opp
tan θ =
adj
x
tan 30° =
14
x = 14 tan 30°
= 8.083 cm

Worked example 15
Use the tangent ratio to find the value of h in the triangle at right,
correct to 2 decimal places. h
55°
Think WriTe 17 m
1 Label the sides of the triangle opp, adj and hyp.

hyp
h opp
55°
17 cm
adj
opp
2 Write the tangent formula. tan θ =
adj
3 Substitute for θ (55°) and the adjacent side (17 m).
tan 55° = h
17
4 Make h the subject of the equation. h = 17 tan 55°
5 Calculate. = 24.28 cm
In the example above, we were told to use the tangent ratio. In practice, we need to be able to look at
a problem and then decide if the solution is found using the sin, cos or tan ratio. To do this we need to
examine the three formulas.
opposite side
tan θ =
adjacent side
We use the tan ratio when we are finding either the length of the opposite or adjacent side and are
given the length of the other.
opposite side
sin θ =
hypotenuse
The sin ratio is used when we are finding the length of the opposite side or the hypotenuse and are
given the length of the other.
adjacent side
cos θ =
hypotenuse
The cos ratio is for problems where we are finding the length of the adjacent side or the hypotenuse
and are given the length of the other.
To make the decision we need to label the sides of the triangle and make a decision based on these labels.
Worked example 16
Find the length of the side marked x, correct to 2 decimal places.

24 m
x
Think WriTe/diSplay 50°
1 Label the sides of the triangle.

hyp opp
24 m x
50°
adj
opp
2 x is the opposite side and 24 m is the hypotenuse, sin θ =
adj
therefore use the sin formula.
x
3 Substitute for θ and the hypotenuse. sin 50° =
24

4 Make x the subject of the equation. x = 24 sin 50°
5 Calculate. = 18.39 m
Method 2
1 From the MENU select EQUA.
2 Press 3 for Solver.
3 Delete any existing equation and enter

x
sin 50° = by pressing sin 50 ! = X ÷ 24 w.
24
Do not worry about a different value of X in the
display at this stage as it is a previously stored value.
4 Press 6 for SOLV to solve this equation.
To remember each of the formulas more easily, we can use this acronym:
SOHCAHTOA
inTeraCTiviTy
We pronounce this acronym as ‘Sock ca toe her’. The initials of the acronym represent the three
int-2405 trigonometric formulas.
SohCahToa opp adj
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ = opp
hyp hyp adj
Trigonometry is used to solve many practical problems. In these cases, it is necessary to draw a
diagram to represent the problem and then use trigonometry to solve the problem. With written problems
that require you to draw the diagram, it is necessary to give the answer in words.
Worked example 17
A flying fox is used in an army training camp. The flying fox is supported by a cable that runs
from the top of a cliff face to a point 100 m from the base of the cliff. The cable makes a 15° angle
with the horizontal. Find the length of the cable used to support the flying fox.
Think WriTe
1 Draw a diagram and show information.

f
15°
100 m
2 Label the sides of the triangle opp, adj and hyp.

3 Choose the cosine ratio because we are finding
the hypotenuse and have been given the adjacent
side.

adj
4 Write the formula. cos θ =
hyp
5 Substitute for θ and the adjacent side. 100
cos 15° =
f
6 Make f the subject of the equation. f cos 15° = 100
100
f=
cos 15°
7 Calculate. = 103.5 m
8 Give a written answer. The cable is approximately 103.5 m long.
Exercise 9D Finding an unknown side

1 Label the sides of each of the following triangles, with respect to the angle marked with the
pronumeral.
a b c
α
θ γ

2 WE 15 Use the tangent ratio to find the length of the side marked x
(correct to 1 decimal place).
x
71°
51 mm
3 Use the sine ratio to find the length of the side marked a
(correct to 2 decimal places). 13 m
a
23°
4 Use the cosine ratio to find the length of the side marked d
(correct to 3 significant figures).
35 cm
31°
d
5 WE 16 The following questions use the tan, sin or cos ratios in their solution. Find the size of the side
marked with the pronumeral, correct to 3 significant figures.
a b c
49°
13 cm 12.5 km
x 48 m
41°
68° y z

6 Find the length of the side marked with the pronumeral in each of the following
(correct to 3 significant figures).
a b x c
76° 9°
m
a
67° 8.5 km 116 mm

2.3 m


d d e f
g
44.3 m 20°
15.75 km
16.75 cm
11° 83°
x

g m h q i
32' r
26.8 cm
2.34 m 84.6 km
51'
32'

7 MC Look at the diagram at right and state which of the following is correct.
A x = 9.2 sin 69° 9.2

B x =
sin 69° x
C x = 9.2 cos 69° 9.2 69°

D x =
cos 69° 9.2
8 MC Study the triangle at right and state which of the following
is correct. ϕ
8 15 17
A tan ϕ = 15 B tan ϕ = 8 15
15 8
C sin ϕ = 17 D cos ϕ = 17 8
9 MC Which of the statements below is not correct?

A The value of tan θ can never be greater than 1.
B The value of sin θ can never be greater than 1.
C The value of cos θ can never be greater than 1.
D tan 45° = 1
10 MC Study the diagram at right and state which of the statements
is correct. 22 mm
w
A w = 22 cos 36° 22
B w = 36°
sin 36°
C w = 22 cos 54° d w = 22 sin 54°
11 WE 17 A tree casts a 3.6 m shadow when the sun’s angle of elevation is 59°. Calculate the height of
the tree, correct to the nearest metre.
12 A 10 m ladder just reaches to the top of a wall when it is leaning at 65° to the ground. How far from the
foot of the wall is the ladder (correct to 1 decimal place)?
13 The diagram at right shows the paths of two ships, A and B, after they have left Port A
port. If ship B sends a distress signal, how far must ship A sail to give assistance 60°
(to the nearest kilometre)? 23 km
14 A rectangle 13.5 cm wide has a diagonal that makes a 24° angle
with the horizontal. B
a Draw a diagram of this situation.
b Calculate the width of the rectangle, correct to 1 decimal place.
15 A wooden gate has a diagonal brace built in for support. The gate stands 1.4 m high and the diagonal
makes a 60° angle with the horizontal.
a Draw a diagram of the gate.
b Calculate the width of the gate (correct to 4 decimal places).
c Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the length of the diagonal brace.

16 The wire support for a flagpole makes a 70° angle with the ground. If the support is 3.3 m from the
base of the flagpole, calculate the height of the flagpole (correct to 2 decimal places).
17 A ship drops anchor vertically with an anchor line 60 m long. After one hour the anchor line makes a
15° angle with the vertical.
a Draw a diagram of this situation.
b Calculate the depth of water, correct to the nearest metre.
c Calculate the distance that the ship has drifted, correct to 1 decimal place.
Further development
18 Find the length of the side marked ‘c’ in the triangle at right.
5m
37°
3m c
19 In the diagram at right find the size of angle θ (to the nearest degree)
and the side lengths ‘x’ and ‘y’ correct to 1 decimal place. 20°
θ
60° y
8m x
20 Find the value of the unknown sides in each of the following:

a 15 cm b c 6.5 cm
110°
27 m x
20 cm
x 35°
65°
x
21 A boat is moored in calm water with a depth of 29 m. If the anchor line makes a 28° angle with the
surface of the water, what is the length of the anchor line?
22 A person hopes to swim across a river of width 43 m. When she swims across the current pushes
her downstream to a point such that the swim line makes a 67° angle with the river bank.
Calculate:
a how far she swam
b how far she finished from the planned finishing point.
23 Peter says that whenever finding the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, the solution will involve
dividing by the trigonometric ratio. Is Peter correct? Explain your answer.

9E Finding angles
In this chapter so far, we have concerned ourselves with finding side lengths. We are also able to use
trigonometry to find the sizes of angles when we have been given side lengths. We need to reverse our
previous processes.
Consider the triangle at right. We want to find the size of the angle marked θ.
opp 10 cm
Using the formula sin θ = we know that in this triangle 5 cm
hyp θ
5
sin θ = 10
1
=2
= 0.5
We then calculate sin−1 (0.5) to find that θ = 30°.
As with all trigonometry it is important that you have your calculator set to degrees mode.
Worked Example 18
Find the size of angle θ, correct to the nearest degree,

in the triangle at right. 4.3 m
θ
6.5 m
Think Write/display
Method 1
1 Label the sides of the triangle and choose the
tan ratio.
hyp 4.3
opp
θ
6.5
adj
tan θ = opp
adj
2 Substitute for the opposite and adjacent sides = 4.3

6.5
in the triangle and simplify.
= 0.6615
3 Make θ the subject of the equation. θ = tan−1(0.6615)
4 Calculate. = 33° (to the nearest degree)
Method 2
1 From the MENU select EQUA.
2 Press 3 for Solver.
3 Delete any existing equation and enter tan

4.3
x = 6.5 by pressing tan X! [=] 4.3 /
6.5 w.

4 Press 6 for SOLV to solve this equation.
The same methods can be used to solve problems. As with finding sides, we set up the question by
drawing a diagram of the situation.
Worked Example 19
A ladder is leant against a wall. The foot of the ladder is 4 m from the base of the wall and the
ladder reaches 10 m up the wall. Calculate the angle that the ladder makes with the ground.
Think Write
1 Draw a diagram and label the sides.
opp
10 m hyp
θ
4m
adj
2 Choose the tangent ratio and write the opp

tan θ =
formula. adj
3 Substitute for the opposite and adjacent side,
= 10
then simplify. 4
= 2.5
4 Make θ the subject of the equation. θ = tan−1(2.5)
5 Calculate and give your answer correct to the = 68°
nearest degree.
6 Give a written answer. The ladder makes an angle of 68° with the
ground.
Exercise 9E Finding angles

1 In each of the following, use the tangent ratio to find the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral,
correct to the nearest degree.
a b c 25 mm
γ
162 mm
7m
θ 11 m
12 m

ϕ
3m
2 In each of the following, use the sine ratio to find the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral,
a b 4.6 m c
24 m α 9.7 km
13 m
θ
6.5 m
θ 5.6 km


3 In each of the following, use the cosine ratio to find the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral,
a b c
27.8 cm
15 cm 4.6 m 2.6 m
β
θ 19.5 cm
9 cm
4 We18 In the following triangles, you will need to use all three trigonometric ratios. Find the size of
the angle marked θ, correct to the nearest degree.
a b c 14 cm
θ θ
11 cm 15 cm 9 cm
θ
7 cm 8 cm
d 3.6 m e f
32 mm
196 mm θ 26.8 m 14.9 m
9.2 m
5 In each of the following, find the size of the angle marked θ, correct to the nearest degree.
a b c 2.5 m
θ 0.6 m
θ
30 m
63 cm
θ
19.2 m 10 cm
d 3.5 m e f
16.3 m 6.3 m
θ 8.3 m
θ 18.9 m
18.5 m
6 mC Look at the triangle drawn at right. A

Which of the statements below is correct? 10 cm
a ∠ABC = 30° B ∠ABC = 60° 5 cm
C ∠CAB = 30° d ∠ABC = 45° θ
C B
7 mC Consider the triangle drawn at right. θ is closest to:
a 41°55′ B 41°56′ θ
C 48°4′ d 48°5′ 9.3 m
12.5 m
3
8 mC The exact value of sin θ = 2
The angle θ =
.
a 30° B 45°
kite
C 60° d 90°
9 We19 A 10 m ladder leans against a 6 m high wall. Find the angle that the ladder
makes with the horizontal, correct to the nearest degree. 40 m
10 A kite is flying on a 40 m string. The kite is flying 10 m away from the vertical as
shown in the figure at right. Find the angle the string makes with the horizontal,
correct to the nearest degree. 10 m

11 A ship’s compass shows a course due east
of the port from which it sails. After sailing
10 nautical miles, it is found that the ship is
1.5 nautical miles off course as shown in the
figure below.
1.5 nm
10 nm
7m
Find the error in the compass reading,
12 The diagram at right shows a footballer’s shot at goal. 30 m
By dividing the isosceles triangle in half, calculate, to the nearest degree, the angle
within which the footballer must kick to get the ball to go between the posts.
13 A golfer hits the ball 250 m, but 20 m off
centre. Calculate the angle at which the ball
deviated from a straight line, correct to the
nearest degree.
Further development
14 mC The figure below shows a BMX bicycle
ramp. All measurements are shown in metres.
5 3
θ
4
The correct expression for the angle of

elevation, θ, of the ramp is:
 4 B cos−1  4
a sin−1  
 5  5
C tan−1  4 d cos−1  3

 5  5
15 mC A flagpole that is 2 metres tall casts a shadow that is 0.6 metres long. The angle of the sun to the
ground is:
a 70° B 71°
C 72° d 73°
16 A javelin that is 1.95 m long is thrown and sticks 20 cm into the ground. Given that the sun is directly
overhead and that the javelin casts a 90 cm shadow, find the angle that the javelin makes with the
ground.
17 A hot air balloon is hovering in strong winds 10 vertical metres above the ground. The balloon is being
held in place by a rope that is 15 m long. What angle does the rope make with the ground?
18 A cable car follows a direct line from a mountain peak (altitude 1250 m) to a ridge (altitude 840 m). If
the horizontal distance between the peak and the ridge is 430 m, calculate the angle through which the
cable car descends.
19 A ramp joins two points 1.2 metres apart. One point is 25 cm higher than the other.
a Find the length of the ramp.
b Find the angle of inclination of the ramp.

9F Applications of right-angled triangles
In earlier sections we have seen some examples of practical problems that can be solved using
trigonometry. One of the major examples that you will need to understand is with angles of elevation and
depression.
The angle of elevation is measured upwards from a horizontal and refers to the angle at which we
need to look up to see an object. Similarly, the angle of depression is the angle at which we need to look
down from the horizontal to see an object.
We are able to use the angles of elevation and depression to calculate the heights and distances of
objects that would otherwise be difficult to measure.
Worked Example 20
From a point 50 m from the foot of a building, the angle of elevation

to the top of the building is measured as 40°. h
Calculate the height, h, of the building, correct to the nearest
metre. 40°
50 m
Think Write
1 Label the sides of the triangle opp, adj and

hyp. h
hyp
opp
2 Choose the tangent ratio because we are
finding the length of the opposite side and 40°
have been given the length of the adjacent 50 m
adj
side.
opp
3 Write the formula. tan θ =
adj
h
4 Substitute for θ and the adjacent side. tan 40° =
50
6 Calculate. = 42 m
7 Give a written answer. The height of the building is approximately 42 m.
In practical situations, the angle of elevation is measured using a clinometer. Therefore, the angle of
elevation is measured from a person’s height at eye level. For this reason, the height at eye level must be
added to the calculated answer.
Worked Example 21
Bryan measures the angle of elevation to the top of a tree

as 64°, from a point 10 m from the foot of the tree. If the
height of Bryan’s eyes is 1.6 m, calculate the height of the
tree, correct to 1 decimal place.
64°
Think Write 10 m 1.6 m
1 Label the sides opp, adj and hyp.
2 Choose the tangent ratio because we are
h hyp
finding the length of the opposite side and opp
have been given the length of the adjacent
side. 64°
10 m
adj

opp
adj
4 Substitute for θ and the adjacent side. h
tan 64° =
10
6 Calculate h. = 20.5 m
7 Add the eye height. 20.5 + 1.6 = 22.1
8 Give a written answer. The height of the building is approximately 22.1 m.
A similar method for finding the solution is used for problems that involve an angle of depression.
Worked example 22
When an aeroplane is 2 km from a runway, the angle of depression to the runway is 10°. Calculate
the altitude of the aeroplane, correct to the nearest metre.
2 km
10°
h
Think WriTe
1 Label the sides of the triangle opp, adj and adj

hyp. 2 km
10°
2 Choose the tan ratio, because we are finding
opp h
the length of the opposite side given the hyp
length of the adjacent side.
opp
adj
h
4 Substitute for θ and the adjacent side, tan 10° =
2000
converting 2 km to metres.
6 Calculate. = 353 m
7 Give a written answer. The altitude of the aeroplane is approximately
353 m.
Angles of elevation and depression can also be calculated by using known measurements. This is done
by drawing a right-angled triangle to represent a situation.
Worked example 23
A 5.2 m building casts a 3.6 m shadow. Calculate the angle of elevation of the sun, correct to the
nearest degree.
5.2 m
θ
3.6 m

Think WriTe
1 Label the sides opp, adj and hyp.
2 Choose the tan ratio because we are given opp
hyp
the length of the opposite and adjacent sides. 5.2 m
θ
3.6 m
adj
opp
adj
4 Substitute for opposite and adjacent. tan θ = 5.2
3.6
5 Make θ the subject of the equation. θ = tan−1 5.2

3.6
6 Calculate. = 55°
7 Give a written answer. The angle of elevation of the sun is
approximately 55°.
To capture the top of the building in this photo the photographer had to tilt the camera upwards, hence,
increase the angle of elevation.

Exercise 9F Applications of right-angled triangles
1 WE 20 From a point 100 m from the foot of a building, the angle of
elevation to the top of the building is 15°. Calculate the height of the
building, correct to 1 decimal place.
2 The angle of elevation from a ship to an 15°
aeroplane is 60°. The aeroplane is 2300 m 100 m
due north of the ship. Calculate the altitude
of the aeroplane, correct to the nearest
60° metre.
2300 m
3 From a point out to sea, a ship sights the top of a lighthouse at an
angle of elevation of 12°. It is known that the top of the lighthouse 40 m
is 40 m above sea level. Calculate the distance of the ship from the 12°
x
lighthouse, correct to the nearest 10 m.
4 WE 21 From a point 50 m from the foot of a building, Rod sights the
top of a building at an angle of elevation of 37°.
Given that Rod’s eyes are at a height of 1.5 m, calculate the height 37°
of the building, correct to 1 decimal place. 1.5 m 50 m
5 Richard is flying a kite and sights the kite at an angle of elevation of 65°.
40 m The length of the string is 40 m and Richard’s eyes are at a height of
x 1.8 m. Calculate the height at which the kite is flying, correct to 1 decimal
65° place.
1.8 m
6 WE 22 Bettina is standing on top of a cliff, 70 m above sea 35°

level. She looks directly out to sea and sights a ship at an angle 70 m
of depression of 35°. Calculate the distance of the ship from
shore, to the nearest metre.
7 From an aeroplane flying at an altitude of 4000 m, the runway 15°
is sighted at an angle of depression of 15°. Calculate the 4000 m
distance of the aeroplane from the runway, correct to the
nearest kilometre.
8 There is a fire on the fifth floor of a building. The closest
a fire truck can get to the building is 10 m. The angle of
elevation from this point to where people need to be rescued
is 69°. If the fire truck has a 30 m ladder, can the ladder be
used to make the rescue?
9 WE 23 A 12 m high building casts a shadow 15 m long. Calculate the 69°
angle of elevation of the sun, to the nearest degree. 12 m
10 m
θ
15 m
10 An aeroplane that is at an altitude of 1500 m is 4000 m from a ship in a horizontal direction, as shown
below. Calculate the angle of depression from the aeroplane to the ship, to the nearest degree.
4000 m
θ
1500 m
Further development
11 A lifesaver sits in a tower 2 m above sea level. He sees a swimmer having difficulty at an angle of
depression of 12°. How far is the swimmer from the tower?
12 From the top of a lookout 50 m above the ground, the angle of depression to a campsite is 37°. How far
is the camp from the base of the lookout?

13 Two buildings 50 m and 75 m tall are separated by 70 m. Find the angle of elevation from the top of the
shorter building to the top of the taller building.
digiTal doC 14 Wayne says that the angle of elevation from A to B will be equal to the angle of depression from B to
WorkSHEET 9.2 A. Is Wayne correct? Explain your answer.
doc-10333
inveSTigaTe: Calculation of heights
To measure the heights of trees and buildings around your school, try the following.
1 Measure your height at eye level.
2 Take a clinometer and from a point measure the angle of elevation to the top of the tree or building.
3 Measure your distance from the foot of the tree or building.
4 Use trigonometry to calculate the height, remembering to add your height at eye level to the result of the
calculation.
proportional diagrams
4 km
In many cases, we need only an approximate measurement

for a practical problem. This type of answer can be
obtained by drawing a scale diagram.
Consider the situation where a hiker walks 6 km due
north, turns and walks 4 km due east. By drawing a diagram
using a scale of 1 cm = 1 km, we can obtain an approximate 6 km
measurement for the distance the hiker is from the starting point.
By measurement, we can see that the distance the hiker
is from the starting point is approximately 7.2 km.
With a protractor, we can draw a scale diagram to solve
problems involving angles. Suppose that the angle of elevation
to the top of a tree is 40° from a point 12 m from the foot of the
tree.
By measurement, the height of the tree is approximately 10 m.
In many situations a quick check of the accuracy of an answer
is useful and can be made by using a scale drawing. In such h
cases the drawing would need to be only approximately to scale.
Suppose that you were told that the angle of depression from the top of
40°
a 50 m cliff to a ship out to sea was 15°. You were then told that this ship is
12 m
1 km from shore.
15°
50 m
Using this diagram, we would estimate that the ship is only 190 m from shore. Such a diagram is a
useful check to a calculation.
inveSTigaTe: Checking with a proportional diagram
Draw diagrams roughly to scale to check the results to the previous investigation.
Such diagrams are used to develop car rally courses, cross-country running courses and orienteering events.
inveSTigaTe: Using proportional diagrams
Plan a track for a cross-country run or orienteering event around your school.
1 Measure the length of each leg and the angle involved in each turn.
2 On a scale diagram, draw the course.
3 By measuring your diagram, calculate the approximate length of the course.

Summary
Similar figures • Similar figures have all pairs of corresponding angles equal and corresponding sides in equal ratio.
• To show that triangles are similar, we show either that all pairs of corresponding angles are equal
or that all pairs of corresponding sides are in equal ratio.
• For other figures it is necessary to show that both properties are true.
Scale factors • The scale factor allows us to solve problems using similar figures.
• Heights of objects, such as trees, that are not easily measured can be determined by constructing
similar triangles.
Calculating opp
trigonometric ratios • tan θ =
adj
opp
• sin θ =
hyp
adj
• cos θ =
hyp
• SOHCAHTOA — this acronym will help you remember trigonometric formulas.
Finding an unknown • Label the sides of the triangle opposite, adjacent and hypotenuse.
side • Choose the correct ratio.
• Substitute given information.
• Make the unknown side the subject of the equation.
• Calculate.
Finding angles • Label the sides of the triangle opposite, adjacent and hypotenuse.
• Choose the correct ratio.
• Substitute given information.
• Make the unknown angle the subject of the equation.
• Calculate by using the inverse trigonometric functions.
applications of right- • The angle of elevation is the angle we look up from the horizontal to see an object.
angled triangles • The angle of depression is the angle we look down from the horizontal to see an object.
• Problems are solved using angles of elevation and depression by the same methods as for all right-
angled triangles.
proportional diagrams • A scale diagram can be drawn to obtain a reasonable estimate of a distance or angle.
• A diagram that is drawn roughly to scale can be used to check that an answer is reasonably
accurate.

Chapter review
1 Which of the triangles below are similar?
m U lT ip l e
C h oiCe I II III
9 cm 3 cm 6 cm
4 cm 2 cm 4 cm
a I and II B I and III
C II and III d I, II and III
2 Consider the statements below.

Statement I. All rhombuses are similar.
Statement II. All parallelograms are similar.
Which of the above statements is correct?
a Statement I B Statement II
C Statements I and II d Neither statement
3 Look at the triangle at right. 41 m

9 9m
Statement 1. cos θ = θ
41
40 m
9
Statement 2. tan θ =
40
Which of the above statements is true?
a 1 only B 2 only
C both 1 and 2 d neither statement
4 Which of the following statements is correct?

a cos 30° = tan 60° B cos 30° = sin 60°
C cos 30° = sin 30° d cos 60° = sin 60°
Sh orT 1 Prove that !MNO ||| !PQO. M N

anS Wer
2 cm 4 cm
O
18 cm
9 cm
P Q
2 ABCD and WXYZ are rectangles. W X

a Prove that the two rectangles are similar.
b State the ratio of sides in the two similar figures. A 6 cm B
2 cm 15 cm
D C
Z 5 cm Y
3 The two triangles at right are similar.

Use this to find the length of the side marked x.
15 cm x
9 cm 12 cm
4 When a 1-metre ruler casts a shadow 75 cm long, a building casts a 15 m shadow. Calculate the height
of the building.
5 A 10 m ladder will reach 9 m up a wall. How high up a wall will a 25 m ladder reach, if it is placed at
the same angle to the ground?

6 Calculate θ, correct to the nearest degree, given that:
a cos θ = 0.5874 b tan θ = 1.23 c sin θ = 0.8.
7 Calculate θ, correct to the nearest minute, given that:
a cos θ = 0.199 b tan θ = 0.5 c sin θ = 0.257.
8 Find the length of each side marked with a pronumeral, correct to 1 decimal place.
a 6 cm b c 6.8 m
81° 3.9 m 65°
78° x t
q
d g e f
138 mm 38.5 m
z 30' k
8'
2.9 m
42'
g
63 km
12'
m
9 A rope that is used to support a flagpole makes an angle of 70° with the ground. If the rope is tied down
3.1 m from the foot of the flagpole, find the height of the flagpole, correct to 1 decimal place.
10 A dirt track runs off a road at an angle of 34° to the road. If I travel for 4.5 km along the dirt track, what
is the shortest distance back to the road (correct to 1 decimal place)?
11 Find the size of the angle marked θ in each of the following, giving your answer correct to the nearest
degree.
a 2.3 m b c
θ 116 cm
43 cm
16 m 19 m
4.6 m
θ θ
12 A kite on an 80 m string reaches a height of 50 m in a strong wind. Calculate the angle the string makes
with the horizontal.
13 The top of a building is sighted at an angle of elevation of 40°, when an observer
is 27 m back from the base. Calculate the height of the building, correct to the h
nearest metre.
40°
27 m
14 Hakam stands 50 m back from the foot of an 80 m telephone tower.
Hakam’s eyes are at a height of 1.57 m. Calculate the angle of
elevation that Hakam must look to see the top of the tower.
80 m
θ
1.57 m 50 m

1 On a bushwalk starting at point A, Sally walks 4.2 km due west to point B B 4.2 km A
e x T ended
r e SponS e then turns due south for a distance of 3.1 km to point C.
a Calculate the distance, AC, that Sally must walk to return to her
3.1 km
starting point.
b Calculate the direction that Sally must walk, represented by the θ
angle θ, correct to the nearest degree. C
2 A hot-air balloon takes off and after 30 minutes of flying reaches an
altitude of 2000 m. At that time, the angle of depression to its launch
pad is 15°. 15°
a Calculate the horizontal distance that the balloon has travelled in 2000 m
that half-hour (correct to the nearest 100 m).
digiTal doC
Test Yourself
b Calculate the angle of depression to the launch pad after the
doc-10334 balloon has travelled 15 km in one direction (assuming that it
Chapter 9 maintains its altitude of 2000 m).

ICT activities
9a Similar f igures and scale factors 9F applications of right-angled triangles
inTeraCTiviTy digiTal doC
• int-2403: Similarity (page 285) • WorkSHEET 9.2 (doc-10333): Apply your knowledge of trigonometry
to problems. (page 316)
digiTal doCS Chapter review
• Spreadsheet (doc-1626): Tangent (page 297) • Test Yourself Chapter 9 (doc-10334): Take the end-of-chapter test to
• Spreadsheet (doc-1627): Sine (page 299) check your progress. (page 320)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1628): Cosine (page 300)
• WorkSHEET 9.1 (doc-10332): Apply your knowledge to questions. To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
(page 302)

inTeraCTiviTy
• int-2405: SOHCAHTOA (page 304)

Answers CHAPTER 9
Similar FigUreS and 15 a 8.5 m b 3.5 m c 40° 5 a 12.1 cm b 55.2 m c 9.43 km
16 a The truck will not pass under the bridge 6 a 5.42 m b 2.06 km c 18.4 mm
TrigonomeTry d 3.20 cm 5.40 m 5.39 km
which is 2.4 m high. e f
exercise 9a Similar figures and scale g 0.205 m 42.3 km 13.0 cm
b 4.5 m c 18 metres h i
factors 17 2.55 m 7 D 8 A
1 Corresponding angles equal 18 a 6:1 b 17 cm 9 A 10 C
2 Corresponding angles equal 19 2.9 metres 11 6 m 12 4.2 m
3 Corresponding sides in equal ratio 20 a 96 cm2 b 20 cm × 30 cm 13 20 km
4 Corresponding sides in equal ratio c 600 cm2 d 4 : 25 14 a b 6.0 cm
5 Corresponding angles equal e It is the square of the scale factor.
6 Corresponding angles equal 21 a 630 m2 24°
7 They are similar. b 30 m, 21 m 13.5 cm
8 They are not similar. c Approx. 1 : 1500 15 a b 0.8083 m
1 d Rectangle is 6 cm by 4.2 cm.
9 a 2:3 b 12
e 632 m2 1.4 m
1
10 a 2 : 5 b 22 f i 1063 m2, $151/m2
ii 850 m2 is larger 60°
11 2 : 3 12 200 13 2 000 000
g i Lot 110
14 a 1 : 1000 b 1 : 800 c 1.617 m
ii Does it front a main road? Is it low
c 4 : 2500 = 1 : 625 d 2:5 16 9.067 m
lying? Slope of land, views, aspect. 17 a b 58 m
e 2:1 f 3:8 22 a 1 : 50 b 80 cm × 70 cm
15 a RL = 1000 × SL b RL = 800 × SL c 210 cm d 22 800 cm2 15°
2500 SL 5 SL
c RL = d RL = exercise 9C Calculating trigonometric 60 m
4 2
SL 8 SL ratios
e RL = f RL = 1 a 1.540 b 17.663 c 40.460
2 3
16 a 100 cm b 18.75 cm d 0.657 c 15.5 m
17 a 1 : 40 b 174 cm and 22 cm 2 a 0.602 b 2.092 c 15.246 18 5.3 m
18 a 1 : 600 b 2 mm d 51.893 19 θ = 30°, x = 16.0 m, y = 13.0 m
19 a True b False 3 a 0.707 b 0.247 c 6.568 20 a 24.3 cm b 74.2 m c 4.6 cm
c False d True d 5.896 21 62 m
e True 4 a 0.5 b 0.9659 c 1 22 a 46.7 m b 18.3 m
exercise 9B Solving problems using d 548.6 e 64 f 1.301 23 Peter is correct. If finding the hypotenuse
g 5.306 h 1.374 i 15.77 of the triangle, the ‘unknown side’ will be
similar figures
5 a 0.42 b 1.56 c 0.09 in the denominator of the formula.
1 6.25 m
d 5.10 e 2.87 f 0.38
2 a exercise 9e Finding angles
g 7.77 h 73.30 i 0.87
6 10° 1 a 30° b 75° c 81°
7 a 44° b 80° c 57° 2 a 33° b 45° c 35°
h 8 86°40′ 3 a 53° b 56° c 45°
9 a 42°57′ b 31°21′ c 16°5′ 4 a 50° b 32° c 33°
1m
10 a 0.6428 b 0.9397 c 0.2250 d 21° e 81° f 34°
d 0.9945 5 a 40° b 81° c 14°
9.5 m 25 cm d 79° e 63° f 19°
11 a 60° b 15° c 62°
b 38 m 6 A 7 B
d 45°
3 a 8 C 9 37°
12 a 0.3907 b 0.9205 c 0.4245
d 0.4245 10 76° 11 9°
13 a 0.9205 b 0.3907 c 1 12 13° 13 5°
h 14 1 14 B 15 D
15 a For any right-angled triangle, the 16 59° 17 42°
170 cm
opposite side must be smaller in length 18 44°
than the hypotenuse, Therefore, the 19 a 1.23 m b 12°
3m 50 cm
value of sin θ cannot be greater than 1. exercise 9F
b 1:6 c 10.2 m applications of right-angled
b Tan
4 10 m 5 B 6 60 km triangles
exercise 9d Finding an unknown side
7 a 20 km b 36 km c 26 km 1 26.8 m 2 3984 m
d 51.2 km e 3.6 km f 1.6 km 1 a b 3 190 m 4 39.2 m
hyp
opp 5 42.1 m 6 100 m
8 a 4 cm b 9 cm c 4.4 cm α
θ hyp
d 68 cm e 1.6 cm f 7.5 cm adj
adj 7 15 km
9 D 8 Yes, the ladder needs to be only 28 m long.
10 B opp 9 39° 10 21°
11 20 m c 11 9.41 m 12 66.35 m
adj opp
12 4 cm 13 20°
γ
13 a 20 m × 25 m b 10 m × 15 m 14 Wayne is correct. The same sized right-
hyp
14 a 18 m × 12 m angled triangle will be drawn between the
b 6.75 m × 4.5 m 2 148.1 mm 3 5.08 m 4 30.0 cm two points.

ChapTer revieW 3 20 cm 10 2.5 km
4 20 m 11 a 57° b 27° c 68°
mUlTiple ChoiCe
5 22.5 m 12 39°
1C 2 D 6 a 54° b 51° c 53° 13 23 m
3B 4 B 7 a 78°31′ b 26°34′ c 14°54′ 14 57.5°
8 a 37.9 cm b 3.8 m c 14.6 m
ShorT anSWer d 1.4 m e 16.8 mm f 10.6 m exTended reSponSe
1 Check with your teacher. g 5.5 km 1 a 5.22 km b 54°
2 a Check with your teacher. b 2:5 9 8.5 m 2 a 7500 m b 7°36′

ChapTer 10
Probability
ChapTer ConTenTs
10a Multi-stage events
10b The fundamental counting principle
10C Probability statements
10d Relative frequency
10e Equally likely outcomes
10F The probability formula
10g Writing probabilities as decimals and percentages
10h Range of probabilities
10i Complementary events
10a multi-stage events

1st coin 2nd coin
A multi-stage event is where there is more than one part to the probability
Heads
experiment. Tree diagrams are used to find the elements in the sample space Heads
in a multi-stage probability experiment. Consider the case of tossing two Tails
coins. How many elements are there in the sample space? We draw a tree Heads
Tails
diagram to develop a system that will list the sample space for us. Tails
The tree diagram branches out once for every stage of the probability experiment. At the end of each
branch, one element of the sample space is found by following the branches that lead to that point.
Therefore, when two coins are tossed, the sample space can be written:
S = {Heads-Heads, Heads-Tails, Tails-Heads, Tails-Tails}
There are four elements in the sample space; Heads-Tails and Tails-Heads are distinct elements of the
sample space.
Worked example 1
A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. List all elements of the sample space.
Think WriTe
1 Draw the branches for the coin toss. Coin toss Die roll
1
2 From each branch for the coin toss, draw 2
the branches for the die roll. Head 3
4
5
6
1
2
3
Tail 4
5
6
3 List the sample space by following the path S = {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}
to the end of each branch.
ChapTer 10 • Probability 325

In many cases, the second branch of the tree diagram will be different from the first branch. This
occurs in situations such as those outlined in the following worked examples, where the first event has
an influence on the second event. The card chosen first can then not be chosen in the second event.
Worked Example 2
The numbers 2, 4, 7 and 8 are written on cards and are chosen to form a two-digit number. List
the sample space.
Think Write
1 Draw the first branch of the tree diagram to 1st digit 2nd digit
show each possible first digit. 4
2 7
2 Draw the second branch of the tree diagram 8
to show each possible second digit. When 2
4 7
drawing the second branch, the digit from 8
which the tree branches can’t be repeated. 2
7 4
8
2
8 4
7
3 List the sample space by following the tree to S = { 24, 27, 28, 42, 47, 48, 72, 74, 78, 82, 84, 87}
the end of each branch.
Each question must be read carefully, to see if repetition is possible or not. In the above example, the
numbers cannot be repeated because we are drawing two cards without replacing the first card. In
examples such as tossing two coins, it is possible for the same outcome on both coins.
When drawing a tree diagram, the tree needs to branch once for every stage of the experiment. When
we roll two dice, there are two levels to the tree diagram. If we were to toss three coins, there would be
three levels to the diagram, as shown below.
1st coin 2nd coin 3rd coin
Heads
Heads
Tails
Heads
Heads
Tails
Tails
Heads
Heads
Tails
Tails
Heads
Tails
Tails
Worked Example 3
Four children go exploring.

a Draw a tree diagram to list all possible combinations of boys and girls.
b How many elements are in the sample space?
c How many elements of the sample contain 3 boys and a girl?

Think WriTe
a Draw the tree diagram. a 1st child 2nd child 3rd child 4th child
Boy
Boy
Girl
Boy
Boy
Girl
Girl
Boy
Boy Boy
Girl Girl
Boy
Girl
Girl
Boy
Boy
Girl
Boy
Boy
Girl
Girl
Girl
Boy
Boy
Girl
Girl
Boy
Girl
Girl
b List the sample space by following the paths to b S = {BBBB, BBBG, BBGB, BBGG, BGBB,
the end of each branch. BGBG, BGGB, BGGG, GBBB, GBBG,
GBGB, GBGG, GGBB, GGBG, GGGB,
GGGG}
c Count the number of elements that contain c There are four elements of the sample space
3 boys and 1 girl. which contain 3 boys and 1 girl.
exercise 10a multi-stage events

1 We1 Two coins are tossed. Use a tree diagram to list the sample space.
2 On three red cards, the numbers 1, 2 and 3 are written. On three blue cards, the same numbers are
written. A red card and a blue card are then chosen to form a two-digit number. Draw a tree diagram to
list the sample space.
3 A family consists of 3 children. Use a tree diagram to list all possible combinations of boys and girls.
4 A coin is tossed and then a die is rolled.
a How many elements are in the sample space?
b Does it make any difference to the sample space if the die is rolled first and then the coin is tossed?
5 The five vowels are written on cards and two are selected.
a In how many ways can the cards be selected if the same vowel can be used twice?
b In how many ways can the cards be selected if the same vowel cannot be used twice?
6 In a game of soccer a win, draw and loss are all equally likely. In three matches of soccer how many
elements does the sample space of outcomes have?
7 We2 The digits 1, 3, 4 and 8 are written on cards. Two cards are then chosen to form a two-digit
number. List the sample space.
8 Darren, Zeng, Melina, Kate and Susan are on a committee. From among themselves, they must select
a chairman and a secretary. The same person cannot hold both positions. Use a tree diagram to list the
sample space for the different ways the two positions can be filled.
9 A tennis team consists of six players, three males and three females. The three males are Andre, Pat and
Yevgeny. The three females are Monica, Steffi and Lindsay. A male and a female must be chosen for a
mixed doubles match. Use a tree diagram to list the sample space.
10 Chris, Aminta, Rohin, Levi and Kiri are on a Landcare group. Two of them are to represent the group
on a field trip. Use a tree diagram to list all the different pairs that could be chosen. (Hint: In this
example, a pairing of Chris and Aminta is the same as a pairing of Aminta and Chris.)

11 WE3 Four coins are tossed into the air.
a Draw a tree diagram for this experiment.
b Use your tree to list the sample space.
c How many elements have an equal number of Heads and Tails?
12 MC Three coins are tossed into the air. The number of elements in the sample space is:
a 3 b 6 c 8 d 9
13 MC A two-digit number is formed using the digits 4, 6 and 9. If the same number can be repeated,
the number of elements in the sample space is:
a 3 b 6 c 8 d 9
14 MC A two-digit number is formed using the digits 4, 6 and 9. If the same number cannot be used
twice, the number of elements in the sample space is:
a 3 b 6 c 8 d 9
15 A two-digit number is to be formed using the digits 2, 5, 7 and 8.
a If the same number can be used twice, list the sample space.
b If the same number cannot be repeated, list the sample space.
16 The numbers 1, 2, 5 and 8 are written on cards and placed face down.
a If two cards are chosen and used to form a two-digit number, how many elements are in the
sample space?
b If three cards are chosen and used to form a three-digit number, how many elements are in the
sample space?
c How many four-digit numbers can be formed using these digits?
17 A school captain and vice-captain need to be elected. There are five candidates. The three female
candidates are Tracey, Jenny and Svetlana and the male candidates are Richard and Mushtaq.
a Draw a tree diagram to find all possible combinations of captain and vice-captain.
c If boys are filling both positions, how many elements are there?
d If girls are filling both positions, how many elements are there?
e If students of the opposite sex fill the positions, how many elements are there?
18 When two coins are tossed there are three elements in the sample space, 2 Heads, 2 Tails
or 1 Head and 1 Tail. Is this statement correct? Explain why or why not.
19 Two dice are rolled.
a Use a tree diagram to calculate the number of elements in the sample space.
b Steve is interested in the number of elements for each total. Copy and complete the table below.
Total 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
No. of elements
c How many elements of the sample space have a double number?
20 Vanessa is doing a multiple choice exam. Each question has four options A, B, C and D. Vanessa knows
all but three answers and decides to guess each.
a How many elements will the sample space for the three guesses have?
b If Vanessa decides not to guess the same letter more than once, how many elements will the
sample space have?
21 Theresa is drawing a tree diagram to represent the roll of two standard dice. She does not need to know
the number rolled, only if a six is rolled or not rolled.
a Draw the tree diagram to show the outcomes to Theresa’s experiment.
b Explain if each outcome in the sample space is equally likely.
22 The numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 are written on cards.
a If two cards are chosen at random and repetition is not allowed, how many fewer ways can they
be selected?
b If three cards are chosen at random and repetition is not allowed, how many fewer ways can they
be selected?
23 Explain why a tree diagram is a useful way of displaying the results to a multi-stage experiment.

invesTigaTe: Two-stage experiments
1 Toss two coins 100 times. Copy and complete the table below.
Result No. of times

digiTal doC
2 Heads Spreadsheet
doc-1644
1 Head, 1 Tail Coin toss lister
2 Tails
Does this match your expected outcome?

2 Roll two dice 100 times and record the total of the two dice in a copy of the table below.
Total 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
digiTal doC
Spreadsheet
No. of times doc-1646
die rolling
Percentage
Compare your results with your answer to question 19 in the previous exercise.
10b The fundamental counting principle

A three-course meal is to be served at a 21st birthday party.
Guests choose one plate from each course, as shown in the
menu below.
Entree Main course Dessert

Beef broth Spaghetti Ice-cream
Calamari Roast chicken Banana split
Pasta salad Strawberries
Grilled fish
In how many different ways can the three courses for the Entree Main course Dessert
meal be chosen? Ice-cream
There are two possible choices of entree, four choices Spaghetti Banana split
Strawberries
for main course and three dessert choices. To find the
sample space for all possible outcomes, we draw a tree Ice-cream
Roast Banana split
diagram. chicken Strawberries
By following the path to the end of each branch we Beef broth
Ice-cream
can see that there are 24 elements in the sample space. Pasta salad Banana split
If we simply need to know the number of elements in Strawberries
the sample space, we multiply the number of possible Ice-cream
choices at each level. Grilled fish Banana split
Strawberries
Number of elements = 2 × 4 × 3
= 24 Ice-cream
Spaghetti Banana split
There are 24 ways in which the three-course meal can be Strawberries
chosen. Ice-cream
This multiplication principle is called the fundamental Roast Banana split
chicken Strawberries
counting principle. Calamari
The total number of ways that a Ice-cream
Pasta salad Banana split
succession of choices can be made is Strawberries
found by multiplying the number of Ice-cream
ways each single choice could be made. Grilled fish Banana split
Strawberries

The fundamental counting principle is used when each choice is made independently of every other
choice. That is, when one selection is made it has no bearing on the next selection. In the case above, the
entree that is chosen has no bearing on what main course or dessert is chosen.
Worked Example 4
A poker machine has three wheels. There are 20 symbols on each wheel. In how many different
ways can the wheels of the poker machine finish, once they have been spun?
Think Write
1 There are 20 possibilities for how the first Total outcomes = 20 × 20 × 20

wheel can finish, 20 for the second wheel = 8000
and 20 for the third wheel. Multiply each of
these possibilities together.
2 Give a written answer. There are 8000 different ways in which the wheels
of the poker machine can land.
Worked Example 5
In Year 11 at Blackhurst High School, there are four classes with 20, 22, 18 and 25 students in
them respectively. A committee of four people is to be chosen, one from each class to represent
Year 11 on the SRC. In how many ways can this group of four people be chosen?

Think Write
1 There are 20 possible choices from the first Total possible outcomes = 20 × 22 × 18 × 25
class, 22 from the second, 18 from the third = 198 000
and 25 from the fourth class. Multiply these
possibilities together.
2 Give a written answer. The committee of four people can be chosen in
198 000 different ways.
Sometimes we need to reconsider examples that have some type of restriction placed on the possible
selections.
Worked Example 6
If motor vehicle number plates consist of

3 letters and 3 digits, how many different
plates are possible if the first letter must
be A, B or C, and the first digit cannot
be 0 or 1?
Think Write
1 There are 3 possible first letters.

2 There are 26 possible second and third letters.
3 There are 8 possible first digits.
4 There are 10 possible second and third digits.
5 Multiply all these possibilities together. Total number plates = 3 × 26 × 26 × 8 × 10 × 10
= 1 622 400
6 Give a written answer. There are 1 622 400 possible number plates under
this system.
Exercise 10B The fundamental counting principle

1 WE4 A poker machine has four reels, with 15 symbols on each
wheel. If the wheels are spun, in how many ways can they finish?
2 Consider each of the following events.
a A 10c coin and a 20c coin are tossed. In how many ways can
they land?
b A red die and blue die are cast. How many ways can the two
dice land?
c A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. How many possible
outcomes are there?
3 A briefcase combination lock has a combination of three dials,
each with 10 digits. How many possible combinations to the lock
are there?
4 In the game of Yatzee, five dice are rolled. In how many different
ways can they land?
Chapter 10 • Probability 331

5 Some number plates have two letters followed by 4 numbers. How many of this style of plate are
possible?
6 MC Personalised number plates have six symbols that can be any combination of letters or digits.
How many of these are possible?
a 1 000 000 b 17 576 000 c 308 915 776 d 2 176 782 336
7 MC A restaurant menu offers a choice of four entrees, six main courses and three desserts. If
one extra choice is offered in each of the three courses, how many more combinations of meal are
possible?
a 3 b 68 c 72 d 140
8 WE5 There are 86 students in Year 11 at Narratime High School. Of these, 47 are boys and 39 are
girls. One boy and one girl are to be chosen as school captains. In how many different ways can the boy
and girl school captain be chosen?
9 A travel agency offers Queensland holiday packages flying with QANTAS and Virgin Blue, travelling
in first, business and economy class to Brisbane, the Gold Coast, The Great Barrier Reef and Cairns for
periods of 7, 10 and 14 days. How many holiday packages does the traveller have to choose from?
10 A punter at the racetrack tries to pick the daily double. This requires her to pick the winner of race 6
and race 7. How many selections of two horses can she make if there are:
a eight horses in each race?
b 12 horses in each race?
c 14 horses in race 6 and 12 in race 7?
d 16 horses in race 6 and seven in race 7?
e 24 horses in race 6 and 16 horses in race 7?
11 A poker machine has five wheels and 20 symbols on each wheel.
a In how many ways can the wheels of the poker machine finish when spun?
b There are 4 aces on the first wheel, 5 on the second wheel, 2 on the third wheel, 6 on the fourth
wheel and 1 on the fifth. In how many ways can five aces be spun on this machine?
12 A punter takes a ‘Big 6’ which requires her to select the winner of six races. How many ways can the
Big 6 be selected if there are 15, 12, 7, 8, 18 and 14 runners in the six races?
13 Rhonda takes a mystery holiday. She can go to one of five destinations, fly on one of three airlines and
stay at one of six different hotel chains. How many different mystery holidays are possible?
14 A theme park advertises that every time you ride the Hurricane, the ride will be different. When
the ride begins it can go through two different tunnels after which, they merge before it can
go through one of three different tunnels before merging again, and then go though one of two
different tunnels.
a How many different rides are possible?
b Is the claim made by the theme park operators correct?
15 Radio stations on the AM band have a call sign of a digit from 2 to 9, followed by two letters.
a How many radio stations could there be under this system?
b In NSW all stations begin with a 2. How many stations are possible in NSW?
16 At a shoe store a certain pair of shoes can be bought in black, brown or grey; lace up or buckle up; and
in six different sizes. How many different pairs of shoes are possible?
17 Home telephone numbers in Australia have eight digits.
a How many possible home telephone numbers are there?
b If a telephone number can’t begin with either a 0 or 1, how many are possible?
c Freecall 1800 numbers begin with 1800 and then six more digits. How many of these are
possible?
d A certain mobile network has numbers beginning with 015 or 018 followed by six digits. How
many numbers can this network have?
18 WE6 Madako can’t remember his PIN number for his bank account. He knows that it has four digits,
does not begin with nine, is an odd number and that all digits are greater than five. How many possible
PIN numbers could he try?
19 MC Postcodes in Australia begin with either 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 followed by three more digits. How
many of these postcodes can there be?
a 70 b 1000 c 7000 d 10 000

Further development
20 Nadia goes to a restaurant that has a choice of 8 entrees, 15 main courses and 10 desserts.
a How many combinations of entree, main course and dessert are possible?
b Nadia is allergic to garlic. When she examines the menu she finds that three entrees and four main
courses are seasoned with garlic. How many possible choices can she make without choosing a
garlic dish?
21 Bill is trying to remember Tom’s telephone number. It has eight digits and Bill can remember that it starts
with 963 and finishes with either a 4 or a 6. How many possible telephone numbers are there for Tom?
22 A representative from each of six classes must be chosen to go on a committee. There are four classes
of 28 students, a class of 25 students and a class of 20 students. How many committees are possible?
23 A poker machine with 5 reels has 10 electronic symbols on each reel.
a How many combinations are possible on the poker machine?
b New software increases the number of symbols on each reel by 20%. How many symbols will
now be on each reel?
c Connie claims that the number of combinations on the poker machine will increase by 20%. Is
Connie correct? Use calculations to justify your answer.
24 A poker machine with 5 reels has 20 symbols on each reel. The machine has the number of symbols on
each reel reduced by 25%. By what percentage is the total number of combinations reduced?
25 What is the fundamental counting principle?
10C probability statements

You have booked a ski holiday to Thredbo for the middle of July. What is the chance that there will be
enough snow on the ground for you to ski? There is no exact answer to this question, but by looking at
the amount of snow in Thredbo during July over past years, we know that there is a very good chance
that there will be enough snow to ski again this year.
We can say that it is very likely that we will be able to ski during July at Thredbo. Terms such as ‘very
likely’, ‘almost certain’, ‘unlikely’ and ‘fifty-fifty’ are used in everyday language to describe the chance
of an event occurring. For the purposes of probability, an event is the outcome of an experiment that
we are interested in. We can describe an outcome as a possible result to the probability experiment.
Imagine that you are playing a board game and it is your turn to roll the die. To win the game you
need to roll a number less than 7. If you roll one die, you must get a number less than 7. We would
describe the chance of this event occurring as certain.
When an event is certain to occur, the probability of that event occurring is 1. certain 1
almost certain
Now let’s consider an impossible situation.
In a board game you have one last throw of the die. To win you must roll probable
a 7. We know that this cannot be done. We would say that this is impossible.
When an event is impossible, the probability of the event is 0. fifty-fifty 1
2
The chance of any event occurring will often be somewhere between being certain
and impossible, and we use a variety of terms to describe where the chance lies in
unlikely
this range as shown in the figure at right.
We use these terms based on our general knowledge of the world, the total possible very unlikely
outcomes and how often an event occurs. impossible 0
Worked example 7
Describe the chance of each of the following events occurring.

a Tossing a coin and it landing Heads b Rolling a 6 with one die
c Winning the lottery d Selecting a spot (numbered) card from a standard deck
Think WriTe
a There is an equal chance of the coin landing a The chance of tossing a head is fifty-fifty.
Heads and Tails.
b There is only one chance in six of rolling a 6. b It is unlikely that you will roll a 6.

c There is only a very small chance of winning c It is very unlikely that you will win the lottery.
the lottery.
d There are more spot cards than picture cards d It is probable that you will select a spot card.
in a deck.
You will need to use these terms to describe events that are more likely to occur than others.
Worked example 8
Mrs Graham is expecting her baby to be born between July 20 and 26. Is it more likely that her
baby will be born on a weekday or a weekend?
Think WriTe
There are 5 chances that the baby will be born on It is more likely that Mrs Graham’s baby will be
a weekday and 2 chances that it will be born on a born on a weekday.
weekend.
In the above examples, we have been able to calculate which event is more likely by counting the
number of ways an event may occur. This is not always possible. In some cases we need to use general
knowledge to describe the chance of an event occurring.
Consider the following probability problems.
‘The letters of the alphabet are written on cards and one card is selected at random. Which letter has
the greatest chance of being chosen, E or Q?’
Each letter has an equal chance of being chosen because there is one chance that E will be chosen and
one chance that Q will be chosen.
‘Stacey sticks a pin into a page of a book and she writes down the letter nearest to the pin. Which
letter has the greater chance of being chosen, E or Q?’
This question is more difficult to answer because each letter does not occur with equal frequency.
However, we know from our experience with the English language that Q will occur much less often
than most other letters. We can therefore say that E will occur more often than Q.
This is an example of using your knowledge of the world to make predictions about which event is
more likely to occur. In this way, we make predictions about everyday things such as the weather and
which football team will win on the weekend.
Worked example 9
During the 2006 NRL season, the Brisbane Broncos won 9 of their first 12 games. In Round 13 they
played South Sydney who had won 0 of their first 12 games. Who would be more likely to win?
Think WriTe
Brisbane Broncos have won more games than Brisbane Broncos would be more likely to win,
South Sydney. based on their previous results.
(Footy note: South Sydney won the game 34–14.
Brisbane was more likely to win the game but
nothing in football is certain.)
This is one example of past results being used to predict future happenings. There are many other such
examples.
Worked example 10
Weather records show that it has rained on Christmas Day 12 times in the last 80 years. Describe
the chance of it raining on Christmas Day this year.
Think WriTe
It has rained only 12 times on the last 80 Christmas It is unlikely that it will rain on Christmas Day
Days. This is much less than half of all Christmas this year.
Days.

We need to look at many probability statements and think critically about what is being said. Is the
source of the statement bias? Has emotive language been used to try to influence opinion? These things
and others mean that probability statements need to be looked at critically.
invesTigaTion
The project link will look at examples of critical analysis of probability statements. doc-10348
Chance in the media
exercise 10C probability statements

1 We7 Describe the chance of each of the following events occurring, using an appropriate probability
term.
a Selecting a ball with a double-digit number from a bag with balls numbered 1 to 40
b Selecting a female student from a class with 23 boys and 7 girls
c Selecting a green marble from a barrel with 40 blue marbles and 30 red marbles
d Choosing an odd number from the numbers 1 to 100
2 For each of the events below, describe the chance of it occurring as impossible, unlikely, even chance
(fifty-fifty), probable or certain.
a Rolling a die and getting a negative number
b Rolling a die and getting a positive number
c Rolling a die and getting an even number
d Selecting a card from a standard deck and getting a red card
e Selecting a card from a standard deck and getting a spot (numbered) card
f Selecting a card from a standard deck and getting an ace
g Reaching into a moneybox and selecting a 30c piece
h Selecting a blue marble from a bag containing 3 red, 3 green and 6 blue marbles
3 Give an example of an event which has a probability that could be described as:
a certain b probable c even chance
d unlikely e impossible.
4 We8 Is it more likely that a person’s birthday will occur during a school term or during the school
holidays?
5 For each event on the left, state whether it is more likely, less likely or equally likely to occur than the
event on the right.
a Fine weather Christmas Day Wet weather Christmas Day
b A coin landing Heads A coin landing Tails
c Rolling a total of 3 with two dice Rolling a total of 7 with two dice
d Winning a raffle made up of 50 tickets Winning a raffle made up of 200 tickets
e Winning a prize in the Lotto draw Not winning a prize in the Lotto draw
6 We9 Before meeting in the cricket World Cup in 2007, Australia had beaten Bangladesh in 10 of the
last 11 matches. Who would be more likely to win on this occasion?
7 Which of the following two runners would be expected to win the final of the 100 m at the Olympic
Games?
Carl Bailey — best time 9.92 s and won his semi-final
Ben Christie — best time 10.06 s and 3rd in his semi-final
Give an explanation for your answer.
8 mC A stack of 26 cards has the letters of the alphabet written on them. Vesna draws a card
from that stack. The probability of selecting a card that has a vowel written on it could best be
described as:
a unlikely
b even chance
C probable
d almost certain
9 mC Which of the following events is the most likely to occur?

a Selecting the first number drawn from a barrel containing 20 numbered marbles
b Selecting a diamond from a standard deck of cards
C Winning the lottery with one ticket out of 150 000
d Drawing the inside lane in the Olympic 100-metre final with eight runners

10 mC The ski season opens on the first weekend of June. At a particular ski resort there has been
sufficient snow for skiing on that weekend on 32 of the last 40 years. Which of the following
statements is true?
a It is unlikely to snow at the opening of the ski season this year.
b There is a fifty-fifty chance that it will snow at the opening of the ski season this year.
C It is probable that it will snow at the opening of the ski season this year.
d It is certain to snow at the opening of the ski season this year.
11 We10 On a production line, light globes are tested to see how long they will last. After testing
1000 light globes, it is found that 960 will burn for more than 1500 hours. Wendy purchases a light
globe. Describe the chance of the light globe burning for more than 1500 hours.
12 Of 12 000 new cars sold last year, 1500 had a major mechanical problem during the first year. Edwin
purchased a new car. Describe the chance of Edwin having a major mechanical problem in the first year.
13 During an election campaign, 2000 people were asked for their voting preferences. One thousand said
that they would vote for the government. If one person is chosen at random, describe the chance that
they would vote for the government.

14 Give an example of an event that is:
a almost but not quite certain
b almost but not quite impossible.
15 Explain why it is usually sufficient to describe the probability of an event rather than assign an exact
numerical value.
16 Explain why the probability of rain tomorrow cannot be exactly defined.
17 Explain why the probability of winning the lottery can be exactly defined.
18 List as many ‘chance’ words as you can think of.
19 Explain why probabilities range between 0 and 1.
invesTigaTe: Common descriptions of chance
The English language has many colourful expressions to describe the chance of an event occurring.
Consider the following expressions and research them to answer the questions.
1 ‘That will happen once in a blue moon.’
a What is a blue moon?
b How often does a blue moon occur?
2 ‘There is Buckley’s chance of that happening.’
a Who was Buckley?
digiTal doC b How did this saying originate?
WorkSHEET 10.1 Are there any similar expressions that you can think of? What are their origins?
doc-10335
10d relative frequency

You are planning to go skiing on the first weekend in July. The trip is costing you a lot of money and you
don’t want your money wasted on a weekend without snow. So what is the chance of it snowing on that
weekend? We can use past records to estimate that chance.
If we know that it has snowed on the first weekend of July for 54 of the last 60 years, we could
say that the chance of snow this year is very high. To measure that chance, we calculate the relative
frequency of snow on that weekend. We do this by dividing the number of times it has snowed by the
number of years we have examined. In this case, we can say the relative frequency of snow on the first
weekend in July is 54 ÷ 60 = 0.9.
The relative frequency is usually expressed as a decimal and is calculated using the formula:
number of times an event has occurred
Relative frequency =
number of trials
In this formula, a trial is the number of times the probability experiment has been conducted.

Worked example 11
The weather has been fine on Christmas Day in Sydney for 32 of the past 40 years. Calculate the
relative frequency of fine weather on Christmas Day.
Think WriTe

1 Write the formula. Relative frequency =
number of trials
2 Substitute the number of fine Relative frequency = 32
40
Christmas Days (32) and the number
of trials (40).
3 Calculate the relative frequency as a = 0.8
decimal.
The relative frequency is used to assess the quality of products. This is done by finding the relative
frequency of defective products.
Worked example 12
A tyre company tests its tyres and finds that 144 out of a batch of 150 tyres will withstand
20 000 km of normal wear. Find the relative frequency of tyres that will last 20 000 km. Give the
answer as a percentage.
Think WriTe

1 Write the formula. Relative frequency =
number of trials
2 Substitute 144 (the number of times Relative frequency = 144
150
the event occurred) and 150 (number
of trials).
3 Calculate the relative frequency. = 0.96
4 Convert the relative frequency to a = 96%
percentage.
Relative frequencies can be used to solve many practical problems.
Worked example 13
A batch of 200 light globes was tested. The batch is considered unsatisfactory if more than 15% of
globes burn for less than 1000 hours. The results of the test are in the table below.
No. of hours No. of globes

less than 500 4
500–<750 12
750–<1000 15
1000–<1250 102
1250–<1500 32
≥1500 35
Determine if the batch is unsatisfactory.

Think WriTe
1 Count the number of light globes that 31 light globes burn for less than 1000 hours.
burn for less than 1000 hours.
2 Write the formula. number of times an event has occurred
Relative frequency =
number of trials
31
3 Substitute 31 (number of times the Relative frequency =
200
event occurs) and 200 (number of
trials).
4 Calculate the relative frequency. = 0.155
5 Convert the relative frequency to a = 15.5%
percentage.
6 Make a conclusion about the quality More than 15% of the light globes burn for less than
of the batch of light globes. 1000 hours and so the batch is unsatisfactory.
exercise 10d relative frequency

1 We11 At the opening of the ski season, there has been sufficient snow for skiing for 37 out of the past
50 years. Calculate the relative frequency of sufficient snow at the beginning of the ski season.
2 A biased coin has been tossed 100 times with the result of 79 Heads. Calculate the relative frequency of
the coin landing Heads.
3 Of eight Maths tests done by a class during a year, Peter has topped the class three times. Calculate the
relative frequency of Peter topping the class.
4 Farmer Jones has planted a wheat crop. For the wheat crop to be successful, farmer Jones needs
500 mm of rain to fall over the spring months. Past weather records show that this has occurred on
27 of the past 60 years. Find the relative frequency of:
a sufficient rainfall b insufficient rainfall.
5 We12 Of 300 cars coming off an assembly line, 12 are found to have defective brakes. Calculate the
relative frequency of a car having defective brakes. Give the answer as a percentage.
6 A survey of 25 000 new car buyers found that 750 had a major mechanical problem in the first year of
operation. Calculate the relative frequency of:
a having mechanical problems in the first year
b not having mechanical problems in the first year.
7 On a production line, light globes are tested to see how long they will last. After testing 1000 light
globes, it is found that 960 will burn for more than 1500 hours. Wendy purchases a light globe. What is
the relative frequency that the light globe will:
a burn for more than 1500 hours?
b burn for less than 1500 hours?
8 mC Four surveys were conducted
and the following results were
obtained. Which result has the highest
relative frequency?
a Of 1500 P-plate drivers, 75 had
been involved in an accident.
b Of 1200 patients examined by a
doctor, 48 had to be hospitalised.
C Of 20 000 people at a football
match, 950 were attending their
first match.
d Of 50 trucks inspected, 2 were
found to be unroadworthy.

9 MC A study of cricket players found that of 150 players, 36 batted left handed. What is the relative
frequency of left-handed batsmen?
a 0.24 B 0.36 c 0.64 d 0.76
10 During an election campaign, 2000 people were asked for their voting preferences. One thousand and
fifty said that they would vote for the government, 875 said they would vote for the opposition and the
remainder were undecided. What is the relative frequency of:
a government voters? b opposition voters? c undecided voters?
11 Research over the past 25 years shows that each November there is an average of two wet days on
Sunnybank Island. Travelaround Tours offer one-day tours to Sunnybank Island at a cost of $150 each,
with a money back guarantee against rain.
a What is the relative frequency of wet November days as a percentage?
b If Travelaround Tours take 1200 bookings for tours in November, how many refunds would they
expect to give?
12 An average of 200 robberies takes place each year in the town of Amiak. There are 10 000 homes in
this town.
a What is the relative frequency of robberies in Amiak?
b Each robbery results in an average insurance claim of $20 000. What would be the minimum
premium that the insurance company would need to charge to cover these claims?
13 WE13 A car maker recorded the first time that its cars
came in for mechanical repairs. The results are in the
table below.
Time taken No. of cars
0–<3 months 5
3–<6 months 12
6–<12 months 37
1–<2 years 49
2–<3 years 62
≥3 years 35
The assembly line will need to be upgraded if the relative frequency of cars needing mechanical
repair in the first year is greater than 25%. Determine if this will be necessary.
14 For the table in question 13 determine, as a percentage, the relative frequency of:
a a car needing mechanical repair in the first 3 months
b a car needing mechanical repair in the first 2 years
c a car not needing mechanical repair in the first 3 years.
15 A manufacturer of shock absorbers measures the distance that its shock absorbers can travel before they
must be replaced. The results are in the table below.
No. of kilometres No. of shock absorbers
0–<20 000 1
20 000–<40 000 2
40 000–<60 000 46
60 000–<80 000 61
80 000–<100 000 90
The relative frequency of the shock absorber lasting is 0.97 for a certain guaranteed distance. What
is the maximum distance the manufacturer will guarantee so that the relative frequency of the shock
absorbers lasting is greater than 0.97?
16 A soccer team plays 40 matches over a season and the results (wins, losses and draws) are shown below.
W W W D L L L D W L W D L D
W W L L L D W W D L L W W
W L D L D D L W W W D D L
a Put this information into a table showing the number of wins, losses and draws.
b Calculate the relative frequency of each result over a season.

17 Roger is a tennis player. He has
won 165 of his last 200 matches.
a What is the relative frequency
of Roger:
i winning?
ii losing?
b After Roger has some time off
tennis he comes back and wins
only 6 of his next 20 matches.
For this period of time what
is the relative frequency of
Roger:
i winning?
ii losing?
c For all 220 matches, what is Roger’s overall relative frequency of:
i winning? ii losing?
18 MC A biased coin is tossed a number of times. The relative frequency of tails is found to be 0.2. The
coin is tossed again several times. The relative frequency of tails this time is now found to be 0.3. What
is the relative frequency of tails, when the results of the two trials are combined?
a 0.25 B 0.5
c 0.6 d cannot be determined
19 In 60 rolls of a standard die, the relative frequency of a six is 0.2. In another 100 rolls of the die the
relative frequency of a six is 0.3. Find the overall relative frequency of a six.
20 During a one-year period, an insurance company finds that in a city of 125 000 homes, there has been
1275 home robberies.
a What is the relative frequency of robberies in the city?
b The average insurance claim after a robbery is $14 250. When setting home insurance premiums
the insurance company calculates the premiums based on this average claim. Allowing for a
25% profit margin, calculate the amount of each premium in the city.
21 In NSW there are approximately 250 000 ‘P’ plate drivers. In total there are approximately
3 000 000 drivers. In one year there was approximately 5 000 traffic accidents, of which 800 involved
‘P’ plate drivers.
a What is the relative frequency of ‘P’ plate drivers?
b What was the overall relative frequency of drivers being involved in an accident?
c What was the relative frequency of ‘P’ plate drivers being involved in accidents?
d What was the relative frequency of an accident involving a ‘P’ plate driver?
e Explain the difference between parts c and d.
22 Explain why:
a the sum of all relative frequencies will be 1
b the relative frequency of one event increases, if the relative frequency of another event decrease.
Investigate: Researching relative frequencies
Choose one of the topics below (or another of your choice) and
calculate the relative frequency of the event. Most of the information
needed can be found from books or the Internet.
1 Examine weather records and find out the relative frequency of rain
on New Year’s Eve in Sydney.
2 Choose your favourite sporting team. Find the relative frequency of
them winning over the past three seasons.
3 Find the relative frequency of the stock market rising for three
consecutive days.
4 Check the NRL or AFL competitions and find the relative
frequencies of win, loss and draw for each team.

10e equally likely outcomes
Below is the field for the 2011 Melbourne Cup. inTeraCTiviTY
int–0089
Melbourne Cup Odds random number
generator
Horse Odds Horse Odds
Americain 4/1 Hawk Island 150/1
Jukebox Jury 14/1 Illo 20/1
Dunaden 15/2 Lost In The Moment 30/1
Drunken Sailor 40/1 Modun 30/1
Glass Harmonium 30/1 At First Sight 9/1
Manighar 40/1 Moyenne Corniche 30/1
Unusual Suspect 30/1 Saptapadi 80/1
Fox Hunt 30/1 Shamrocker 40/1
Lucas Cranach 12/1 The Verminator 100/1
Mourayan SCR Tullamore 20/1
Precedence 50/1 Niwot 8/1
Red Cadeaux 30/1 Older Than Time 100/1
There were 23 horses in this race after

Mourayan was scratched. The sample space
therefore has 23 elements. However, in this
case, each outcome is not equally likely.
This is because each horse in the race is not
of equal ability. Some horses have a greater
chance of winning than others. It is true in
many practical situations that each outcome
is not equally likely to occur.
The weather on any day could be wet or
fine. Each outcome is not equally likely as
there are many factors to consider, such as the
time of year and the current weather patterns.
In each probability example, it is important
to consider whether or not each outcome is
equally likely to occur. In general, when the
selection is made randomly then equally
likely outcomes will result.
Worked example 14
In a rugby league match between Brisbane and Parramatta there are three possible outcomes:
Brisbane win, Parramatta win and a draw. Is each outcome equally likely? Explain your answer.
Think WriTe
Each team may not be of equal ability and draws Each outcome is not equally likely as the teams
occur less often than one of the teams winning. may not be of equal ability and draws are fairly
uncommon in rugby league.
In some cases we need to use tree diagrams to calculate if each outcome is equally likely. A statement
may seem logical, but unless further analysis is conducted, we can not be sure.

Worked Example 15
When two coins are tossed there are three possible outcomes, 2 Heads, 2 Tails and one of each.
Is each outcome equally likely?
Think Write
1 There is more than one coin being tossed and 1st coin 2nd coin
so a tree diagram must be drawn. Heads
Heads
Tails
Heads
Tails
Tails
2 There are actually four outcomes, two of Each outcome is not equally likely. There are two
which involve 1 Head and 1 Tail. Therefore chances of getting one Head and one Tail. There is
each of the outcomes mentioned is not only one chance of getting 2 Heads and one chance
equally likely to occur. of getting 2 Tails.
Exercise 10E Equally likely outcomes

1 WE14 A tennis match is to be held
between Lindsay and Anna. There
are two possible outcomes, Lindsay
to win and Anna to win. Is each
outcome equally likely? Explain
your answer.
2 There are 80 runners in the Olympic
Games marathon. The sample space
for the winner of the race therefore
has 80 elements. Is each outcome
equally likely? Explain your answer.
3 The numbers 1 to 40 are written on
40 marbles. The marbles are then
placed in a bag and one is chosen
from the bag. There are 40 elements
to the sample space. Is each
outcome equally likely? Explain
your answer.
4 For each of the following, state whether each element of the sample space is equally likely to occur.
a A card is chosen from a standard deck.
b The result of a volleyball game between two teams.
c It will either rain or be dry on a summer’s day.
d A raffle with 100 tickets has one ticket drawn to win first prize.
5 For each of the following, state whether the statement made is true or false. Give a reason for your answer.
a Twenty-six cards each have one letter of the alphabet written on them. One card is then chosen at
random. Each letter of the alphabet has an equal chance of being selected.
b A book is opened on any page and a pin is stuck in the page. The letter closest to the pin is then
noted. Each letter of the alphabet has an equal chance of being selected.
6 MC In which of the following is each member of the sample space equally likely to occur?
a Kylie’s softball team is playing a match that they could win, lose or draw.
b A bag contains 4 red counters and 2 blue counters. One counter is selected from the bag.
c The maximum temperature on a January day will be between 20 °C and 42 °C.
d A rose that may bloom to be red, yellow or white is planted in the garden.
7 WE15 A couple have two children. They could have two boys, two girls or one of each. The
sample space therefore has three elements that are all equally likely. Is this statement correct?

8 In a game two dice are rolled and the total of the two dice is the player’s score.
a What is the sample space for the totals of two dice?
b Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur?
9 A restaurant offers a three-course meal.
Entree Main course Dessert
The menu is shown at right.
a A diner selects one plate from each course. Prawn cocktail Seafood platter Pavlova
Oysters Chicken Supreme Ice-cream
Draw a tree diagram to determine the Soup Roast beef
number of elements in the sample space. Vegetarian quiche
b Is each element of the sample space equally
likely to occur?
10 There are 10 horses in a race. Ken hopes to select the winner of the race.
a How many elements in the sample space?
b Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur? Explain your answer.
c Loretta selects her horse by drawing the names out of a hat. In this case, is the sample space the
same? Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur? Explain your answer.
11 The weather tomorrow could be either wet or dry.
a Explain why these two outcomes are not equally likely.
b What factors affect the probability of each?
12 In a tennis match, a player can either win or lose.
a Explain why these two outcomes are not equally likely.
b What factors affect the probability of each?
13 When rolling a standard die in a game, a player can get either a 6 or not get a 6.
a Explain why these events are not equally likely.
b Explain why we are able to calculate the probability of each.
14 When two children are born the outcomes can be two boys, two girls or one boy and one girl. Is each of
these outcomes equally likely to occur? Explain your answer.
15 In a given situation, explain what some of the factors are that can indicate that each outcome is not
equally likely.
16 When outcomes are not equally likely:
a explain what we use in order to determine the likelihood of the event occurring
b explain how we describe the likelihood of the event.

In this chapter we discuss the chances of certain events occurring. In doing so, we used informal terms
such as probable and unlikely. While these terms give us an idea of whether something is likely to
occur or not, they do not tell us how likely they are. To do this, we need an accurate way of stating the
probability.
We stated earlier that the chance of any event occurring was somewhere between impossible and
certain. We also said that:
• if an event is impossible the probability was 0
• if an event is certain the probability was 1.
It therefore follows that the probability of any event must lie between 0 and 1 inclusive.
A probability is a number that describes the chance of an event occurring. All probabilities are
calculated as fractions but can also be written as decimals or percentages. Probability is calculated using
the formula:
number of favourable outcomes
P(event) =
total number of outcomes
The total number of favourable outcomes is the number of different ways the event can occur, while the
total number of outcomes is the number of elements in the sample space.

Worked Example 16
Zoran is rolling a die. To win a game, he must roll a number greater than 2. List the sample space
and state the number of favourable outcomes.
Think Write
1 There are 6 possible outcomes. S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

2 The favourable outcomes are to roll a There are 4 favourable outcomes.
3, 4, 5 or 6.
Consider the case of tossing a coin. If we are calculating the probability that it will land Heads, there is
1 favourable outcome out of a total of 2 possible outcomes. Hence we can then write P(Heads) = 1. This
2
method is used to calculate the probability of any single event.
Worked Example 17
Andrea selects a card from a standard deck. Find the probability that she selects an ace.
Think Write
1 There are 52 cards in the deck (total number

of outcomes).
2 There are 4 aces (number of favourable
outcomes).
3 Write the probability. P(ace) = 4
52
1
= 13
The probability formula is used to calculate the probability of multi-stage events once the number of
elements in the sample space has been calculated.
Worked Example 18
A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. Calculate the probability of tossing a Tail and rolling a number
greater than 4.
Think Write/draw
1 Consider the number of stages in the Coin Die Sample space

experiment. There are two. 1 H, 1
2 H, 2
2 Draw the tree diagram. At the first stage 3 H, 3
there are two outcomes and at the second H
4 H, 4
stage there are six outcomes. 5 H, 5
3 List the sample space. 6 H, 6
1 T, 1
2 T, 2
3 T, 3
T
4 T, 4
5 T, 5
6 T, 6
2
4 Calculate the probability using the P(Tail and number greater than 4) =
12
probability formula. There are two
favourable outcomes: T, 5 and T, 6.
5 Simplify. =1
6

Some questions do not require us to calculate the entire sample space, only the sample space for a small
part of the experiment.
Worked example 19
The digits 1, 3, 4, 5 are written on cards and these cards are then used to form a four-digit number.
Calculate the probability that the number formed is:
a even b greater than 3000.
Think WriTe
a 1 If the number is even the last digit must be even. a
2 There are four cards that could go in the final

place (total number of outcomes).
3 Only one of these cards (the 4) is even
(number of favourable outcomes).
4 Write the probability. P(even) = 1
4
b 1 If the number is greater than 3000, then the b

first digit must be a 3 or greater.
2 There are four cards that could go in the first
place.
3 Three of these cards are a 3 or greater.
4 Write the probability. P(greater than 3000) = 3
4
exercise 10F The probability formula

1 We16 A coin is tossed at the start of a cricket
match. Manuel calls Heads. List the sample space
and the number of favourable outcomes.
2 For each of the following probability
experiments, state the number of favourable
outcomes.
a Rolling a die and needing a 6
b Rolling two dice and needing a total greater
than 9
c Choosing a letter of the alphabet and it being a
vowel
d The chance a baby will be born on the weekend
e The chance that a person’s birthday will fall in
summer
3 For each of the following probability experiments, state the number of favourable outcomes and the
total number of outcomes.
a Choosing a red card from a standard deck
b Selecting the winner of a 15 horse race
c Selecting the first ball drawn in a Lotto draw (The balls are numbered 1 to 44.)
d Winning a raffle with 5 tickets out of 1500
e Selecting a yellow ball from a bag containing 3 yellow, 4 red and 4 blue balls
4 We17 A coin is tossed. Find the probability that the coin will show Tails.
5 A regular die is cast. Calculate the probability that the uppermost face is:
a 6 b 1
c an even number d a prime number
e less than 5 f at least 5.

6 A barrel contains marbles with the numbers 1 to 45 written on them. One marble is drawn at random
from the bag. Find the probability that the marble drawn is:
a 23 b 7
c an even number d an odd number
e a multiple of 5 f a multiple of 3
g a number less than 20 h a number greater than 35
i a square number.
7 Many probability questions are asked about decks of cards. You should know the cards making up a
standard deck.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
09 09 09 09
J1 J1 J1 J1
Q
Q
Q
Q
K
K
K
K
A
A
A
A
2 2 2 2
A card is chosen from a standard deck. Find the probability that the card chosen is:
a the ace of diamonds b a king
c a club d red
e a picture card f a court card.
8 WE18 A two-digit number is formed using the digits 2, 4, 6 and 7. No digit may be repeated. Draw a
tree diagram to list all possible numbers that can be formed.
9 A cricket team needs to elect a captain and vice-captain. The four nominations for these positions are
Belinda, Danika, Kate and Adrienne. Use a tree diagram to list all ways in which these three positions
can be filled.
10 The digits 4, 5, 7 and 8 are used to form a three-digit number. If no digit can be used more than once,
list the sample space.
11 In a bag of fruit there are 4 apples, 6 oranges and 2 pears. Larry chooses a piece of fruit from the bag at
random but he does not like pears. Find the probability that Larry does not select a pear.
12 WE19 The digits 2, 3, 5 and 9 are written on cards. They are then used to form a four-digit number.
Find the probability that the number formed is:
a even b odd
c divisible by 5 d less than 3000
e greater than 5000.
13 MC A die is cast. The probability that the number on the uppermost face is less than 4 is:
1 1
a b
6 3
1 2
c d
2 3
1
14 MC When a die is cast, which of the following outcomes does not have a probability equal to ?
2
a The number on the uppermost face is greater than 3.
b The number on the uppermost face is even.
c The number on the uppermost face is at least a 3.
d The number on the uppermost face is a prime number.
15 MC A card is chosen from a standard deck. The probability that the card chosen is a court card is:
1 1
a b
52 13
3 4
c d
13 13
16 MC When a card is chosen from a standard deck, which of the following events is most likely to
occur?
a choosing a seven b choosing a club
c choosing a picture card d choosing a black card
17 A debating team consists of two men, Ashley and Benito, and three women, Carly, Donna and Ella.
From the team, a first, second and third speaker are to be chosen. Calculate the probability that:
a Ashley is one of the three speakers b the team is made up of three women
c both men are chosen d Carly is the first speaker.

18 The Jones family is planning a
Disneyland holiday. They have
the choice of Disneyland in
California, Disney World in
Florida or Euro Disney in
France. The holiday can be
taken during two seasons, peak
season or off-peak season, and
they can fly economy,
business or first class.
a Use a tree diagram to list all
combinations of holiday that could be
taken by choosing a destination, season
and class.
b Find the probability that a certain holiday package
involves travelling in Business class during the off-peak season.
19 A number is formed using all five of the digits 1, 3, 5, 7 and 8. What is the probability that the number
formed:
a begins with the digit 3? b is even?
c is odd? d is divisible by 5?
e is greater than 30 000? f is less than 20 000?
20 Write down an example of an event which has a probability of:
1 1 2
a b c .
2 4 5
21 A three-digit number is formed using the digits 2, 4 and 7.
a Explain why it is more likely that an even number will be formed than an odd number.
b Which is more likely to be formed: a number less than 400 or a number greater than 400?
2
22 It is known that the probability of selecting a blue ball from a bag is .
5
a How many blue balls are in the bag if it known there is 80 balls in the bag?
b How many balls are in the bag if it is known that there are 28 blue balls?
7
23 The probability that a black ball is selected from a bag is . Another
bag contains an equal number
20
7
of balls. The probability that a black ball is selected from the second bag is 12 . Find the probability of
selecting a black ball from the combined contents of the two bags.
24 A card is drawn at random from a standard deck of cards. Find the probability that the card
selected is:
a a black ace b a black card
c not a heart d a jack or a queen
e a jack or a spade.
25 John has a 12 sided die and Lisa has a 20 sided die. They are playing a game where the first person to
roll a 10 wins.
a Find the probability of John rolling a 10.
b Find the probability of Lisa rolling a 10.
c Is the game fair? Explain your answer.
26 A number is chosen at random from the set {1, 2, 3, . . . . . . ., 25}. Find the probability that the number is:
a a multiple of 4
b a multiple of 6
c a multiple of 4 or 6.
27 Events are said to be mutually exclusive if the occurrence of one prevents the occurrence of the other.
State whether each of the following pairs of events are mutually exclusive.
a Obtaining a 4 or an even number.
b Obtaining an odd number or a 6.
c Obtaining a number less than 8 or greater than 5.
d Obtaining a factor of 6 or a multiple of 6.

invesTigaTe: Comparing probabilities with actual results
In this activity, we compare the probability of certain events to practical results. You may be able to do a
simulation of these activities on a spreadsheet.
1 Tossing a coin
1
a If we toss a coin P(Heads) = . Therefore, if you toss a coin, how many Heads would you expect in:
2
i 4 tosses? ii 10 tosses?
digiTal doC
Spreadsheet
iii 50 tosses? iv 100 tosses?
doc-1655 b Now toss a coin 100 times and record the number of Heads after:
Tossing a coin i 4 tosses? ii 10 tosses?
iii 50 tosses? iv 100 tosses?
Combine your results with the rest of the class. How close to 50% is the total number of Heads thrown
by the class?
2 Rolling a die
When you roll a die, what is the probability of rolling a 1? The probability for each number on the die
is the same.
digiTal doC
Spreadsheet
Roll a die 120 times and record each result in the table below.
doc-1656
rolling a die
Number Occurrences Percentage of throws
1
2
3
4
5
6
How close are the results to the results that were expected?
Writing probabilities as decimals

10g
and percentages
In our exercises so far, we have been writing probabilities as fractions. This is the way that most
mathematicians like to express chance. However, in day-to-day language, decimals and percentages are
also used. Therefore, we need to be able to write probabilities as both decimals and percentages.
When writing a probability as a decimal, we use the same formula and divide the numerator by the
denominator to convert to a decimal.
Worked example 20
If I select a card from a standard deck, what is the probability of selecting a heart, expressed as a
decimal?
Think WriTe
1 There are a total of 52 cards in the deck (elements

of the sample space).
2 There are 13 hearts in the deck (elements of the
event space).
3 Write the probability. P(heart) = 13
25
4 Convert to a decimal. = 0.25
The chance of an event occurring is commonly expressed as a percentage. This is the percentage
chance of an event occurring. When writing a probability as a percentage, we take the fractional answer
and multiply by 100% to convert to a percentage.

Worked example 21
In a bag there are 20 counters: 7 are green, 4 are blue and the rest are yellow. If I select one at
random, find the probability (as a percentage) that the counter is yellow.
Think WriTe
1 There are 20 counters in the bag (elements of the

sample space).
2 There are 9 yellow counters in the bag (elements of
the event space).
9
3 Write the probability. P(yellow counter) = × 100%
20
4 Convert to a percentage. = 45%
Writing probabilities as decimals

exercise 10g
and percentages
1 We20 A die is rolled. What is the probability of rolling an even
number, expressed as a decimal?
2 We21 A barrel contains 40 marbles. There are 10 blue marbles,
15 red marbles and 15 white marbles. A marble is selected at
random from the barrel. Calculate, as a percentage, the probability
of selecting a red marble.
3 Write down the probability that a tossed coin will land Tails:
a as a decimal b as a percentage.
4 A student is rolling a die. Write down each of the following
probabilities as decimals, correct to 2 decimal places.
a Getting a 1 b Getting an odd number
c Getting a number greater than 4
5 For rolling a die, write down the following probabilities as percentages. Give your answers correct to
1 decimal place.
a Getting a 3 b Getting an even number
c Getting a number less than 6
6 From a standard deck of cards, one card is selected at random. Write down the probability of each of
the following as a decimal (correct to 2 decimal places where necessary).
a Selecting the king of hearts
b Selecting a spade
c Selecting any 5
d Selecting a red card
e Selecting a court card (any king, queen or jack — the jack is also called a knave)
7 When selecting a card from a standard deck, what would be the probabilities of the following, written
as percentages? Give your answers correct to 1 decimal place.
a Selecting a jack of clubs b Selecting a diamond c Selecting any 2
d Selecting a black card e Selecting a court card
8 mC A raffle has 400 tickets. Sonya has bought 8 tickets. The probability that Sonya wins first prize in
the raffle is:
a 0.02 b 0.08 C 0.2 d 0.8
9 mC In a class of 25 students, there are 15 boys and 10 girls. If a student is chosen at random from the
class, the probability that the student is a boy is:
a 10% b 15% C 40% d 60%
10 mC Which of the following does not describe the chance of selecting a diamond from a standard deck
of cards?
13
a b 0.13 C 0.25 d 25%
52

11 The diagram on the right shows a spinner that can be used in a board game.
When the player spins the spinner, what is the probability of getting the 5 1
following results (expressed as a decimal)?
a A 5 4 2
b An even number 3
c An odd number
d A number greater than one
12 The board game in question 11 has the following rules. A player spinnning a 2 or a 5 is out of the
game. A player spinning a 3 collects a treasure and automatically wins the game. Write down the
probability, as a percentage, that with the next spin a player:
a wins the game
b is out of the game
c neither wins nor is out of the game.
Further development
13 A survey of the vehicles in a car park is conducted. The results are shown in the table below.
Vehicle type Bus Car Motor bike 4 wheel drive
Number 30 170 40 60
Find the probability (as a decimal) that a vehicle leaving the car park is:
a a car b a bus c not a 4 wheel drive.

14 The table below shows the origin of visitors to a tourist information centre in Sydney.
Origin Male Female Total

Victoria 7 9 12
Queensland 5 7 12
Other Australian states 3 2 5
Europe 16 17 33
Asia 10 4 14
Total 41 39 80
a Calculate (as a decimal) the relative frequency of:

i Victorian male visitors
ii European female visitors
iii Asian visitors.
b If a person is selected at random, find (as a percentage) the probability that the person is:
i from another Australian state
ii a female Queensland visitor
iii a European male visitor.
15 Arlo and Roberta are playing a dice game. Arlo has an eight-sided die and Roberta has a six-sided die.
a The first person who rolls a 5 wins. Find the probability (as a decimal) that each person rolls a
five. Is this game fair?
b The first person who rolls an even number wins. Find the probability (as a percentage) that each
person rolls an even number. Is this game fair?
16 The probability that a red marble is selected from a bag is 0.3.
a If there are 80 marbles in the bag, how many are red?
b If there are 54 red marbles how many marbles in the bag are not red?
17 A number is selected from the numbers set {1, 2, 3, . . . . . ., 20}. Find, as a percentage, the probability
that the number chosen is:
a a factor of 10 b a factor of 20
c a factor of 10 or 20.
18 The functioning time of a car battery is shown in the table below.
Time (months) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Number 1 3 7 12 15 18 14
Find as a percentage, to the nearest whole number, that a battery will last for more than 10 months.
10H Range of probabilities

Consider the following problem:
A die is cast. Calculate the probability that the uppermost face is a number less than 7.
We know this is certain to occur but we will look at the solution using the probability formula.
There are 6 elements in the sample space and 6 elements in the event space. Therefore:
P(no. less than 7) = 6

6
= 1
When the probability of an event is 1, the event is certain to occur.
Now let’s consider an impossible situation:
A die is cast. Calculate the probability that the uppermost face is a number greater than 7.
There are 6 elements in the sample space and there are 0 elements in the event space. Therefore:
P(no. greater than 7) = 0
6
=0
When the probability of an event is 0, the event is impossible.

All probabilities therefore lie in the range 0 to 1. An event with a probability certain 1
1 almost certain
of 2 has an even chance of occurring or not occurring.
The range of probabilities can be seen in the figure at right. probable
This figure allows us to make a connection between the formal probabilities
that we calculated in the previous exercise, and the informal terms we used in 1
fifty-fifty 2
chapter 14.
The closer a probability is to 0, the less likely it is to occur. The closer the
probability is to 1, the more likely it is to occur. unlikely
0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1 very unlikely
impossible 0
Worked Example 22
For the following probabilities, describe whether the event would be certain, probable, fifty-fifty,
unlikely or impossible.
4 18
a b 0 c
9 36
Think Write
4
a is less than 12 and is therefore unlikely to a The event is unlikely as it has a probability of less
9
occur. than 12.
b A probability of 0 means the event is b The event is impossible as it has a probability of 0.
impossible.
18
c = 1. Therefore, the event has an even chance c The event has an even chance of occurring as the
36 2
of occurring. probability = 1.
2
Worked Example 23
In a batch of 400 televisions, 20 are defective. If one television is chosen, find the probability of it
not being defective and describe this chance in words.
Think Write
1 There are 400 televisions (elements of the

sample space).
2 There are 380 televisions that are not
defective (number of favourable outcomes).
3 Write the probability. P(not defective) = 380
400
= 19
20
4 Since the probability is much greater than 12 It is very probable that the television chosen will not
and very close to 1, it is very probable that it be defective.
will not be defective.
There are many situations where this will occur. You need to be able to recognise when you can and
cannot measure the probability. You cannot measure probability when each outcome is not equally likely.
Worked Example 24
State whether the following statements are true or false, and give a reason for your answer.
1
a The probability of correctly selecting a number drawn out of a barrel between 1 and 10 is .
1 10
b The weather tomorrow could be fine or rainy, therefore the probability of rain is .
2

Think WriTe
a Each outcome is equally likely. a True, because each number is equally likely to be
selected.
b Each outcome is not equally likely. b False, because there is not an equal chance of the
weather being fine or rainy.
Earlier we looked at the ways of organising data. Frequency table, frequency histograms and ogives can
all be used to estimate the probability that an event will occur based on data collected.
Worked example 25
A biased die is rolled 30 times and gives the following results

2 3 4 4 3 2 5 1 3 2
1 2 6 5 4 1 5 4 2 5
4 6 2 5 1 2 4 2 3 4
a Display the results in a frequency histogram.
b Use the histogram to estimate the probability of rolling a 6 with this die.
Think WriTe
a 1 Complete a frequency table. a Score Tally Frequency

1 |||| 4
2 |||| ||| 8
3 |||| 4
4 |||| || 7
5 |||| 5
6 || 2
2 Draw the histogram. 8

7
Frequency
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number rolled on die
2
b The probability of a six is estimated by the number P(six) =
30
of times a six has been rolled over the total number 1
of trials. =
15
exercise 10h range of probabilities

1 We22 For each of the probabilities given below, state whether the event would be impossible,
unlikely, even chance, probable or certain.
7 10 3
a b c
14 13 8
37 25
d 1 e f
40 52
19 12
g h 0 i
36 25
2 For each of the events below, calculate the probability and hence state whether the event is impossible,
unlikely, even chance, probable or certain.
a Rolling a die and getting a negative number
b Rolling a die and getting a positive number

c Rolling a die and getting an even number
d Selecting a card from a standard deck and getting a red card
e Selecting a card from a standard deck and getting a spot card
f Selecting a card from a standard deck and getting an ace
g Reaching into a moneybox and selecting a 30c piece
h Selecting a blue marble from a bag containing 3 red, 3 green and 6 blue marbles
3 Give an example of an event with a probability which is:
a certain b probable c even chance
d unlikely e impossible.
4 The probabilities of five events are given below. Write these in order from the most likely to the least
likely event.
7 8 9 13 6
13 19 18 20 25
5 By calculating the probability of each, write the following events in order from least to most likely.
A — Winning a raffle with 5 tickets out of 30
B — Rolling a die and getting a number less than 3
C — Drawing a green marble from a bag containing 4 red, 5 green and 7 blue marbles
D — Selecting a court card from a standard deck
E — Tossing a coin and having it land Heads
6 mC The probabilities of several events are shown below. Which of these is the most likely to occur?
1 19 22 20
a b C d
2 36 45 32
7 mC Cards in a stack have the letters of the alphabet written on them (one letter per card). Vesna draws
a card from the stack. The probability of selecting a card that has a vowel written on it could best be
described as:
a impossible b unlikely C even chance d probable
8 mC For which of the following events can the
probability not be calculated?
a Selecting the first number drawn from a barrel containing
20 numbered marbles
b Selecting a diamond from a standard deck of cards
C Winning the lottery with one ticket out of 150 000
d Selecting the winner of the Olympic 100-metre final with
8 runners
9 We23 In a batch of 2000 cars that come off an assembly line,
50 have faulty paintwork. A car is chosen at random.
a Find the probability that it has faulty paintwork.
b Describe the chance of buying a car with faulty paintwork.
10 A box of matches has on the label ‘Minimum contents
50 matches’. The quality control department of the match
manufacturer surveys boxes and finds that 2% of boxes have
less than 50 matches. Find the probability that a box contains at
least 50 matches and describe this chance.
11 A box of breakfast cereal contains a card on which there may be
a prize. In every 100 000 boxes of cereal the prizes are:
1 new car
5 Disneyland holidays
50 computers
2000 prizes of $100 in cash
50 000 free boxes of cereal
All other boxes have a card labelled
‘Second Chance Draw’. Describe the
chance of getting a card labelled:
a new car
b free box of cereal
c any prize
d ‘Second Chance Draw’.

12 WE24 For each of the following determine whether the statement is true or false, giving a reason for
your answer.
4
a The probability of selecting an ace from a standard deck of cards is .
52
1
b The probability of selecting the letter P randomly from a page of a book is .
26
1
c In a class of 30 students, the probability that Sam tops the class in a Maths test is .
30
1
d In a class of 30 students the probability that Sharon’s name is drawn from a hat is 30.
13 WE25 The data below shows the amount of rain (in mm) that falls each of the 30 days during June.
2 0 15 18 11 21 0 5 19 11
0 0 0 9 39 32 21 16 4 0
0 15 19 21 6 13 21 0 0 6
a Using classes 0–4, 5–9 etc., put the data into a frequency distribution table.
b Show the results in a cumulative frequency histogram and ogive.
c Use your graph to find the probability that there is less than 5 mm of rain on a certain day in June.
d Use the ogive to complete the following statement.: ‘There is a 50% chance that there will be
more than ____ mm of rain on a given day in June.’
14 Forty sample pieces of rope are tested in an effort to determine their breaking strain. The results are
shown in the ogive below.
Ogive of rope strength

40 100%
35
30
25
20 50%
15
10
5
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Breaking strain (kg)
Find the probability that a piece of rope will withstand a stain of:
a 50 kg b 65 kg.
15 A biologist who counts the number of seeds in each of 60 pumpkins presents his findings on the
ogive below.
60 100%
50
40
30 50%
20
10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of seeds
a Find the probability that a pumpkin chosen at random will produce more than 50 seeds.
b Find the minimum number of seeds such that there is a 75% chance that a pumpkin chosen at
random will have more than this number of seeds.
16 Describe the following.
a The probability of rain tomorrow
b Will everyone give the same answer to this question?
c Can the rules of probability be applied to this question? Explain why or why not.
17 A barrel contains 100 marbles, of which 50 are black and 50 are white.
a What is the probability that a marble selected from the barrel is black?
b The marble is not replaced in the bag before a second marble is drawn. Paul says that there is a
fifty–fifty chance that the second ball will be black. Is Paul correct? Explain your answer.

18 Explain why probabilities are most easily displayed as a fraction.
19 Luke says that an event with a probability of 0.49 is unlikely to occur. Does this mean that if the event
occurs one should be surprised?
20 The table below shows the Mathematics exam results of a group of Year 11 students.
Mark 0–25 26–40 41–50 51–65 66–75 76–85 86–95 96–100

Number 11 16 17 34 57 54 21 4
a Determine the probability that a student from the group passes the exam (i.e. gets a mark greater
than 50).
b Describe the chance that the person selected gets over 95.
21 Consider the probability scale on page 352. Give an example of an event that matches each point
labelled on the scale.
Investigate: Graphing results
1 Weather statistics
Use the internet to find the number of wet days in Sydney during each month of the last five years. Copy
and complete the table below for each month of the year.
Year No. of wet days Relative frequency
Draw a radar chart to graph the month against the relative frequency of rain.
2 Sporting results
Choose a sporting competition such as the AFL or NRL. Use the current or most recent season to
calculate the relative frequency of each team winning. Choose an appropriate graph to display the
results.
(If you are using a spreadsheet, you can easily update your results each week.)
3 Topic of interest
Choose a topic of interest. Research your area thoroughly and display your findings in graph form.
10I Complementary events

When tossing a coin, we know there are two elements in the sample space. P(Heads) = 12 and P(Tails) = 12.
The total of the probabilities is 1. Now consider a slightly more difficult problem.
Worked Example 26
In a bag with 10 counters, there are 7 black, and 3 white counters. If one counter is selected at
random from the bag, calculate:
a the probability of selecting a white counter
b the probability of selecting a black counter
c the total of the probabilities.
Think Write
3
a There are 10 counters of which 3 are white. a P(white) =
10
7
b There are 10 counters of which 7 are black. b P(black) = 10
3 7 3 7
c Add and together. c Total = 10 + 10
10 10
=1

In any probability experiment the total of all probabilities equals 1.
We can use this rule to help us make calculations. In the above example, the chance of selecting
a black counter and the chance of selecting a white counter are said to be complementary events.
Complementary events are two events for which the probabilities have a total of 1. In other words,
complementary events cover all possible outcomes to the probability experiment.
When we are given one event and asked to state the complementary event, we need to describe what
must happen for the first event not to occur.
Worked Example 27
For each of the following events, write down the complementary event.
a Tossing a coin and getting a Head
b Rolling a die and getting a number less than 5
c Selecting a heart from a standard deck of cards
Think Write
a There are two elements to the sample space, a The complementary event is that the coin lands
Heads and Tails. If the coin does not land Tails.
Heads, it must land Tails.
b There are 6 elements to the sample space — 1, b The complementary event is that we get a number
2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. If we do not get a number less greater than 4.
than 4 we must get either a 5 or a 6.
c As we are concerned with only the suit of the c The complementary event is that we do not get a
card, there are four elements to the sample heart.
space: hearts, diamonds, clubs and spades. If
we do not get a heart we can get any other suit.
We can use our knowledge of complementary events to simplify the solution to many problems. The
probability of an event and its complement will always add to give 1. We can use the result:
P(an event does not occur) = 1 − P(the event does occur)
Worked Example 28
Jessie has a collection of 50 CDs. Of these, 20 are by a rap artist, 10 are by heavy metal performers
and 20 are dance music. If we select one CD at random, what is the probability that it is:
a a heavy metal CD?
b not a heavy metal CD?
Think Write
a Of 50 CDs, 10 are by heavy metal performers. a P(heavy metal CD) = 10

50
1
=5
b This is the complement of selecting a heavy b P(not heavy metal) = 1 − P(heavy metal)
metal CD. Subtract the probability of selecting 1
=1−5
a heavy metal CD from 1. 1
=5
Exercise 10I Complementary events

1 WE26 A die is rolled.
a List the sample space.
b Write down the probability of each event in the sample space.
c What is the total of the probabilities?

2 A barrel contains 20 marbles. We know that 7 of them are blue, 8 are red and the rest are yellow.
a One marble is selected from the barrel. Calculate the probability that it is:
i blue ii red iii yellow.
b Calculate the total of these probabilities.
3 WE27 For each of the following, state the complementary event.
a Winning a race b Passing a test
c Your birthday falling on a Monday
4 Match each event in the left-hand column with the complementary event in the right-hand column.
A coin landing Heads A coin landing Tails
An odd number on a die A spot card from a standard deck
A picture card from a standard deck Not winning 1st prize in the raffle
A red card from a standard deck A team not making the last 4
Winning 1st prize in a raffle with 100 tickets An even number on a die
Making the last 4 teams in a 20 team tournament A black card from a standard deck
5 For each pair of events in question 4, calculate:
a the probability of the event in the left-hand column
b the probability of its complementary event
c the total of the probabilities.
6 You are rolling a die. Write down the complementary event to each of the following.
a Rolling an even number b Rolling a number greater than 3
c Rolling a number less than 3 d Rolling a 6
e Rolling a number greater than 1
7 In a barrel there are balls numbered 1 to 45. For each of the following, write down the complementary
event.
a Choosing an odd-numbered ball
b Choosing a ball numbered less than 20
c Choosing a ball that has a number greater than 23
d Choosing a ball that is a multiple of 5
8 In a barrel there are 25 balls, 15 of which are coloured (10 pink and 5 orange). The rest are black. What
is the complementary event to selecting:
a a black ball? b a coloured ball? c a pink ball?
9 MC Wilson rolls two dice. He needs to get a 6 on at least one of the dice. What is the complementary
event?
a Rolling no sixes b Rolling 2 sixes c Rolling 1 six d Rolling at least 1 six
11
10 MC The probability of rolling at least one six is . What is the probability of the complementary
36
event?
a
9
b
11
c
25 d 1
36 36 36
11 WE28 In a barrel with 40 marbles, 20 are yellow, 15 are green and 5 are orange. If one marble is
selected from the bag find the probability that it is:
a orange b not orange.
12 In a barrel there are 40 balls numbered 1 to 40. One ball is chosen at random from the barrel.
a Find the probability that the number is a multiple of 5.
b Use your knowledge of complementary events to find the probability that the number is not a
multiple of 5.
13 There are 40 CDs in a collection. They can be classified as follows.
18 heavy metal
6 rock
10 techno
6 classical
If one CD is chosen at random, calculate the probability that it is:
a heavy metal b not heavy metal
c classical d not classical
e heavy metal or rock f techno or classical.

14 In a golf tournament there are 40 players. Of these, 16 are Australian and 12 are American. If they are
all of the same skill level, find the probability that the tournament is:
a won by an Australian
b won by an American
c not won by an Australian
d not won by an American
e not won by an Australian or an American.
15 After studying a set of traffic lights, Karen found that in every 100 seconds they were
red for 60 seconds, amber for 5 seconds and green for 35 seconds. If you were to
approach this set of lights calculate the probability that:
a they will be green
b you will need to stop.
16 In a game of Scrabble there are 100 lettered tiles.
These tiles include 9 ‘A’s, 12 ‘E’s, 9 ‘I’s, 8 ‘O’s and 4 ‘U’s. One tile is chosen.
Find the probability that it is:
a an ‘E’
b a vowel
c a consonant.
17 From past performances it is known that a golfer has a
probability of 0.7 of sinking a putt. What is the probability
that he misses the putt?
18 A basketballer is about to take a shot from the free-throw
line. His past record shows that he has a 91% success
rate from the free-throw line. What would be the relative
frequency (as a percentage) of his:
a being successful with the shot?
b missing the shot?
Further development
19 Explain whether or not each of the following pairs of events are complementary.
a Having WeetBix or Corn Flakes for breakfast.
b Walking or driving to school.
c Watching TV or surfing the Internet.
d Rolling a number less than 3 or rolling a number greater than 3 with a normal die.
e Passing or failing a test.
20 Two coins are tossed. Are the events of tossing two heads and tossing two tails complementary?
21 A race has eight horses in it. The favourite Make Be Diva is given a 22% chance of winning.
a What is the probability of Make Be Diva not winning?
b Is it possible to calculate the probability that the second favourite Shucking will win the race?
22 The probability of an event A is given as P(A) = 0.32. The probability of an event B is given as
P(B) = 0.15. Given that A and B are mutually exclusive find:
a P(A or B)
b P(neither A nor B).
23 In question 22 are the events (A or B) and (neither A nor B) complementary? How do you know?
24 In a barrel there are 10 blue balls and 10 red balls. Two balls are selected at random from the bag.
digiTal doC
Will is interested in the probability of selecting at least one red ball. What event is complementary to WorkSHEET 10.2
selecting at least one red ball? doc-10336

Summary
multi-stage events • Tree diagrams are used to list the sample space when there is more than one stage to a probability
experiment.
• The tree must branch out once for each stage of the probability experiment.
The fundamental • This principle can be used to count the number of elements in a sample space of a multi-stage
counting principle experiment.
• The total number of possible outcomes is calculated by multiplying the number of ways each stage
of the experiment can occur.
probability statements • The chance of an event occurring can be described as being from certain (a probability of 1) to
impossible (a probability of 0).
• Terms used to describe the chance of an event occurring include improbable, unlikely, fifty-fifty,
likely and probable.
• The chance of an event occurring can be described by counting the possible outcomes and
sometimes by relying on our general knowledge.
relative frequency • Relative frequency describes how often an event has occurred.
• It is found by dividing the number of times an event has occurred by the total number of trials.
equally likely • Equally likely events occur when the selection method is random.
outcomes • Events will not be equally likely when other factors influence selection. For example, in a race
each person will not have an equal chance of winning, as each runner will be of different ability.
The probability • The probability of an event can be found using the formula:
formula number of favourable outcomes
P(event) =
total number of outcomes
• Probabilities are usually written as fractions but can also be expressed as decimals or percentages.
range of probabilities • Probabilities range from 0 (impossible) to 1 (certain). The use of a fraction for a probability can
help us describe, in words, the chance of an event occurring.
Complementary • The complement of an event is the event that describes all other possible outcomes to the
events probability experiment.
• The probability of an event and its complement add to give 1.
• The probability of an event can often be calculated by subtracting the probability of its
complementary event from 1.

Chapter review
1 An Olympic Games shooter hits a target with 46 out of 50 shots. The relative frequency of him hitting
m U lTip l e
his target is: C ho iC e
a 0.03 b 0.46 C 0.50 d 0.92
17
2 The probability of a missile hitting its target is . The probability of missing the target is:
25
a
1
b
8
C
17 d 1
25 25 25
3 Jason and Kylie are playing a game of Monopoly. To move your piece, you roll two dice and move
the same number of places as the total of the two dice. Kylie needs a total of 7 to land on Mayfair.
The chance of Kylie rolling a 7 could best be described as:
a impossible b unlikely C fifty-fifty d probable
4 To win a game, Rhonda must roll a number greater than 3 with a single die. Which of the following
statements is correct?
a The sample space has 3 elements and there are 3 favourable outcomes.
b The sample space has 3 elements and there are 6 favourable outcomes.
C The sample space has 6 elements and there are 3 favourable outcomes.
d The sample space has 6 elements and there are 6 favourable outcomes.
5 A three-digit number is to be formed using the digits 3, 6, 7 and 8. The same number cannot be used
more than once. How many three-digit numbers can be formed?
a 4 b 12 C 24 d 64
6 One person from each Year 11 class is to be elected to the Student Representative Council. If there
are four classes in Year 11 with 23, 20, 19 and 25 people in these classes, the number of possible
combinations of four representatives is:
a 87 b 348 C 218 500 d 874 000
1 Two coins are tossed. Draw a tree diagram to find the sample space. s ho rT
a n s W er
2 Two dice are rolled. How many elements are in the sample space?
3 A two-digit number is formed using 5, 6, 7 and 9, without repetition.
a Use a tree diagram to list the sample space.
b If Dan wants to make a number greater than 60, how many favourable outcomes are there?
4 Mary, Neville, Paul, Rachel and Simon are candidates for an election. There are two positions,
president and vice-president. One person cannot hold both positions.
b If Paul is to hold one of the positions, how many elements are in the event space?
5 A school must elect one representative from each of three classes to sit on a committee. In 11A the
candidates are Tran and Karen. In 11B the candidates are Cara, Daisy, Henry and Ian. In 11C the
candidates are Bojan, Melina and Zelko.
b If there is to be at least one boy and at least one girl on the committee, how many elements are in
the sample space?
6 A poker machine has five wheels. Each wheel has 15 symbols on it. In how many ways can the wheels
land?
7 There are four roads that lead from town A to town B, and five roads that lead from town B to town C.
In how many different ways can I travel from town A to town C?
8 The daily double requires a punter to select the winner of two races. How many selections are possible
if there are 16 horses in the first leg and 17 in the second leg?
9 At a restaurant, a patron has the choice of five entrees, eight main courses and four desserts. In how
many ways can they choose their meal?
10 Jake has a bike chain that has a dial with four wheels, with 10 digits on each wheel.
a How many different combinations are possible?
b Jake has forgotten his combination. He can remember that the first digit is 5, and the last digit is
odd. How many different combinations could there be to his chain?

11 The dial to a safe consists of 100 numbers. To open the safe, you must turn the dial to each of four
numbers that form the safe’s combination.
a How many different combinations to the safe are possible?
b How many different combinations are possible if no number can be used twice?
12 Graham and Marcia are playing a game. To see who starts they each take a card from a standard
deck. The player with the higher card starts. Graham takes a five. Describe Marcia’s chance of taking
a higher card.
13 Describe each of the following events as being either certain, probable, even chance (fifty-fifty),
unlikely or impossible.
a Rolling a die and getting a number less than 6
b Choosing the eleven of diamonds from a standard deck of cards
c Tossing a coin and it landing Tails
d Rolling two dice and getting a total of 12
e Winning the lottery with one ticket
14 Give an example of an event which is:
a certain
b impossible.
15 The Chen family are going on holidays to Queensland during January. Are they more likely to
experience hot weather or cold weather?
16 A barrel contains 25 balls numbered from 1 to 25. One ball is drawn from the barrel. Find the
probability that the marble drawn is:
a 13 b 7 c an odd number
d a square number e a prime number f a double-digit number.
17 A card is to be chosen from a standard deck. Find the probability that the card chosen is:
a the 2 of clubs b any 2 c any club
d a black card e a court card f a spot card.
18 A video collection has 12 dramas, 14 comedies, 4 horror and 10 romance movies. If I choose a movie
at random from the collection, find the probability that the movie chosen is:
a a comedy b a horror c not romance.
19 A raffle has 2000 tickets sold and has two prizes. Michelle buys five tickets.
a Find the probability that Michelle wins 1st prize.
b If Michelle wins 1st prize, what is the probability that she also wins 2nd prize?
20 A barrel contains marbles with the numbers 1 to 40 on them. If one marble is chosen at random find, as
a decimal, the probability that the number drawn is:
a 26 b even c greater than 10.
21 When 400 cars are checked for a defect, it is found that 350 have the defect. If one is chosen at random
from the batch, find the probability that it has the defect and hence describe the chance of the car
having the defect.
22 State the event that is complementary to each of the following.
a Tossing a coin that lands Tails
b Rolling a die and getting a number less than 5
c Choosing a blue ball from a bag containing 4 blue balls, 5 red balls and 7 yellow balls
23 A barrel contains 20 marbles of which 6 are black. One marble is selected at random. Find the
probability that the marble selected is:
a black
b not black.
7
24 The probability that a person must stop at a set of traffic lights is . What is the probability of not
12
needing to stop at the lights?
25 On a bookshelf there are 25 books. Of these, seven are fiction. If one book is chosen at random, what is
the probability that the book chosen is non-fiction?

1 At a school athletics carnival, a relay team must be selected. Below is the list of students who qualified
ex Ten d ed
and the house for which they compete. There must be one member of the relay team from each house. r es p o n s e
RED YELLOW BLUE GREEN
Richard Andrew Boris Milan
Stan Frank Harry
Ned Danny
Voula
a Draw a tree diagram to show all possible relay teams.
c If Ned is to be in the relay team, how many favourable outcomes are there?
d Describe the chance of Milan being in the relay team.
e Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur? Explain your answer.
2 Gino, Dennis, Kurt and Colin make up a tennis team. Two of them are to represent the club at a
tournament.
a Draw a tree diagram, to find the sample space for all possible teams.
b List the favourable outcomes if Colin is to be in the team.
c If the two selected players are to play two players selected from a group of six from another club,
in how many ways can the final four players be chosen?
3 Theo, Marcus, Olivia, Ben and Kelly are the finalists in a contest run by a music store. Two names will
be drawn. The first name will win two tickets to a Silverchair concert.
a What is the probability that Marcus wins the Silverchair tickets?
b Ben and Kelly agree that if either win a prize, they will take the other to the concert. What is the
probability that Ben and Kelly will attend the concert?
c What is the probability that neither Ben nor Kelly win the tickets?
4 A navy ship fires 60 missiles at a target and hits the target 42 times.
a Find the relative frequency of a missile hitting its target. digiTal doC
Test Yourself
b What is the relative frequency of a missile missing its target? doc-10337
c Describe in words the chance of a missile hitting its target. Chapter 10

ICT activities
10a multi-stage events 10i Complementary events
digiTal doCs digiTal doC
• Spreadsheet (doc-1644): Coin toss lister (page 329) • WorkSHEET 10.2 (doc-10336): Apply your knowledge of probability to
• Spreadsheet (doc-1646): Die rolling (page 329) problems. (page 359)
10C probability statements Chapter review

digiTal doCs digiTal doC
• Investigation (doc-10348): Chance in the media (page 335) • Test Yourself Chapter 10 (doc-10337): Take the end-of-chapter test to
• WorkSHEET 10.1 (doc-10335): Apply your knowledge of probability to check your progress. (page 363)
problems. (page 336)
10e To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au

equally likely outcomes
inTeraCTiviTY
• int-0089: Random number generator (page 341)

digiTal doCs
• Spreadsheet (doc-1655): Tossing a coin (page 348)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1656): Rolling a die (page 348)

Answers CHAPTER 10
probabiliTY exercise 10b The fundamental counting 17 The number of chances of winning and the
principle total number of chances can be counted.
exercise 10a multi-stage events
1 50 625 18 Answers will vary.
1 S = {HH, HT, TH, TT} 19 0 represents no chance and 1 represents
2 a 4 b 36
2 S = {R1B1, R1B2, R1B3, R2B1, R2B2, 100% chance, hence nothing can lie
c 12
R2B3, R3B1, R3B2, R3B3} outside this range.
3 1000 4 7776
3 S = {BBB, BBG, BGB, BGG, GBB, GBG,
5 6 760 000 6 D
GGB, GGG} exercise 10d relative frequency
7 B 8 1833
4 a 12 b No 1 0.74 2 0.79
9 72
5 a 25 b 20 3 0.375
10 a 64 b 144
6 27 4 a 0.45 b 0.55
c 168 d 112
7 S = {13, 14, 18, 31, 34, 38, 41, 43, 48, 81, 5 4%
e 384
83, 84} 6 a 0.03 b 0.97
11 a 3 200 000 b 240
8 S = {DZ, DM, DK, DS, ZD, ZM, ZK, ZS, 7 a 0.96 b 0.04
12 2 540 160
MD, MZ, MK, MS, KD, KZ, KM, KS, 8 A 9 A
13 90
SD, SZ, SM, SK} 10 a 0.525 b 0.4375
14 a 12
9 S = {AM, AS, AL, PM, PS, PL, YM, c 0.0375
b Not correct. After 12 rides the next ride
YS, YL} 11 a 6.67% b 80
must have been experienced before.
10 S = {CA, CR, CL, CK, AR, AL, AK, RL, 12 a 0.02 b $400
15 a 5408 b 676
RK, LK} 13 Yes, the relative frequency is 27%.
16 36
11 a Check with your teacher. 14 a 2.5% b 51.5%
17 a 100 000 000 b 80 000 000
b S = {HHHH, HHHT, HHTH, HHTT, c 17.5%
c 1 000 000 d 2 000 000
HTHH, HTHT, HTTH, HTTT, 15 40 000 km
18 96 19 C
THHH, THHT, THTH, THTT, 16 a
20 a 1200 b 550 Result Number
TTHH, TTHT, TTTH, TTTT}
21 20 000 22 307 328 000
c 6 Win 15
23 a 100 000 b 12
12 C Loss 14
c No. There will be 248 832 combinations,
13 D Draw 11
an increase of approximately 148%.
14 B
24 76.3% b Win = 0.375, Loss = 0.35, Draw = 0.275
15 a S = {22, 25, 27, 28, 52, 55, 57, 58, 72,
25 The number of ways that a series of 17 a i 0.825 ii 0.175
75, 77, 78, 82, 85, 87, 88}
independent events can occur is found by b i 0.3 ii 0.7
b S = {25, 27, 28, 52, 57, 58, 72, 75, 78,
multiplying the number of outcomes at c i 0.777 ii 0.223
82, 85, 87}
each individual stage. 18 D
16 a 12 b 24
c 24 19 0.2625
exercise 10C probability statements 20 a 0.0102 b $181.69
17 a S = {TJ, TS, TR, TM, JT, JS, JR, JM,
1 a Probable b Unlikely 21 a 0.0833 b 0.00167
ST, SJ, SR, SM, RT, RJ, RS, RM,
c Impossible d Fifty-fifty c 0.02 d 0.16
MT, MJ, MS, MR}
2 a Impossible b Certain e Part c finds the fraction of ‘P’ plate
b 20 c 2
c Even chance d Even chance drivers that have accidents while
d 6 e 12
e Probable f Unlikely part d finds the fraction of accidents
18 The statement is not correct because there g Impossible h Even chance
are four elements to the sample space. The that involves ‘P’ plate drivers.
3 Check with your teacher. 22 a The sum of relative frequencies must
one Head and one Tail can occur in either 4 More likely during school term
order. account for 100% of all outcomes.
5 a More likely b As all relative frequencies add to 1, if
19 a 36
b Equally likely one increases another must decrease as
b
c Less likely the sum must not change.
Total 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 d More likely
e Less likely exercise 10e equally likely outcomes
No. of elements 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1 6 Australia 1 No. The players are not of equal ability.
c 6 7 Carl Bailey because he has better past 2 No. The runners are not of equal ability.
20 a 64 b 24 performances. 3 Yes. The number is chosen randomly.
21 a First die Second die 8 A 4 a Yes b No
6 9 B c No d Yes
6 10 C 5 a True. The letter is chosen randomly.
not 6 11 Probable b False. On a page of writing, each letter
6
12 Unlikely of the alphabet does not occur equally
13 Fifty-fifty often.
not 6
14 Answers will vary. 6 B
not 6
15 Common language is used to describe 7 No, there are two chances of a boy and a
b They are not equally likely as she is less how likely an event is to occur, and unless girl, as they could be born in either order.
likely to get a 6 than not. mathematical calculations are to be made 8 a S = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
22 a 4 the exact likelihood will not need to be b No
b 40 defined. 9 a 24
23 A tree diagram is a way of systematically 16 Each outcome for the weather is not b No. The chance of each combination
showing the outcome to each stage. equally likely to occur. depends on people’s taste.

10 a 10 9 Captain Vice-captain Sample space 19 a
1
b
1
c
4
b No. Each horse has a different rider and Danika Belinda, Danika
5 5 5
1 4 1
ability. Belinda Kate Belinda, Kate
d
5
e
5
f
5
c Yes. Yes. The selection of horse is made 20 Check with your teacher.
Adrienne Belinda, Adrienne
randomly. 21 a Because there are two numbers which
11 a Tomorrow’s weather depends heavily on Belinda Danika, Belinda
could go in the last place.
the weather today. Danika Kate Danika, Kate b A number greater than 400
b Scientific factors affect the likelihood of Adrienne Danika, Adrienne 22 a 32 b 70
rain. 7
Belinda Kate, Belinda 23 15
12 a The selection of winner is not random.
b Ability is the main factor affecting the Kate Danika Kate, Danika 1 1 3
24 a b c
outcome. Adrienne Kate, Adrienne 26 2 4
13 a There is one face with a 6 and five faces 2 4

d e
Belinda Adrienne, Belinda 13 13
that are not.
Adrienne Danika Adrienne, Danika 1 1
b The likelihood of each face is equally 25 a b
12 20
likely. Kate Adrienne, Kate
c Game is not fair.
14 The outcome of one boy and one girl can
6 4 8
occur in either order making it twice as 10 1st 2nd 3rd Sample 26 a b c
digit digit digit space 25 25 25
likely as the other two outcomes. 27 a Not mutually exclusive
7 457
15 Answers will vary. 5 8 458 b Mutually exclusive
16 a Science and experience 5 475
4 7 8 478 c Not mutually exclusive
b Informal chance words 5 485 d Not mutually exclusive
8 7 487
7 547
exercise 10F The probability formula 4 8 548 exercise 10g Writing probabilities as
4 574
1 S = {Heads, Tails}, 1 5 7
8 578 decimals and percentages
2 a S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, 1 8 4 584 1 0.5
7 587
b S = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}, 3 5 745 2 37.5%
c S = {a, b, c, d, e, . . ., y, z}, 5 4 8 748
4 754 3 a 0.5 b 50%
d S = {Sun, Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, 7 5 8 758 4 a 0.17 b 0.5
Sat}, 2 4 784
8 5 785 c 0.33
e S = {Jan, Feb, Mar, . . ., Nov, Dec}, 3 5 845 5 a 16.7% b 50%
4 7 847
3 a 26, 52 4 854 c 83.3%
8 5
b 1, 15 7 857 6 a 0.02 b 0.25
4 874
c 1, 44 7
5 875 c 0.08 d 0.5
d 5, 1500 e 0.23
e 3, 11 10 5
11 12 = 6 7 a 1.9% b 25%
1
4 1 3 1 c 7.7% d 50%
2 12 a b c
1 1 1 4 4 4 e 23.1%
5 a b c
6 6 2 1 8 A
d e
2
=
1
d
1
e
2
f
1 4 4 2 9 D
2 3 3
13 C 10 B
1 1 22
6 a b c 14 C 11 a 0.2 b 0.4
45 45 45
23 1 1 15 C c 0.6 d 0.8
d e f
45 5 3 16 D 12 a 20% b 40%
19 2 2 3 1 c 40%
g h i 17 a 5 b 10
45 9 15
1 1 1
13 a 0.567 b 0.1
7 a b c 3 1 c 0.8
52 13 4 c 10 d 5
1 3 3
d e f
2 13 13 18 a Destination Season Class Sample space
8 1st 2nd Sample Econ Cal, Peak, Econ
digit digit space Peak Bus Cal, Peak, Bus
4 24 Disneyland First Cal, Peak, First
6 26 (California) Econ Cal, Off, Econ
2
Off-peak Bus Cal, Off, Bus
7 27 First Cal, Off, First
2 42 Econ Florida, Peak, Econ
Peak Bus Florida, Peak, Bus
4 6 46 Disneyworld First Florida, Peak, First
7 47 (Florida) Econ Florida, Off, Econ
Off-peak Bus Florida, Off, Bus
2 62 First Florida, Off, First
Econ France, Peak, Econ
6 4 64 Peak Bus France, Peak, Bus
7 67 Euro Disney First France, Peak, First
(France) Econ France, Off, Econ
2 72 Bus France, Off, Bus
Off-peak
4 74 First France, Off, First
7 1
6 76 b 6

14 a i 0.0875 ii 0.2125 iii 0.175 b d Not rolling a 6
Ogive of rainfall

b i 6.25% ii 8.75% iii 20% 30 100% e Rolling a 1
15 a Arlo — 0.125 7 a Choosing an even-numbered ball
25 b Choosing a ball numbered greater
Roberta — 0.167 The game is not fair.
b Arlo — 50% 20 than 19
Roberta — 50% The game is fair. 50% c Choosing a ball that has a number less
15
16 a 24 b 126 than 24
17 a 25% b 30% 10 d Choosing a ball that is not a multiple
c 30% 5 of 5
18 67% 8 a Selecting a coloured ball
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 b Selecting a black ball
exercise 10h range of probabilities
Rainfall (mm) c Not selecting a pink ball
1 a Even chance b Probable
c 37% d 10 mm 9 A
c Unlikely d Certain
14 a 20% b 85% 10 C
e Probable f Unlikely 1
g Probable h Impossible 15 a 20% b 48 11 a b
7
8 8
i Unlikely 16 a Answers will vary. 1 4
b No 12 a b
2 a 0, impossible 5 5
b 1, certain c No, since each outcome is not equally 13 a

9
b
11
c
3
20 20 20
3 likely. 17 3 2
c , even chance 1 d e f
6 17 a 2 20 5 5
26 2 3 3
d
52
, even chance b No, he is not correct as the probability 14 a b c
49 5 10 5
40 will be 99 , slightly less than fifty–fifty. 7 3
e
52
, probable d e
18 A fraction simply shows the number of 10 10
4 7 13
f
52
, unlikely chances that the event has of occurring 15 a
20
b
20
over the total number of possible 16 a
3
b
21
c
29
g 0, impossible
outcomes. 25 50 50
6 17 0.3
h ,
even chance 19 Although the event is technically unlikely
12 18 a 91%
3 Check with your teacher. it has close to an even chance of occurring
b 9%
13 7 9 8 6 and one should not be surprised if it
4 , , , , 19 a Not complementary as this does not
20 13 18 19 25 occurs.
cover all possible outcomes. There are
5 A, D, C, B, E 20 a
170
b Very unlikely
214 other cereals that could be eaten for
6 D
21 Answers will vary. breakfast.
7 B
exercise 10i b Not complementary as this does not
8 D Complementary events
cover all possible outcomes. Other
9 a 0.025 1 a S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
means of transport can be used.
b Unlikely b
1
98 6 c Not complementary as this does not
10
100
, very probable c 1 cover all possible outcomes. Other
11 a Very unlikely 2 a i
7
ii
8
iii
5 activities could be undertaken.
20 20 20
b Even chance d Not complementary as this does not
b 1 cover all possible outcomes. The die
c Probable
3 a Losing a race could show a 3.
d Unlikely
b Failing a test e Complementary as they cover all
12 a True, as there are 4 aces from 52 cards
c Your birthday not falling on a Monday possible outcomes.
in the deck.
4 20 They are not complementary as there
b False, as each letter does not occur A coin landing Heads A coin landing Tails
equally often. An odd number on An even number on could be one head and one tail.
c False, as each student is not of equal a die a die 21 a 78%
ability. A picture card from a A spot card from a b No because the probability of the other
d True, as the name is chosen randomly. standard deck standard deck six horses winning is not known.
13 a A red card from a A black card from a 22 a 0.47 b 0.53
standard deck standard deck 23 They are complementary as their
Class Class Frequency Cumulative probabilities add to 1.
centre frequency Winning 1st prize Not winning 1st prize
in a raffle with in the raffle 24 Selecting no red balls
0–4 2 11 11 100 tickets
Making the A team not making ChapTer revieW
5–9 7 4 15 last 4 teams the last four mUlTiple ChoiCe
10 – 14 12 3 18 in a 20 team
tournament 1 D 2 B 3 B
15 – 19 17 6 24 1 1 3 1 1 1 4 C 5 C 6 C
5 a , , , , ,
2 2 13 2 100 5 shorT ansWer
20 – 24 22 4 28 1 1 10 1 99 4
b , , , , ,
2 2 13 2 100 5 1 S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
25 – 29 27 0 28 c 1 2 36
30 – 34 32 1 29 6 a Rolling an odd number 3 a S = {56, 57, 59, 65, 67, 69, 75, 76,
b Rolling a number less than 4 79, 95, 96, 97}
35 – 39 37 1 30
c Rolling a number greater than 2 b 9

4 a S = {MN, MP, MR, MS, NM, NP, NR, 17 a
1
b
1
c
1 exTended response
52 13 4
NS, PM, PN, PR, PS, RM, RN, RP, 1 3 10 1 a S ={RABM, RAHM, RADM, RFBM,
RS, SM, SN, SP, SR} d e f RFHM, RFDM, RNBM, RNHM,
2 13 13
b 8 7 1 3 RNDM, RVBM, RVHM, RVDM,
18 a b c
5 a S = {TCB, TCM, TCZ, TDB, TDM, 20 10 4 SABM, SAHM, SADM, SFBM,
1 4
TDZ, THB, THM, THZ, TIB, TIM, 19 a b SFHM, SFDM, SNBM, SNHM,
400 1999
TIZ, KCB, KCM, KCZ, KDB, KDM, 20 a 0.025 SNDM, SVBM, SVHM, SVDM}
KDZ, KHB, KHM, KHZ, KIB, KIM, b 0.5 b 24
KIZ} c 0.75 c 6
b 15 7 d Certain
6 759 375 7 20 21 . It is probable that the car will have a
8 e No. Each runner is of different ability.
8 272 9 160 defect. 2 a S = {GD, GK, GC, DK, DC, KC}
10 a 10 000 b 500 22 a Tossing a coin that lands Heads b E = {GC, DC, KC}
11 a 100 000 000 b 94 109 400 b Rolling a die and getting a number c 90
12 Marcia will probably get a higher card. greater than 4 3 a
1
13 a Probable b Impossible c Not choosing a blue ball 5
2
c Even chance d Unlikely 23 a
3 b
10 5
e Unlikely 7 c
3
b 5
14 Check with your teacher. 10
5 4 a 0.7
15 Hot weather 24
1 1 13 12 b 0.3
16 a b c 25
18
c The missile will probably hit its target.
25 25 25
1 9 16 25
d e f
5 25 25

ChapTer 11
Algebraic manipulation
ChapTer ConTenTS
11a Operations with algebraic expressions
11B Further multiplication and division
11C Expanding and simplifying algebraic expressions
11d Substitution
11e Solving linear equations
11aoperations with algebraic

expressions
In algebra, each pronumeral used stands in place of a number. Consider the expression:
5+5+5+5+5+5+5=7×5
We can write this addition as a multiplication because the same number is being added. We can say that
‘like terms’ are used.
Similarly, we can simplify a similar expression using pronumerals:
a + a + a + a + a + a + a + a = 8a
Note that we do not use the multiplication sign in algebra. The multiplication sign is implied when it is
not used.
Now consider the expression
9+9+9+9+9+9+4+4+4+4+4
We can not write this as a single expression because the terms are not like. We can only simplify the like
terms.
9+9+9+9+9+9+4+4+4+4+4=6×9+5×4
Similarly:
x + x + x + x + x + y + y + y = 5x + 3y
Only like terms, that is, the same pronumerals, can be added together.
Worked example 1
Simplify the expressions:

a m+m+m+m+m+m+m b p + p + p + q + q + q + q + q + q.
Think WriTe
a Write the repeated addition as a multiplication. a m + m + m + m + m + m + m = 7m

b 1 Write p + p + p as a multiplication. b
2 Write q + q + q + q + q + q as a multiplication. p + p + p + q + q + q + q + q + q = 3p + 6q
We are able to add or subtract any expressions that use the same pronumerals.
In each expression where more than one different pronumeral is used, we collect all the like terms (the
same pronumeral). The addition or subtraction sign in such expressions belongs with what follows it. For
example, in 4x − 6y + 2x the minus sign belongs to the 6y and the plus sign to the 2x.
ChapTer 11 • Algebraic manipulation 369

Worked Example 2
Simplify:
a 5k + 9k − k b 5b + 2 + 2b − 6 c 4m − 3n + 2m − 5n.
Think Write
a Each term uses the same pronumeral so we add and a 5k + 9k − k = 13k

subtract the coefficients. Remember that where no
coefficient is written it is assumed to be 1.
b 1 Rewrite the expression, grouping like terms. b 5b + 2 + 2b − 6 = (5b + 2b) + (2 − 6)
2 Complete each addition and subtraction = 7b − 4
separately.
c 1 Rewrite the expression, grouping like terms. c 4m − 3n + 2m − 5n = (4m + 2m) + (−3n − 5n)
2 Complete each addition and subtraction = 6m − 8n
separately.
When we are multiplying and dividing algebraic expressions, the same rule about like terms applies;
however, care needs to be taken with the notation of multiplication and division. Earlier, we saw the
shorthand way of writing a repeated addition.
We said: 4+4+4+4+4+4+4+4=8×4
For multiplication, we use indices:
4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = 48
In this expression, 4 is the base and 8 is the index.
The same method applies to pronumerals, provided they are like terms.
We can write: p × p × p × p × p = p5
Worked Example 3
Simplify each of the following.

a 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 b m × m × m × m
Think Write
a 3 is shown 6 times. a 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 36
b m is shown 4 times. b m × m × m × m = m4
We can use index laws to simplify expressions already in index form. Consider:
a3 × a4 = (a × a × a) × (a × a × a × a)
= a7
This leads us to the first index law.
Index Law 1: ax × ay = ax+y
When using the index laws, the indices of the same base are added in turn. If there are coefficients
(numbers in front of the pronumerals) in the expression, these are multiplied.
Worked Example 4

a t 5 × t 4 b 4m3 × 6m2 c 12a2b × 4a5b3
Think Write
a Add the indices. a t5 × t4 = t9

b Multiply the coefficients and add the indices. b 4m3 × 6m2 = 24m5
c Multiply coefficients, add the base ‘a’ indices, c 12a2b × 4a5b3 = 48a7b4
then add the base ‘b’ indices.

The reverse to the index law for multiplication is the index law for division.
ax
Index Law 2: a x ÷ a y = a x−y or = a x−y
ay
Division questions can be written as either a division or in fraction form. This may involve simplifying a
fraction as well as applying this law. We need to be able to divide terms which are linear, quadratic and
cubic in particular, as well as higher powers.
Worked example 5

a w8 ÷ w3 b 24d4 ÷ 6d
Think WriTe
a Subtract the indices. a w8 ÷ w3 = w5
b Divide the coefficients then subtract the indices. b 24d 4 ÷ 6d = 4d3
exercise 11a operations with algebraic expressions

1 We1 Simplify each of the following.
a t+t b r+r+r c w+w+w+w+w+w
d x+x+x+x e q+q+q+q+q+q+q f n+n+n+n+n+n+n+n
2 Write the following algebraic terms as additions.
a 2m b 6n c 9s
d 8w e 3y f 4r
3 We2 Simplify the following.
a 5y + 7y b 15x + 4x c 15e + 24e
d 34j + 13j e 17k + 8k f 14k − 10k
g 14r − 6r h 9w − 8w i m − 5m
j −4w + 6w k −2s − 5s l 14m + 5m + 3m
m 4j − 2j − j n −2p − 17p + 25p o 5z − 15z + 9z
4 Simplify the following by collecting like terms.
a 8x + 2x + 7 b h − 4 + 3h c 7k + 5k + 3k − 2k
d 5p + 9q − 2p − 2q e 5 + 6w − 2w f 2t + 7t + 4t
g 9j + 6k − 5j + 2k h 16x − 15 − 13x i 5b − 16 + 11b − 10
j 4 + 5a − 12 − 2a k 7b − 4 − 2 + 10b l 6r − 17 − 2r
m 4y − 4 + 6y − 2 n 8c − 3b − 5c + 2b o 9d − 15 + 4d + 7
p 15e − 8p + 4e + 4p q 16t − 12s + 4t − 11s r 8z − 4w − 8z + 6w
5 We 3 Write each of the following in index form.
a 2×2×2×2 b 7×7×7×7×7×7 c 9×9
d q×q×q×q×q×q×q e p×p×p×p×p f w×w×w
6 Write each of the following in expanded form.
a 36 b 45 c 87
d m3 e y2 f j9
7 We 4 Simplify each of the following.
a q3 × q4 b x5 × x6 c y7 × y8
d 45 × 42 e a5 × a f s × s2
g 3b × 2b
4 2 h 5d 4 × 2d 4 i 7g4 × 5g6
j 9 × 3j 6 k 8k3 × k l 4m × 6m
m 4x4y3 × 5x3y6 n 5m2n4 × 4m3n5 o 9a3b7 × 7a2b2
p 6jk × 8j k
4 3 6 q 10p4q3 × 5p r 9r3s2t 4 × 6rst 6

8 We 5 Simplify each of the following.
c9
a a5 ÷ a b b8 ÷ b4 c d e5 ÷ e
c7
18 g5 64 m 7n3
e f 24h6 ÷ 4h2 g 56j7k 5 ÷ 7j 4k 3 h
3g 3 16m 4 n 2
72r 6 84 s 7 6t 8
i 42p9q4 ÷ 6pq j k l
8r 3 7s 5 18t 5
9 Explain why 4xy and 5yx are like terms and 4x2 and 5x are not like terms.

10 Simplify each of the following.
8 p6 × 3 p 4 12bb5 × 4 b 2 5a3 × 6a 4 12m 4
a b c d
16 p5 18b 2 2a 4 × 5a 2m 2 × 3m 3
11 Simplify.
8 p3 × 7r 2 × 2s 27a9 × 18b3 × 4c 2 81 f 15 × 25g12 × 16h34
a b c
6 p × 14 r 18aa 4 × 12b 2 × 2c 27 f 9 × 15g10 × 12h30
12 Gordon says that (5x4)2 = (5x2)4. Explain whether or not Gordon is correct.
11B Further multiplication and division

Many algebraic calculations may involve the use of fractions. The process of multiplying algebraic
fractions is relatively simple. The numerators are multiplied together and the denominators are
multiplied together.
Worked example 6
Simplify 6m2 × 8m.

5
Think WriTe
1 Consider 6m2 as a fraction over 1, then multiply 6m2 × 8m = 48m3

both the numerators and denominators. 1 5 5
8m 48m3
2 Simplify the resulting fraction if possible, which 6m ×
2 =
5 5
in this case it is not.
When dividing fractions, remember the method is to multiply by the reciprocal of the second fraction.
Worked example 7
3
Simplify 2v ÷ 3v .
5 5
Think WriTe
1 Rewrite the division by multiplying by the 2v ÷ 3v3 = 2v × 10

reciprocal of the second fraction. 5 10 5 3v3
2 Cancel the fractions by dividing by common = 2 × 22

factors. 1 3v
3 Multiply the numerators and denominators. = 42
Look for any further simplifications. In this case 3v
there are none.

Exercise 11B Further multiplication and division
1 WE 6 Simplify each of the following.
a 2 ×
5a b
2b × 3 c 4 ×
4
3 5 c
d
2 ×9 e 4 ×
3e f 9 ×
2f
5d 2 3
g g ×
4 h 5h ×
7h
2g 10
2 WE 7 Simplify each of the following.
a
3x ÷ 2 b
4y ÷ 2
5 5
c
3t ÷ t d 2 ÷
2v
4 3
x 20 x 12 y 16 x 9
a × b × c × d ×
5 y 4 y 4 x 2 2y
x 25 3w 7 3 y 8z y 6z
e × f × g × h ×
10 2 y 14 x 4x 7y 3x 7 y
x 9z 5y x 20 y 21z y x
i × j × k × l ×
3z 2 y 3x 8 y 7x 5y 3w 2 y
4 Simplify the following expressions.
3 5 2 9 4 12 20 20
a ÷ b ÷ c ÷ d ÷
x x x x x x x 3y
1 5 7 3 3 xy 3 x 2 xy 5 x
e ÷ f ÷ g ÷ h ÷
5w w 2 x 5x 7 4y 5 y
6 y 3x 8 wx 3w 2 xy 3 xy 10 xy 3 xy
i ÷ j ÷ k ÷ l ÷
9 4 xy 5 4y 5 5 5 5
2a 9b 3 10 x 5 3q 4 3b
a × b × c × d ×
3 2 5 3y 12 p 5 15a 4 a
x 9 4 y 4 m n 3
e × f × g × h ×
3 x y 12 3 16 9 2m
7m 10 5 x 20 6 2 x 15 y
i × j × k × l ×
5 m 3 x 15 3y 5 3y 6x
4 m 2 9n 2 p 7 pq x 11y 2 6 z
m × n × × o × ×
27n 7m 15 p2 21 22 y 12 z xy
2a 2 3 3 5 15 9 p 36q
a ÷ b ÷ c ÷ d ÷
5 15b 4 8x 6y 6 10 10
x x 4 12 a a 6 20
e ÷ f ÷ g ÷ h ÷
3 9 m m 5 20 b b
3a 2 a 21b 2 3 6m 6 2m 3 ab ac
i ÷ j ÷ 3 k ÷ l ÷
14 7 4 b 15 3 9 24
2m 10 m 3 10 12 3x 3 2 y2 y2
m ÷ n × ÷ o × ÷
3 p 9 pq 5 m m 8y 15 4
Chapter 11 • Algebraic manipulation 373

11C Expanding and simplifying algebraic
expressions
To expand an algebraic expression means to remove a set of brackets. This is done by multiplying what
is inside the brackets by what is directly outside the brackets.
Worked Example 8
Expand each of the following expressions.

a 5(x + 3) b −a(x − y) c x(2x + 3y)
Think Write
a 1 Write the expression. a 5(x + 3)

2 Expand the grouping symbols. = 5(x) + 5(3)
3 Multiply out the grouping symbols. = 5x + 15
b 1 Write the expression. b −a(x − y)
2 Expand the grouping symbols. = −a(x) − a(−y)
3 Multiply out the grouping symbols. = −ax + ay
(Remember that a negative term multiplied by
a negative term makes a positive term.)
c 1 Write the expression. c x(2x + 3y)
2 Expand the grouping symbols. = x(2x) + x(3y)
3 Multiply out the grouping symbols. = 2x2 + 3xy
(Remember that x multiplied by itself gives x2.)
An algebraic expression may be composed of brackets that need to be expanded, as well as other terms.
In such cases, after expansion it may be possible to simplify the expression by collecting like terms.
Worked Example 9
Expand and simplify each of the following expressions.

a 7x + 6( y − 2x) b 5(x + 2y) + 6(x − 3y) c −5xy(1 + 2y) + 6x( y + 4x)
Think Write
a 1 Write the expression. a 7x + 6( y − 2x)

2 Expand the grouping symbols. = 7x + 6( y) + 6(−2x)
3 Multiply out the grouping symbols. = 7x + 6y − 12x
4 Collect any like terms. = −5x + 6y
b 1 Write the expression. b 5(x + 2y) + 6(x − 3y)
2 Expand the grouping symbols. = 5(x) + 5(2y) + 6(x) + 6(−3y)
3 Multiply out the grouping symbols. = 5x + 10y + 6x − 18y
4 Collect any like terms. = 11x − 8y
c 1 Write the expression. c −5xy(1 + 2y) + 6x( y + 4x)
2 Expand the grouping symbols. = −5xy(1) − 5xy(2y) + 6x(y) + 6x(4x)
3 Multiply out the grouping symbols. = −5xy − 10xy2 + 6xy + 24x2
4 Collect any like terms. = xy − 10xy2 + 24x2

expanding and simplifying
exercise 11C
algebraic expressions
1 We 8 Expand the following expressions.
a 3(x + 2) b 4(x + 3) c 5(m + 4)
d 2( p + 5) e 4(x + 1) f 7(x − 1)
g −4(y + 6) h −5(a + 1) i −3( p − 2)
j −(x − 1) k −(x + 3) l −(x − 2)
m 3(2b − 4) n 8(3m − 2) o −6(5m − 4)
p −3(9p − 5)
2 Expand each of the following.
a x(x + 2) b y( y + 3) c a(a + 5)
d c(c + 4) e x(4 + x) f y(5 + y)
g m(7 − m) h q(8 − q) i 2x( y + 2)
j 5p(q + 4) k −3y(x + 4) l −10p(q + 9)
m −b(3 − a) n −7m(5 − n) o −6a(5 − 3a)
p −4x(7 − 4x)
3 We 9 Expand and simplify by collecting like terms.
a 2( p − 3) + 4 b 5(x − 5) + 8 c −7( p + 2) − 3
d −4(3p − 1) − 1 e 6x(x − 3) − 2x f 2m(m + 5) − 3m
g 3x( p + 2) − 5 h 4y( y − 1) + 7 i −4p( p − 2) + 5p
j 5(x − 2y) − 3y − x k 2m(m − 5) + 2m − 4 l −3p( p − 2q) + 4pq − 1
m −7a(5 − 2b) + 5a − 4ab n 4c(2d − 3c) − cd − 5c o 6p + 3 − 4(2p + 5)
p 5 − 9m + 2(3m − 1)
4 Expand and simplify the following expressions.
a 2(x + 2y) + 3(2x − y) b 4(2p + 3q) + 2( p − 2q) c 7(2a + 3b) + 4(a + 2b)
d 5(3c + 4d ) + 2(2c + d ) e −4(m + 2n) + 3(2m − n) f −3(2x + y) + 4(3x − 2y)
g −2(3x + 2y) + 3(5x + 3y) h −5(4p + 2q) + 2(3p + q) i 6(a − 2b) − 5(2a − 3b)
j 5(2x − y) − 2(3x − 2y) k 4(2p − 4q) − 3( p − 2q) l 2(c − 3d) − 5(2c − 3d)
m 7(2x − 3y) − (x − 2y) n −5( p − 2q) − (2p − q) o −3(a − 2b) − (2a + 3b)
p 4(3c + d ) − (4c + 3d )
a a(b + 2) + b(a − 3) b x( y + 4) + y(x − 2) c c(d − 2) + c(d + 5)
d p(q − 5) + p(q + 3) e 3c(d − 2) + c(2d − 5) f 7a(b − 3) − b(2a + 3)
g 2m(n + 3) − m(2n + 1) h 4c(d − 5) + 2c(d − 8) i 3m(2m + 4) − 2(3m + 5)
6a mC What is the equivalent of 3(a + 2b) + 2(2a − b)?
a 5a + 6b B 7a + 4b
C 5(3a + b) d 7a + 8b
b What is the equivalent of −3(x − 2y) − (x − 5y)?
a −4x + 11y B −4x − 11y
C 4x + 11y d 4x + 7y
c What is the equivalent of 2m(n + 4) + m(3n − 2)?
a 3m + 4n − 8 B 5mn + 4m
C 5mn + 10m d 5mn + 6m

a 5c(2d − 1) − (3c + cd ) b −3a(5a + b) + 2b(b − 3a)
c −4c(2c − 6d ) + d(3d − 2c) d 6m(2m − 3) − (2m + 4)
diGiTal doC
e 2p( p − 4) + 3(5p − 2) f 7x(5 − x) + 6(x − 1) WorkSHEET 11.1
g −2y(5y − 1) − 4(2y + 3) doc-10338

11d Substitution
When the numerical values of pronumerals are known, we can substitute them into an algebraic
expression and evaluate it. It can be useful to place any substituted values in brackets when evaluating
an expression.
Worked example 10
If a = 4, b = 2 and c = −7, evaluate the following expressions.

a a−b b a3 + 9b − c
Think WriTe
a 1 Write the expression. aa−b
2 Substitute a = 4 and b = 2 into the expression. =4−2

3 Simplify. =2
b 1 Write the expression. b a3 + 9b − c
2 Substitute a = 4, b = 2 and c = −7 into the = (4)3 + 9(2) − (−7)

expression.
3 Simplify. = 64 + 18 + 7
= 89
An algebraic expression has little or no meaning without a value being substituted for the pronumeral.
An algebraic expression that is used in common calculations is called a formula. When using a formula,
we substitute for one unknown to allow us to calculate the value of another.
When substituting into a formula, we replace a pronumeral with a number and then calculate the value
of the entire expression.
Worked example 11
The formula V = 43 π r3 is used to calculate the volume of a sphere. Calculate the value of V, correct
to 2 decimal places, when r = 4.7.
Think WriTe
1 Write the formula. V = 43 πr3
2 Substitute 4.7 for r. = 43 × π × (4.7)3

3 Calculate the value of V and round off to = 434.89
2 decimal places.
In many such examples you will be required to do calculations that require more than one substitution.
Worked example 12
In the formula v = u + at, calculate the value of v when u = 12.8, a = 9.8 and t = 5.
Think WriTe/diSplaY
Method 1
1 Write the formula. v = u + at
2 Substitute 12.8 for u, 9.8 for a and 5 for t. = 12.8 + 9.8 × 5
3 Calculate the value of v. = 61.8

Method 2
2 We need to assign the values u = 12.8, a = 9.8

and t = 5.
To do this, press 12.8 a a U w
9.8 a a A w
5a a T w
3 To evaluate v, enter the expression to which v
is equal, that is U + AT. Press w to obtain the
value of the expression.
exercise 11d Substitution

1 We10 If a = 2, b = 3 and c = 5, evaluate the following expressions.
a a+b b c−b f c−a−b
a b c
d c − (a − b) e 7a + 8b − 11c f + +
2 3 5
g abc h ab(c − b) i a2 + b2 − c2
j c2 +a k −a × b × −c l 2.3a – 3.2b
2 If d = −6 and k = −5, evaluate the following.
a d+k b d−k c k−d
d kd e −d(k + 1) f d2
k −1 3k − 5d
g k3 h i
d
1 1
3 If x = and y = 4 , evaluate the following.
3
a x+y b y−x c xy
x 9x
d e x 2y 3 f
y y2
9C
4 We11 The formula F = + 32 converts degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit. Use the formula to
5
convert the following temperatures to degrees Fahrenheit.
a 20 °C b 35 °C c −5.3 °C
5 For each of the following formulas, find the value of the subject given the variable. Where necessary,
give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
a C = 6r (r = 5) b P = 4s (s = 7.3) c L= l 2 (l = 4.9)
2 diGiTal doC
p Spreadsheet
d C = 45 + 65d (d = 1.4) e S = 4π r2 (r = 8.8) f Q= ( p = 6.5)
9.8 doc-1489
Substitution
6 We12 In the formula A = (1 + r)n, find the value of A when r = 0.075 and n = 4. (Give your answer
correct to 3 decimal places.)
PRT
7 a Given that I = , find I when P = 2000, R = 6 and T = 5.
100
b Given that T = a + 8d, find T when a = 56 and d = −8. diGiTal doC
c Given that P = 2l + 2w, find P when l = 34 and w = 54. Spreadsheet
1 doc-1490
d Given that A = bh, find A when b = 9.8 and h = 6.7. Substitution game
2
e Given that V = lbh, find V when l = 6.5, b = 6.5 and h = 5.6.
D
f Given that S = , find S when D = 900 and T = 12.
T

5
g Given that C = (F − 32), find C when F = 212.
9
1
h Given that S = ut + 2 at2, find S when u = 8, t = 4 and a = 6.
i Given that T = a + (n − 1)d, find T when a = −23, n = 27 and d = −2.4.
j Given that c2 = a2 + b2, find c when a = 12 and b = 22.5.
8 The cost of hiring a taxi is $4.50 plus 60c per kilometre.
a Write a formula for the cost of a taxi journey, C, in terms of distance travelled, d.
b Use the formula to calculate the cost of a taxi journey of:
i 5 km ii 20 km iii 50 km.
9 mC A formula is given as c = mp. If m = 2 and p = 5 then c is equal to:
a 3 B 7 C 10 d 25
1
10 The formula V = π r2h is used to calculate the volume of a cone, where r is the radius and h is the
3
height. Use the formula to calculate the volume of a cone, correct to 2 decimal places, where:
a the radius is 4 cm and the height is 8 cm
b the radius is 32 mm and the height is 17 mm
c the radius is 4.6 cm and the height is 9.7 cm.
m
11 In the formula B = , calculate the value of B when:
h2
a m = 56 and h = 2 b m = 3.6 and h = 6 c m = 1.6 and h = 0.8.
yA
12 In the formula D = , find the value of D when:
y + 12
a y = 6 and A = 2 b y = 4.2 and A = 7 c y = 0.24 and A = 96.
13 Fried’s rule to calculate the infant dosage of a medicine
mA
is given by the formula D = , where D is the infant
150
dosage, m is the infant’s age in months and A is the
adult dosage.
Calculate the dosage of medicine given to:
a a nine-month-old baby, where the adult dosage is
50 mL
b an 18-month-old child, where the adult dose is 30 mL
c a two-year-old child, where the adult dose is
40 mL.
yA
14 Young’s rule for the calculation of a child’s dose of medicine is D = . In this formula, D is the
y + 12
child’s dose, y is the age of the child in years and A is the adult’s dose.
Calculate the dosage for a three-year-old child taking a medicine for which the adult dose is 45 mL.
kA
15 Clark’s rule for calculating a dosage is D = , where k is the mass of the child in kilograms and A is
70
the adult dose. Calculate the dosage required for a child who weighs 20 kg, where the adult dosage
is 35 mL.
16 Gavin is eight years old and weighs 28 kg. The adult dosage of a medicine is 30 mL. Calculate the
dosage of medicine that should be given to Gavin according to:
a Fried’s rule b Young’s rule c Clark’s rule.
m
17 The Body Mass Index, B, is a measure of how healthy a person is. The formula is B = 2 , where m is a
h
person’s mass in kilograms and h is a person’s height in metres. A person is considered to be healthy
if 21 ≤ B ≤ 25.
Calculate the Body Mass Index, correct to 1 decimal place, of the following people and comment on
the health of each person.
a Caroline, who is 71 kg and 1.7 m tall
b Neil, who is 86 kg and 1.65 m tall
c Bronwyn, who is 42 kg and 1.68 m tall

18 Pythagoras’ formula is c2 = a2 + b2. Use the formula to find c when:
a a = 6 and b = 8 b a = 8 and b = 15 c a = b = 6.

19 The volume of any prism can be found using the formula V = Ah where A is the cross-sectional area
and h is the height of the prism. Find the value of V when:
a A = 7 cm2, h = 9 cm b A = 12 cm2, h = 48 cm c A = 3.6 cm2, h = 2.3.
20 Euler’s formula, E = F + V – 2, is used to find the number of edges on a prism given the number of
faces and vertices. Use the formula to find the number of edges on a prism with:
a 5 faces and 7 vertices. b 7 faces and 10 vertices c 10 faces and 12 vertices.
1
21 The kinetic energy of an object is found using the formula E = 2mv2, where m is the mass and v is the
velocity of the object. Find E when:
a m = 4 and v = 4.8 b m = 6 and v = 3.6 c m = 0.2 and v = 20.
22 The volume of a cylinder can be found using the formula V = πr2h where r is the radius of the cylinder
and h is the height. Use the formula to determine which of the following cylinders has the greater
volume:
Cylinder A: with radius of 6 cm and a height of 5.2 cm
Cylinder B: with a radius of 5.2 cm and a height of 6 cm.
23 The surface area of a cylinder can be found using the formula SA = 2πr2 + 2πrh. Use the formula to
determine which of the cylinders in question 22 has the greater surface area.

An equation is an incomplete mathematical sentence. When we are given an equation, our task is to
solve it. That is, to find a value for the pronumeral which makes the sentence true.
The basic idea to follow when solving an equation is to undo those operations performed on the
pronumeral. We do this by writing an equivalent equation made by using one of four possible steps.
Step 1. We can add the same number to each side of an equation.
Step 2. We can subtract the same number from each side of an equation.
Step 3. We can multiply both sides of an equation by the same number.
Step 4. We can divide both sides of an equation by the same number.
The simplest type of equation is the one-step equation. The solution to these equations uses only one
of the above four steps.
Worked example 13
Solve each of the following equations.

a x + 48 = 75 b y − 43 = 56
q
c 7d = 91 d = 29
13
Think WriTe
a 1 Write the equation. a x + 48 = 75

2 Subtract 48 from both sides. x = 27

b 1 Write the equation. b y − 43 = 56
2 Add 43 to both sides. y = 99
c 1 Write the equation. c 7d = 91
2 Divide both sides by 7. d = 13
q
d 1 Write the equation. d = 29
13
2 Multiply both sides by 13. q = 377
When solving equations that involve more than one step to the solution, we must show the equivalent
equation formed after using each of our chosen steps.
Worked example 14
Solve the equations.

m
a 12 + 3x = 45 b − 14 = −25
7
Think WriTe
a 1 Write the equation. a 12 + 3x = 45

2 Subtract 12 from each side. 3x = 33
3 Divide both sides by 3. x = 11
m
b 1 Write the equation. b − 14 = −25
7
Add 14 to each side. m
2 = −11
7
3 Multiply both sides by 7. m = −77
The solution to an equation can be checked by substituting the value found into the equation.
For example, if we check x = 11 in 12 + 3x = 45.
LHS = 12 + 3 × 11
= 45
= RHS
Since x = 11 gives a true number sentence, we know the solution x = 11 is the correct solution to this
equation. The substitution can be written, although this is not usually necessary. This is normally done
mentally or on the calculator as a check that the value we have is correct.
In each of these examples we calculated the value of the subject of the formula. In many cases, after
substitution we may be left with a value to calculate that is not the subject of the formula. Hence, the
solution will require you to solve an equation.
Worked example 15
9C
The formula F = + 32 is used to convert degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit. Use the
5
formula to convert 68° Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.
Think WriTe
9C
1 Write the formula. F= + 32
5
9C
2 Substitute 68 for F. 68 = + 32
5
3 Multiply both sides of the equation by 5. 340 = 9C + 160
4 Subtract 160 from each side. 180 = 9C
5 Divide both sides by 9. C = 20

exercise 11e Solving linear equations
1 We13 Solve each of the following one-step equations.
a z + 24 = 67 b w − 34 = 54 c 9q = 162
y
d = 19 e r + 387 = 435 f t − 253 = 78
14
p
g 17x = 306 h = 851 i e + 79 = 45
23
j k − 56 = −34 k 15b = −240 l −7a = 84
u f
m = −4 n =8 o d + 8.5 = 13.7
45 5
v 4 1
p 5c = 17 q = 9.5 r t − 25 = 32 diGiTal doC
3.2 Spreadsheet
doc-1496
2 mC Which of the following is the exact solution to 7x = 23?
equation solver
7 2
a x= B x = 37
23
C x = 3.28 d x = 3.29
3 Solve each of the following.
a 5x = 23 b 7x = 45 c 6x = 37
diGiTal doC
d −3x = 20 e 13x = 45 f 9x = 2 Spreadsheet
4 We14 Solve each of the following equations. doc-1497
Solving equations
a 5a + 11 = 41 b 2q − 9 = 25 c 3z + 6 = 27
d 9s − 14 = 22 e 7w + 74 = 193 f 13x − 85 = 227
g 5e − 9 = −19 h 8d + 45 = 29 i 4c + 70 = 2
j 5r − 14 = 44 k 7f + 6 = −14 l 9v − 10 = 5
m 12 + 6t = 48 n 35 − 5g = 50 o 23 − 2b = −1 diGiTal doC
1
GC program — Casio
3
p 4s + 8.5 = 2.3 q 8y − = 22 r 1 − 7h = −65 doc-1498
4
equations
5 We15 Solve each of the following equations.
s v r f
a + 7 = 12 b −8=9 c + 5 = 11 d − 1 = 12
3 7 8 4
p s k v diGiTal doC
e + 3 = 11 f − 10 = 2 g + 20 = 27 h −4=0 GC program — TI
11 4 15 3
doc-1499
g j p m
j − 13 = −11 k + 35 = −4 l − 10 = −4 equations
i − 1 = −1 10 7 6
8
6 Solve each of the following equations.
4y 3p 2q
a =8 b =9 c =8
5 2 3
2s 5w 12m diGiTal doC
d = −8 e = 10 f = −6 GC program — Casio
5 9 5
doc-1500
7 In each of the following equations, check by substitution if the answer given is correct. expanding
a x + 67 = 98 (x = 31) b r − 6.8 = 45.9 (r = 51.7)
b 3 3
c 32p = −256 ( p = −8) d = (b = 6 4 )
9 4
e 5t − 98 = 56 (t = 30.8) f 7y + 13 = −65 ( y = −11.1)
3w − 2 2 2e diGiTal doC
g =3 (w = 4 3 ) h +1=7 (e = 9) GC program — TI
4 3 doc-1501
expanding
8 mC For which of the following equations is x = 12 not a solution?
5x x−4
a + 1 = 16 B 4x − 7 = 53 − x C 4x − 12 = 48 − x d =4−x
4 2
9 Solve each of the following equations by first expanding the brackets.
a 3(b + 5) = 30 b 5(n + 6) = 40 c 7(h − 5) = 56
d 9( p − 4) = 54 e 4(k − 8) = 72 f 3(m − 16) = 45
g 6(t + 9) = 84 h 4(2n + 5) = 52 i 9(3r − 7) = 72

j 6(6g + 5) = 210 k 4(5g − 1) = −44 l 7(3v − 11) = −161
m 6(z − 2) = 44 n 3(6y + 13) = 76 o 5(4u − 9) = 34
10 Two teams of people worked at two different car washes
detailing vehicles. The cost of detailing each car is the
same.
Team A had 5 people who detailed 30 cars and received
$20 in tips. They divided their money equally.
Team B had 4 people who detailed 25 cars and received
$4 in tips. They also divided their money equally.
At the end of the day all 9 people had the same
amount of money.
a Write an equation for this situation.
b Solve the equation to find the cost of getting one
car detailed.
11 The formula A = lb can be used to calculate the area of a rectangle. Calculate the value of b when
A = 56 and l = 8.
12 In the formula A = lb, calculate:
a l, when A = 437 and b = 23 b b, when A = 36.225 and l = 6.3.
13 The formula P = 2l + 2w is used to calculate
the perimeter of a rectangle. Calculate the value of l when:
a P = 64 and w = 18
b P = 142 and w = 17
c P = 12.4 and w = 3.4.
PRT
14 a Given that I = , find R when I = 500,
100
P = 2500 and T = 2.
b Given that T = a + 8d, find d when T = 59 and a = 11.
c Given that P = 2l + 2w, find w when l = 34 and
P = 176.
1
d Given that A = 2 bh, find h when A = 19.43 and b = 5.8.
e Given that V = lbh, find b when V = 74.375, l = 2.5 and
h = 3.5.
D
f Given that S = , find D when S = 90 and T = 12.
T
15 Solve the following linear equations.
a 11 – 6x = 59 b 21 – 9x = 3 c 63 – 7x = 21 d 15 – 6x = 2
16 The cost of hiring a taxi can be found using the formula C = 4 + 2.5d, where d is the distance travelled
in kilometres. Find the distance travelled if the taxi fare was:
a $29.00 b $49.00 c $25.25.

17 An operator connected phone call costs $1.50 connection fee plus $2.20 per minute.
a Write a formula connecting the cost of the call, C, to the length of the call, m.
b Calculate the cost of a call lasting:
i 1 minute ii 5 minutes iii 8 minutes.
diGiTal doC
c Calculate the length of a call for which the charge is: WorkSHEET 11.2
i $8.10 ii $16.90 iii $34.50. doc-10339

Summary
operations with • Like terms are those which use the same pronumeral.
algebraic expressions • We can only simplify expressions involving addition and subtraction that contain like terms.
• When multiplying and dividing algebraic expressions we need to use the index laws.
Index Law 1: a x × ay = a x+y ax
− or = ax− y
Index Law 2: a ÷ a = a
x y x y
ay
• When multiplying or dividing expressions, we treat each pronumeral separately, applying the index
laws when necessary.
• When an expression involves the use of brackets, we multiply each term in the brackets by the term
immediately outside.
Further multiplication • To multiply fractions, simplify where possible, then multiply the numerators together and the
and division denominators together.
• To divide fractions, multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the second fraction.
expanding and • Expansion means to multiply everything inside the brackets by what is directly outside.
simplifying algebraic • After expanding simplify by collecting any like terms.
expressions
Substitution • Pronumerals stand in place of numbers. A number can be substituted for a pronumeral in an
expression before the expression is calculated.
Solving linear • An equation is a mathematical sentence with a missing value. The object of solving an equation is
equations to find the missing value that makes the sentence correct.
• In solving an equation, we can add, subtract, multiply or divide both sides of the equation to make
the unknown value the subject of the equation.
• Whatever is done to one side of an equation must be done to the other to maintain the equality.
• Always begin by writing the equation, then write each step in the solution.
• The answer to an equation can be checked by substituting the value found into the equation.
• Equations can be formed when substituting into a formula. This occurs when the subject of the
formula is not the value we need to find.

Chapter review
1 7x − 5y − 6x + 4y =
m U lTip l e
a x+y B x−y C x + 9y d x − 9y C ho iC e
2 5x4 × 3x3 =
a 8x7 B 8x12 C 15x7 d 15x12
3 The value of 3m2 when m = −4 is
a −144 B −48 C 48 d 144
4 The solution to the equation 1 − 2x = −9 is
a x = −5 B x = −4 C x=4 d x=5
1 Simplify each of the following. S ho rT

a n S W er
a y+y+y+y b 8w + 9w c 6r + 9r − r
d 15t − 9t e 6q − 5q f 9x + 6x − x
a 8m + 4n − 3m b 6a + 4 − 3a − 9 c 12k − 5l + 3l − 8k
d 15m − 7 + m + 1 e 5x + 20 + 3x − 6 f 12m − 20 − 2m + 4
a w3 × w5 b a × a6 c 4x5 × 6x3 d 9 × 4q3
e 5p3 ×p f 5y × 6y g 6x2 × 8x4 h 4r4 × 3r4
i 5x5y4 × 6x7y6 j 5ab3 × 4a3b2 k 7g3h2 × 4gh l 12m4n3 × 4mn3
m b6 ÷ b2 n f4 ÷ f o 45r6 ÷ 5r3 p 63y5 ÷ 7y
64 a6 32m 6
q 45r5s2 ÷ 5r4s3 r 36s3t5 ÷ 9st s t
16a 4 8m 4
28 p v k5 × k4 ÷ k3
u
4
12 p
4 Simplify the following expressions.
a 12 2 y 7 x 1 6p
a × b × c × d ×
6 a y 8 2 x 14 3p 5
e a × 4 × 10 f a÷a g 5 ÷ 30 h
24 8
÷
12 5 a 2 4 m m 7y y
5m 15m j 20 a 4 ab
i ÷ ÷
6 y 3 xy 14c 7c
5 Expand each of the following.
a m(m + 3) b 5p(2p − 6q) c x3(4x5 − 2)
d 2w3(3w2 − 3) e 4pq(3p2 − 2q4) f 7a6(3a8 − 9b2)
a
6 In the formula S = , find the value of S when a = 20 and r = 12 .
1− r
3e + 18
7 The formula N = + 70 is used to calculate the number of video-recorders, N, that can be
5
produced by ‘e’ employees. Calculate the number of video-recorders that can be produced by
89 employees.
h
8 In the formula A = (a + b), calculate the value of A when h = 5, a = 8.5 and b = 6.2.
2
1
9 Given that S = ut + at2, find S when u = 9.5, t = 5 and a = 5.8.
2
10 Solve each of the following equations.
d
a a + 98 = 165 b b − 76 = 84 c 43c = 3827 d = 42
23
−f
e −8e = −96 f = 19 g g + 45 = 12 h 9h = 25
4

i 12 − i = 23 j 4j − 17 = 47 k 7k + 13 = 76 l 5l + 43 = −2
t p
m 45 + 3m = 18 n 33 − 4n = 7 o + 9 = 17 p 8− = −5
5 5
5q −3r
q = 15 r = −15
4 7
11 Solve the following equations by substituting the given values.
a A = lw (A = 56, w = 7) b P = 2l + 2w (P = 94, l = 16)
5 a
c C = (F − 32) (C = 25) d S= (S = 6, a = 3)
9 1− r
e x T ended 1
1 In the formula v = ut + at2:
r e SponS e 2
a calculate the value of v when u = 0.8, t = 12 and a = 6
b calculate the value of u when v = 100, t = 4 and a = 1.6.
2a Simplify 4x + 9y − 5x − 8y.
4 x 3 y2 × 6 x 2 y4
b Simplify .
3 xy8
diGiTal doC (2 x 3 y)
c Simplify the expression .
Test Yourself 8 x 5 y9
doc-10340
Chapter 11 d Solve the equation 7x + 15 = 113.

ICT activities
11C expanding and simplifying • GC program — Casio (doc-1498): Equations (page 381)
algebraic expressions • GC program — TI (doc-1499): Equations (page 381)
• GC program — Casio (doc-1500): Expanding (page 381)
diGiTal doC • GC program — TI (doc-1501): Expanding (page 381)
• WorkSHEET 11.1 (doc-10338): Solve problems involving algebra. • WorkSHEET 11.2 (doc-10339): Solve problems involving algebra.
(page 375) (page 383)
11d Substitution Chapter review

diGiTal doCS • Test Yourself Chapter 11 (doc-10340): Take the end-of-chapter test to
• Spreadsheet (doc-1489): Substitution (page 377) check your progress. (page 386)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1490): Substitution game (page 377)
diGiTal doCS
• Spreadsheet (doc-1496): Equation solver (page 381)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1497): Solving equations (page 381)

Answers CHAPTER 11
alGeBraiC manipUlaTion 12 Gordon is not correct. (5x4)2 = 25x8 while g 4 h
3
10
exercise 11a operations with algebraic
(5x2)4 = 625x8.
3a 7b 5
expressions exercise 11B Further multiplication i j
2 4
1 a 2t b 3r c 6w and division
d 4x e 7q f 8n 3m 3 8b
10 a 6b k l
2 a m+m 1 a b 5 3c
3 5
b n+n+n+n+n+n 3q 1
16 18 m n
c s+s+s+s+s+s+s+s+s c d 5 2
d w+w+w+w+w+w+w+w
c 5d
x3
e y+y+y e 6e f 6f o
5y
f r+r+r+r 7h 2
g 2 h
3 a 12y b 19x c 39e 2 exercise 11C expanding and simplifying
d 47j e 25k f 4k 3x 2y
2 a b algebraic expressions
g 8r h w i −4m 10 5 1 a 3x + 6 b 4x + 12
j 2w k −7s l 22m 3
c 4
3
d c 5m + 20 d 2p + 10
mj n 6p o −z v e 4x + 4 f 7x − 7
4 a 10x + 7 b 4h − 4
4x 3x g −4y − 24 h −5a − 5
c 13k d 3p + 7q 3 a b
y y i −3p + 6 j −x + 1
e 5 + 4w f 13t
k −x − 3 l −x + 2
g 4j + 8k h 3x − 15 4y 9x
c d m 6b − 12 n 24m − 16
i 16b − 26 j 3a − 8 x 4y o −30m + 24 p −27p + 15
k 17b − 6 l 4r − 17 5x 3w 2 a x2 + 2x b y2 + 3y
m 10y − 6 n 3c − b e f
4y 2x c a2 + 5a d c2 + 4c
o 13d − 8 p 19e − 4p
e 4x + x2 f 5y + y2
q 20t − 23s r 2w 6z 2z
g h g 7m − m2 h 8q − q2
5 a 24 b 76 7x 7x i 2xy + 4x j 5pq + 20p
c 92 d q7
3x 5 k −3xy − 12y l −10pq − 90p
e p5 f w3 i j
m −3b + ab n −35m + 7mn
2y 24
6 a 3×3×3×3×3×3 o −30a + 18a2 p −28x + 16x2
b 4×4×4×4×4 12 z x
k l 3 a 2p − 2 b 5x − 17
c 8×8×8×8×8×8×8 x 6w c −7p − 17 d −12p + 3
d m×m×m 3 2
e 6x2 − 20x f 2m2 + 7m
4 a 5 b
e y×y 9
g 3px + 6x − 5 h 4y2 − 4y + 7
1
f j×j×j×j×j×j×j×j×j c 3 d 3 i −4p2 + 13p j 4x − 13y
7 a q7 b x11 k 2m2 − 8m − 4 l −3p2 + 10pq − 1
1 35 5
c y15 d 47 e 25 f 6
or 6 m −30a + 10ab n 7cd − 12c2 − 5c
6
e a f s3 o −2p − 17 3 − 3m
4 y2 2 y2 p
g 6b6 h 10d8 g h
4 a 8x + y b 10p + 8q
i 35g 10
j 27j 6
7 25
c 18a + 29b d 19c + 22d
k 8k 4
l 24m2
8 y2 32 xy
i j e 2m − 11n f 6x − 11y
m 20x7y9 n 20m5n9 9 15 g 9x + 5y h −14p − 8q
2
o 63a b 5 9
p 48j 4k10 k 3 l y2 i −4a + 3b j 4x − y
q 50p q 5 3
r 54r4s3t10 k 5p − 10q l −8c + 9d
2x
8 a a 4
b b4 5 a 3ab b m 13x − 19y n −7p + 11q
y o −5a + 3b p 8c + d
c c2 d e4
2 q b 5 a 2ab + 2a − 3b b 2xy + 4x − 2y
e 6g f 6h4 c d
3 2 4p 5a 2 c 2cd + 3c d 2pq − 2p
g 8j k h 4m3n
1 e 5cd − 11c f 5ab − 21a − 3b
i 7p q8 3
j 9r3 e 3 f 3 g 5m h 6cd − 36c
t3 m n i 6m2 + 6m − 10
g h
k 12s2 l 12 6m 6 a B b A c D
3
9 The order of terms when multiplied does
1 7 a 9cd − 8c b −15a2 + 2b2 − 9ab
i 14 j
not matter, they give the same result;
9 c −8c2 + 3d2 + 22cd d 12m2 − 20m − 4
8 5 e 2p2 + 7p − 6 f −7x2 + 41x − 6
hence, 4xy and 5yx are like terms, but 4x2 k l
and 5x will always give different values. y 3 g −10y2 − 6y − 12
3 p5 8b 5 4m 2q
exercise 11d
10 a b m n Substitution
2 3 21 45 1 a 5 b 2 c 0
1
2
2 o d 6 e −17 f 3
c 3a d 4
m g 30 h 12 i −12
6 a 3ab b 2x
2
4 p rs 9a5bc 1 p
j 27 k 30 l −5
11 a b 2 a −11 b −1 c 1
3 2 c d
3y 4q d 30 e −24 f 36
20 f 6 g 2 h 4 1
c e 3 f 3
g −125 h 1 i 15
3

3 a
7
b −
1
c
1 g e = −2 h d = −2 i c = −17 2 a 5m + 4n b 3a − 5 c 4k − 2l
12 12 12
j r = 11.6 k f = −2
6
l v=1
2 d 16m − 6 e 8x + 14 f 10m − 16
1 1 7 3
d 1 e f 48 3 a w8 b a7 c 24x8
3 576 mt = 6 n g = −3 o b = 12
d 36q3 e 5p4 f 30y2
4 a 68 °F b 95 °F c 22.46 °F p s = −1.55 q y=
13
r h=9
3
7 g 48x6 h 12r8 i 30x12y10
5 a 30 b 29.2 c 6.93 32
5 a s = 15 b v = 119 c r = 48 j 20a4b5 k 28g4h3 l 48m5n6
d 136 e 973.14 f 4.31
d f = 52 e p = 88 f s = 48 m b4 n f3 o 9r3
6 1.335
g k = 105 v = 12 g=0 9r
7 a 600 b −8 c 176 h i p 9y4 q r 4s2t4
d 32.83 e 236.6 f 75 j j = 20 k p = −273 l m = 36 s
7
g 100 h 80 i −85.4 6 a y = 10 b p=6 c q = 12 s 4a2 t 4m2 u
3 p3
j 25.5 d s = −20 e w = 18 f m = −2.5 v k6
8 a C = 4.5 + 0.6d 7 a Correct b Incorrect c Correct 4 a 2 b
1
c 1
4 4
b i $7.50 ii $16.50 iii $34.50 d Correct e Correct f Incorrect
2 2
9C g Correct h Correct d e f 2
5 3
10 a 134.04 b 18 229.61 c 214.94 8D 1 3 x
11 a 14 b 0.1 c 2.5 9 a b=5 b n=2 c h = 13 g
6
h
7
i
2 d p = 10 e k = 26 f m = 31 6
12 a b 1.81 c 1.88 5
3
g t=5 h n=4 i r=5 j
13 a 3 mL b 3.6 mL c 6.4 mL 2b
j g=5 k g = −2 l v = −4
14 9 mL 5 a m2 + 3m b 10p2 − 30pq
mz = 9
1
n y=2
1
o u = 3.95 c 4x8 − 2x3 6w5 − 6w3
15 10 mL 3 18 d
16 a 19.2 mL b 12 mL c 12 mL 30 x + 20 25 x + 4 e 12p3q − 8pq5 f 21a14 − 63a6b2
17 a 24.6 — ideal weight 10 a = 6 40 7 127
5 4 36.75 120
b 31.6 — overweight 8 9
b $12
c 14.9 — severely underweight 10 a a = 67 b b = 160 c c = 89
18 a 10 b 17 c 8.5 11 b=7 d d = 966 e e = 12 f f = −76
12 a l = 19 b b = 5.75
19 a 63 cm3 b 576 cm3 c 8.28 cm3 g g = −33 h h = 27 i i = −11
13 a l = 14 b l = 54 c l = 2.8 9
20 a 10 b 15 c 20 j j = 16 k k=9 l l = −9
14 a R = 10 b d=6 c w = 54
21 a 46.08 b 38.88 c 40 m m = −9 n n = 6.5 o t = 40
d h = 6.7 e b = 8.5 f D = 1080
22 Cylinder A p p = 65 q q = 12 r r = 35
15 a x = −8 b x=2
23 Cylinder A 11 a l=8 b w = 31
1
c x=6 d x=2 c F = 77 d r=1
exercise 11e Solving linear equations 6
2
1 a z = 43 b w = 88 c q = 18 16 a 10 km b 18 km c 8.5 km
exTended reSponSe
d y = 266 e r = 48 f t = 331 17 a C = 1.5 + 2.2m
b i $3.70 ii $12.50 iii $19.10 1 a 441.6 b 21.8
g x = 18 h p = 19 573 i e = −34
c i 3 min ii 7 min iii 15 min 2 a −x + y 8x 4
j k = 22 k b = −16 l a = −12 b
m u = −180 n f = 40 o d = 5.2 y2
ChapTer reVieW 1
p c=3
2
q v = 30.4 r t=6
3 c d x = 14
5 10 4 x 2 y8
2 B mUlTiple ChoiCe
3 3 1 1 B 2 C 3 C 4 D
3 a x=4 b x=6 c x=6
5 7 6
2 6 2
d x = −6 e x=3 f x= ShorT anSWer
3 13 9
4 a a=6 b q = 17 c z=7 1 a 4y b 17w c 14r
d s=4 e w = 17 f x = 24 d 6t e q f 14x

ChapTer 12
Modelling linear relationships
ChapTer ConTenTS
12a Graphing linear functions
12B Gradient and y-intercept
12C Drawing graphs using gradient and intercept
12d Simultaneous equations
12e Practical applications of linear functions
12a Graphing linear functions

Imagine a car travelling at a constant speed of D
60 km/h. The graph at right compares the distance 600
travelled with time. 500
400
This graph can be given by the relation D = 60t. 300
This relation is an example of a function. A 200
100
function is a rule with two variables. In the above 0
example time, t, is the independent variable. This 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t
is the variable for which we can substitute any
value. Distance, D, is the dependent variable as its value depends on the value substituted for t.
A linear function is a graph that, when drawn, is represented by a straight line. Linear functions
are drawn from a table of values. The independent variable is graphed on the horizontal axis and the
dependent variable is graphed on the vertical axis.
Worked example 1
The table below shows the amount of money earned by a wage earner.
Hours (H) 10 20 30 40 50
Wage (W) 85 170 255 340 425
Draw the graph of wage, W, against hours, H.
Think draW
1 Draw the graph with H on the horizontal axis W

and W on the vertical axis. 450
400
2 Plot the points (10, 85) (20, 170) (30, 255) 350
(40, 340) and (50, 425). 300
250
200
3 Join the points with a straight line. 150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 H
In many examples we are required to draw a graph from an algebraic rule. In such an example we need
to create our own table. To do this, we can choose any sensible value to use for the independent variable.
ChapTer 12 • Modelling linear relationships 391

Worked Example 2
Draw up a table of values and plot the graph of y = 2 x + 3 and label the line.
Think Write/draw
1 Write the rule. y = 2x + 3

2 Draw up a table and choose simple x-values.
3 Use the rule to find each y-value and enter
x −2 −1 0 1 2
them in the table.
When x = −2, y = 2 × −2 + 3 = −1. y −1 1 3 5 7
When x = −1, y = 2 × −1 + 3 = 1.
When x = 0, y = 2 × 0 + 3 = 3. y
7
When x = 1, y = 2 × 1 + 3 = 5. 6
When x = 2, y = 2 × 2 + 3 = 7. 5
4
3 y = 2x + 3
4 Draw a Cartesian plane and plot the points. 2
1
5 Join the points to form a straight line and −5 −4 −3 −2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x
−1
label the graph. −2
−3
−4
−5
When applying a function we need to understand the idea of:

input process output.
The independent variable is the input, a calculation is made which is the process and the output is the
value of the dependent variable.
An independent variable is substituted (input), a calculation is made (process) according to the rule
defined by the function and the dependent variable (output) is the result.
Worked Example 3
A preschool has hired an entertainment group to entertain their children at a concert. The cost of
staging the concert is given by the function C = 80 + 3n, where C is the cost and n is the number of
children attending the concert.
Draw the graph of this function.
Think Write/draw
1 Draw a table choosing five values for n to

substitute.
2 Calculate the values of C for each value of n
n 0 50 100 150 200
chosen.
C 80 230 380 530 680
3 Draw the axes, plot the points generated and C

join with a straight line. 800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 n

exercise 12a Graphing linear functions
1 We1 The table below shows the amount of money, M, earned for delivering a number of pamphlets,
P, to letterboxes.
P 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 diGiTal doC

Spreadsheet
M 50 100 150 200 250 doc-1531
Graph paper
Draw the graph of this function.

2 Use the graph drawn in question 1 to find the amount of money earned by a person delivering:
a 8000 pamphlets
b 9500 pamphlets. diGiTal doC
3 Australian dollars can be converted to Japanese GC program — Casio
doc-1525
yen using the algebraic rule Y = 80A. To draw a linear
conversion graph, the table below is used.
A 100 200 300 400 500

Y 8000 16 000 24 000 32 000 40 000
diGiTal doC
GC program — TI
Draw a graph converting Australian dollars to doc-1526
Japanese yen. linear
4 Complete the following tables of values, plot the

points on a Cartesian plane, and join them to make
a linear graph. Label the graphs with the rules.
a Rule: y = x + 4 b Rule: y = x − 1
diGiTal doC
GC program — Casio
x −2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2
doc-1527
myrule
y 2 3 4 y −2 1
c Rule: y = 3x d Rule: y = 2x − 3
x −2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2
diGiTal doC
y −6 0 y −7 −1 GC program — TI
doc-1528
e Rule: y = 3x − 5 f Rule: y = −2x myrule
x −2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2
y −8 y −2
g Rule: y = 4x + 1 h Rule: y = −5x + 4
x −2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2
y 5 y 9 −6
5 We2 Draw up a table of values and plot the graph for each of the following rules. Label each graph.
a y=x+2 b y=x−4
c y=x−5 d y=x+6
e y = 5x f y = 7x
g y = 4x − 3 h y = 2x + 4
i y = 3x + 2 j y = 2x − 2
k y = −6x + 2 l y = −3x + 2
6 We3 The cost of an international telephone call can be given by the rule C = 1.5t, where C is the cost
of the call and t is the length of the call in minutes. Draw a graph showing the cost of a telephone call.
7 Use the graph from question 6 to calculate the cost of a telephone call that lasts for:
a 17 minutes
b 45 minutes.

8 The distance, d, travelled by a cyclist can be given by the algebraic rule d = 15t, where t is the time
in hours that the cyclist has been riding. Draw a graph showing the distance travelled by the cyclist
against time.
9 The cost, C, of a taxi journey can be given by the rule C = 4 + 1.5d, where d is the distance of the
journey in kilometres. Draw a graph showing the cost of a taxi journey.
10 A tree bought as a seedling is 80 cm tall. It then grows at an average rate of 12 cm per year. Draw a
graph that will show the height of the tree each year.
11 Casey has a job that pays $10 per hour. Draw a graph that will show the money earned against hours
worked.
12 It costs Bill $1850 per week to operate his business developing photographs. Bill charges $8 to develop
a roll of film. Draw a graph that shows the profit or loss he makes against the number of rolls of film
developed.
13 The cost of hiring a tennis court consists of a booking fee and an hourly rate.
a Write an equation for the total cost in terms of the hourly rate.
b Sketch a graph of this relationship.
c What would be the charge for 3 hours?
14 A singing telegram service charges a $60 appearance fee and $8 per minute sung.
a Write an equation for the total cost of a singing telegram in terms of the number of minutes sung.
b Sketch a graph of the relationship.
c What would be the charge for a 5 minute singing telegram?
d How many minutes can be bought with $150? (Whole minutes only)
15 Colleen delivers junk mail and is paid $32 to traverse a particular route and a further 10 cents per leaflet
delivered.
a What method of payment is Colleen being paid?
b Write an equation for the total payment that she receives.
c Sketch a graph of the relationship expressed in b.
d What would Colleen’s pay be if she delivered 1650 pamphlets?
16 A pay TV salesperson receives $300 per week plus $20 for every household that he signs up to have
pay-TV connected. How much does he receive in a week where he signs up 33 households?
17 a Draw a graph of the relationship described in question 16.
b What is the point where the graph cuts the vertical axis?
c How does this relate to the rate at which he is paid?
18 A person is running at 10 km/h. The speed at which she runs decreases by 1 km/h for every 30 minutes
she has been running.
a Draw a graph of the relationship between speed and the time that she has been running.
b How long can she run before she will have to stop?

inVeSTiGaTe: Graph of height versus age
Not all graphs can be drawn as a straight line. Consider the case of
height and age.
1 Find a person of each age from 1–20. Measure their height and plot
their age and height as a pair of coordinates.
2 Draw a line of best fit for the points plotted.
3 The graph will flatten where people stop growing and so does not
continue to rise indefinitely. Suggest a point at which this graph
should stop.

Consider the graph of a car that is travelling
D
at 60 km/h. Earlier we drew the graph of this
600
as a linear function. 500
Two points on this graph are (1, 60) and 400
300
(2, 120). From the graph we can see that for a 200
one unit increase in the independent variable, 100
0
there is a 60 unit increase in the dependent 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t
variable. For this function we can say that the
gradient is 60.
The gradient (m) is the rate of change in the dependent variable for a one unit increase in the
independent variable. A simple formula that can be used to calculate gradient is:
vertical change in position
m=
horizontal change in position
Using this formula, the gradient can be calculated by measurement from a graph by choosing any two
points on the graph.
The graph at right shows the function C = 2 + 0.5d
C = 2 + 0.5d. C
(8, 6)
6
On the graph, the two points (2, 3) and (8, 6) 5
are marked. Between these two points the vertical 4 3 units
(2, 3)
3
rise = 3 and the horizontal run = 6. Using the gradient 2 6 units
formula: 1
0
3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 d
gradient = 6
1
= 2
Worked example 4
For the linear function drawn below, calculate the gradient.

D
D = 4t
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t

Think WriTe
1 Choose two points on the graph: (1, 4) and

(5, 20) for example.
2 Measure the vertical rise and the horizontal run. D
20 D = 4t (5, 20)
18
16
14
12 16
10
8
6 (1, 4)
4
2 4
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t

3 Write the gradient formula. gradient =
16
4 Substitute for the rise and the run. = 4
5 Calculate the gradient. =4
A function with a positive gradient is called an increasing function. That means that the value of the
dependent variable increases as the value of the independent variable increases.
A decreasing function has a negative gradient. In such cases when calculating the gradient, we take
the vertical rise to be negative. In a decreasing function, the value of the dependent variable decreases as
the value of the independent variable increases.
Worked example 5
For the function drawn at right calculate the gradient. y

5
4
3
2
1
−5−4−3−2−1 0
−1
1 2 3 4 5 x
−2
−3 y=4−x
Think WriTe −4
−5
1 Choose two points on the graph. In this case we
choose (0, 4) and (4, 0).
2 Measure the vertical rise and the horizontal run. y
5 (0, 4)
4 4
3
2 −4
1 (4, 0)
−5−4−3−2−1 0
−1
1 2 3 4 5 x
−2
−3 y=4−x
−4
−5

3 Write the gradient formula. gradient =
−4
4 Substitute for the rise and the run. = 4
5 Calculate the gradient. = −1

The gradient of −1 in the example above means that for every one-unit increase in x, there is a one unit
decrease in y.
In the example above, the graph cuts the y-axis at 4. Therefore, for this function the y-intercept is 4.
During this course you will need to look at using linear graphs in a practical context. In such a context
you need to consider which of the variables is the independent variable, which is the dependent variable
and the meaning of both the gradient and vertical intercept in context.
Consider the scenario in Worked example 3. A preschool hired an C
entertainment group in a concert and the cost of hiring the entertainment 800
group was given by the equation C = 80 + 3n. 700
600
The independent variable is the number of students who attend the 500
concert. 400
300
The dependent variable is the cost of staging the concert. This is 200
because the cost depends on the number of students who attend. 100
0
The gradient of this graph is 3. In this situation the cost of staging the 0 50 100 150 200 n
concert rises by $3 for every extra student who attends.
The vertical intercept of the graph is 80. In this situation this means there is a cost of $80 to stage the
concert even if no students attend. This is known as a fixed cost.
Worked example 6
The table below shows the cost of running an excursion for a given number of students.
No. of students 20 40 60 80 100

Cost $200 $300 $400 $500 $600
a Draw a graph of the cost of this excursion.

b Calculate the gradient and explain its meaning in this context.
c Use your graph to find the intercept on the vertical axis and explain its meaning in this context.
Think WriTe/draW
a 1 Draw a set of axes and plot the points given. a

600
550
500
450
400
Cost ($)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Number of students
2 Join with a straight line.
b 1 Choose two points on the graph and measure b

the vertical change in position and horizontal 600
change in position. 550
500
450
400
Cost ($)
350
300
250 100
200
150 20
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Number of students

2 Calculate the gradient. gradient =
100
= 20
=5
3 The gradient is the increased cost of the A gradient of 5 means that the cost of the
excursion per student. excursion increases by $5 for every student
who attends.
c 1 Find the point where the graph cuts the c Intercept = 100
vertical axis.
2 The intercept is the fixed cost of running an The excursion has a fixed cost of $100,
excursion without considering the number of meaning it would cost $100 even if no children
students. attended.
exercise 12B Gradient and y-intercept

1 We4, 5 For the functions below, find the gradient.
a y b y
10 100
diGiTal doC 90
Spreadsheet 9
8 80
doc-1530
7 70
Gradient 6 60
5 50
4 40
3 30
2 20
1 10
0 0 x
01 23 45 6 x 01 23 45
c y d y
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0 x
01 23 4 x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 mC Which of the functions below has a negative gradient?

a y B y
diGiTal doC
Spreadsheet
doc-1531
Graph paper x x
C y d
y
x x

3 WE6 The table below shows the payment made to a person on a newspaper delivery round.
Deliveries 200 400 600 800 1000

Payment 120 180 240 300 360
a Draw the graph of the function.
b Find the gradient of the function.
c Find the intercept on the vertical axis.
4 The table below shows the profit or loss made by a cinema for showing a movie.
No. of people 20 50 100 150 200

Profit −60 0 100 200 300
a Draw the graph of the function.

b Find the gradient of the function. Explain the meaning of the gradient in this context.
c Find the intercept on the vertical axis. Explain its meaning in this context.
5 A function is given by the rule y = 5x − 4.
a Copy and complete the table below.
x 0 1 2 3
y
b Draw the graph of this function.
c Find the gradient and intercept of this function.
T ($)
6 The graph at right represents the cost of hiring a generator. 3200
a Find the gradient and vertical intercept of this function.
b What does the vertical intercept mean in this case? 1700
c What does the gradient mean in this case?
200
1 2 n (Days)
Cost ($)
7 The graph at right shows the cost of a singing telegram.
76
a Find the gradient and vertical intercept of this function. 68
b What does the vertical intercept mean in this case? 60
c What does the gradient mean in this case?
1 2 Time (min)
8 a Sketch two different graphs that have the same gradient.
b What can be concluded about lines that have the same gradient?
9 a Sketch a graph that has a gradient of zero.
b What can be said about lines with a zero gradient?
10 a Sketch a vertical line.
b Why is it not possible to find the gradient of a vertical line?
11 Bughar plans the construction of a proposed driveway on a plan which is below.
Garage
way
Drive
2 m
17 m
What is the gradient of the proposed driveway?
Chapter 12 • Modelling linear relationships 399

12 An assembly line is pictured below.
0.85 m
15 m
What is the gradient of the sloping section? Give your answer as a simplified fraction.
13 A passenger jet takes off on the following path.
150 m
110 m
Runway
500 m
What is the gradient of the planes ascent?
14 The picture below shows the cost of hiring a tennis court.
Hire Ch
Book
in
arges
Hourly g fee $5
rate
$10
Explain how the booking fee and the hourly rate relate to the function that would represent the hire
cost of the court.
12C Drawing graphs using gradient

and intercept y
Most linear functions are represented on a number plane. 5 y = 2x + 1
Consider the graph of y = 2x + 1 drawn at right. 4
3
This function has a gradient of 2. The intercept on the vertical axis 2
(called the y-intercept) is 1. Comparing the gradient and y-intercept 1
with the function, we can see that the number with x (called the −5−4−3−2−1 0
−1
1 2 3 4 5 x
coefficient of x) is 2 (the gradient) and we then add 1 (y-intercept) to −2
−3
complete the function. −4
Any linear function can be written in the form −5
y = mx + b where m = gradient and b = y-intercept.

Worked Example 7
Find the gradient and y-intercept of:

a y = 3x − 4 b y = 7 − 2x.
Think Write
a 1 The gradient is the coefficient of x (3). a gradient = 3

2 The y-intercept is the constant term (−4). y-intercept = −4
b 1 The gradient is the coefficient of x (−2). b gradient = −2
2 The y-intercept is the constant term (7). y-intercept = 7
We can use the gradient and y-intercept to draw the graph of a function in the form y = mx + b. By
plotting the y-intercept we are able to use the gradient to plot other points. For example, a gradient of
2 means a rise of 2 units for a 1 unit increase in x. Therefore, from the y-intercept we count a rise of
2 units and a run of 1 unit to plot the next point. It is a useful check to repeat this process from the next
point plotted. The points plotted can then be joined by a straight line that is the graph of the function.
Worked Example 8
Draw the graph of y = 3x − 2.

Think Write
1 Find the gradient (3). gradient = 3

2 Find the y-intercept (−2). y-intercept = −2
3 Mark the y-intercept on the axis.
4 Count a rise of 3 and a run of 1 to mark the
point (1, 1).
5 From (1, 1) count a rise of 3 and a run of 1 to y
mark the point (2, 4). 5
4
3
2
1
−5−4−3−2−1 0
−1
1 2 3 4 5 x
−2
−3
−4
−5
6 Join these points with a straight line. y

y = 3x − 2
5
4
3
2
1
−5−4−3−2−1 0
−1
1 2 3 4 5 x
−2
−3
−4
−5
If the gradient is a fraction, the numerator indicates the vertical change in position and the denominator
the horizontal change in position. The method of drawing the graph then remains unchanged.

Worked example 9
2
Sketch the graph of y = 3 x − 2.
Think WriTe
2 2
1 Find the gradient ( 3 ). gradient = 3
2 Find the y-intercept (−2). y-intercept = −2
4 Count a rise of 2 and a run of 3 to mark the point (3, 0).
5 From (3, 0) count a rise of 2 and a run of 3 to mark the y
point (6, 2). 5
4
3
2
1
−4−3−2−1 0
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−2
−3
−4
−5

5
4
3
y = 2–3 x − 2
2
1
−4−3−2−1 0
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−2
−3
−4
−5
When sketching functions with a negative gradient we need to remember to treat the rise as negative;
that is, the function decreases.
Worked example 10
Sketch the function y = 3 − 2 x.

Think WriTe/draW
1 Find the gradient (−2). gradient = −2

2 Find the y-intercept (3). y-intercept = 3
4 Count a rise of −2 and a run of 1 to mark the point (1, 1).
5 From (1, 1) count a rise of −2 and a run of 1 to mark the y
point (2, −1). 5
4
3
2
1
−5−4−3−2−1 0
−1
1 2 3 4 5 x
−2
−3
−4
−5

5
4
3
2
1
−5−4−3−2−1 0
−1
1 2 3 4 5 x
−2
−3
−4
−5
y = 3 − 2x
drawing graphs using gradient

exercise 12C
and intercept
1 We7 For each of the functions below, state the gradient and the y-intercept.
a y = 2x + 2 b y = 3x − 8 c y = 2 − 4x
3 x 3
d y = 4x + 3 e y= +1 f y = 3 − 2x diGiTal doC
2 Spreadsheet
doc-1532
2 We8 Sketch the function y = 2x − 3. equation of a
3 Sketch the functions: straight line
a y = 2x + 1 b y = 3x − 6 c y = 5x.
1
4 We9 Sketch the function y = 2
x + 2.
5 Sketch the graph for each of the functions below.
3 1 3 diGiTal doC
a y = 4x − 1 b y = 3x c y = 2x − 4 Spreadsheet
doc-1533
6 We10 Sketch the function y = 4 − 3x. linear graphs
7 Sketch the graphs of:

1
a y = 6 − 3x b y = −2x − 3 c y = − 2 x + 4.
1
8 mC Which of the following could be the graph of y = − 2 x + 1? diGiTal doC
Spreadsheet
a y B y C y d y doc-1534
Graph paper
x x x x
9 mC The equation of the graph drawn at right could be:

y
a y = 2x − 1
B y = 2x + 1
1
C y= x−1
2
1
d y= x +1
2 x
2
10 Write and draw an example of a linear function with:
−1
a a positive gradient
b a negative gradient
c a positive y-intercept
d a y-intercept of 0
e a negative gradient and negative y-intercept
f a gradient of 0
g a positive gradient and negative y-intercept.

11 Write an equation that could fit the following sketches.
a y b y c y
x x x
Further development
12 a How is a graph with a negative gradient recognised?
b How do you know that y = 5 − 2x has a negative gradient?
13 a How is a graph with a positive vertical intercept recognised?
b Does the graph of y = 5 − 2x have a positive or negative vertical intercept?
14 By making y the subject of the formula 3x − y = 10 find:
a the gradient
b the vertical intercept.
15 What would be the equation of a line that has:
(write your answer without the use of fractions)
a gradient = 3 and y-intercept = 4
b gradient = −1 and y-intercept = −4
1
c gradient = − and y-intercept = 1.
2
16 Determine the geometrical similarity between y = 2x − 1 and 2x − y − 5 = 0.
1
diGiTal doC 17 a Find the gradient of y = 2 − 2 x and 2x − y − 5 = 0
WorkSHEET 12.1
doc-10341 b What is the geometrical significance of these two lines?
12d Simultaneous equations

Consider the equation y = 2x − 3. When we graph this equation every point on the graph represents a
value of x and y which together satisfy this equation. There is an infinite number of solutions to this
equation.
If a second linear equation is drawn on the same set of axes there will be one point only that satisfies
both equations. The point of intersection of the two graphs will give the x and y value for this solution.
Finding these values is known as solving the equations simultaneously.
Worked example 11
Use the graph of the given simultaneous equations below to write down the point of intersection
and, hence, the solution of the simultaneous equations.
x + 2y = 4 y
y = 2x − 3 3 y = 2x − 3
2
1 x + 2y = 4
x
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
Think WriTe
1 Write the equations and number them. x + 2y = 4 [1]

y = 2x − 3 [2]
2 Locate the point of intersection of the two Point of intersection (2, 1)
lines. This gives the solution. Solution: x = 2 and y = 1

3 Check the solution by substituting x = 2 and Check equation [1]:
y = 1 into the given equations. LHS = x + 2y RHS = 4
= 2 + 2(1)
=4
LHS = RHS
Check equation [2]:
LHS = y RHS = 2x − 3
=1 = 2(2) − 3
=4−3
=1
LHS = RHS
The only time where there will be no solution to a pair of linear simultaneous equations will be when the
lines drawn are parallel.
Worked example 12
Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations using a graphical method.

1
x+y=6 y = 5 − 2x
Think WriTe/draW
1 Write the equations, one under the other and number x+y=6 [1]
them. y = 5 − 12 x [2]
2 Graph equation [1] using the method you prefer. Equation [1]
This may involve constructing a table of values, x-intercept: when y = 0,
finding the intercepts of the line, the y-intercept and x+0=6
gradient. We will use the intercepts method here. x=6
Calculate the x- and y-intercepts for equation [1]. The x-intercept is at (6, 0).
To calculate the x-intercept, substitute y = 0 into y-intercept: when x = 0,
equation [1]. 0+y=6
To calculate the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 into y=6
equation [1]. The y-intercept is at (0, 6).
3 Calculate the x- and y-intercepts for equation [2]. Equation [2]
For the x-intercept, substitute y = 0 into equation [2]. x-intercept: when y = 0,
1
Divide both sides by 2. 0 = 5 − 2x
1
−5 = − 2 x
For the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 into equation [2].
x = 10
Divide both sides by 4. The x-intercept is at (10, 0).
y-intercept: when x = 0,
1
y=5−2×0
y=5
The y-intercept is at (0, 5).
4 Use graph paper to rule up a set of axes and label the y
6
x-axis and the y-axis as shown. 5
4 (2, 4)
3
5 Plot the x- and y-intercepts for each equation. 2
1
6 Produce a graph of each equation by ruling a straight x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
line through its intercepts. −1
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

7 Locate the point of intersection of the lines. The point of intersection is (2, 4).
8 Check the solution by substituting x = 2 and y = 4 Check [1]: LHS = x + y RHS = 6
into each equation. =2+4
=6
LHS = RHS
Check [2]: LHS = y
=4
1
RHS = 5 − 2 (2)
=5−1
=4
LHS = RHS
9 State the solution. In both cases LHS = RHS; therefore, the
solution set (2, 4) is correct.
The solution is x = 2, y = 4.
Simultaneous equations can be used to solve a number of practical problems.

Consider the problem below. G
A class has 30 students. There are twice as many girls 30 G = 2B
as boys. How many boys and girls are in this class? 27
We solve this problem by modelling two linear 24
21 (10, 20)
relationships. 18
15
We can say that G = 30 − B and G = 2B, where G 12
represents the number of girls and B represents the 9
6 G = 30 − B
number of boys. 3
The solution to the problem will be the point of 0
intersection of these linear relationships. 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 B
The point of intersection on these lines is (10, 20). Therefore the solution to this problem is 10 boys
and 20 girls.
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the point of

intersection
Once you have graphed two functions, the point of intersection can be found using your graphics
calculator. Consider the functions drawn previously.
1. From the MENU select GRAPH.
2. Delete any existing functions and enter the functions Y1 = 2X and Y2 = 30 − X.
3. Press ! 3 for V-Window. Enter the settings shown at right, which match the axes drawn above.
4. Press w to return to the previous screen, and then press 6 to draw the graphs.
5. To find the intersection press ! 5 for G-Solv (a graph-solving function).
6. Press 5 for ISCT to find the intersection of the two graphs. This may take a moment for the
calculator to find.
Worked example 13
Car A is travelling at a constant speed of 60 km/h. Car B leaves 2 hours later and travels at a
constant speed of 90 km/h. This is represented by the linear model below.
How far from the starting point does car B overtake car A?
B
Distance (km)
600
500 A
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (h)

Think Write
1 Look for the point of intersection of the two graphs. Point of intersection (6, 360).
2 Read the distance of this point on the y-axis. Car B overtakes car A 360 km from the
starting point.
Exercise 12D Simultaneous equations

1 WE11 Use the graphs below of the given simultaneous equations to write down the point of
intersection and, hence, the solution of the simultaneous equations.
a x + y = 3 x − y = 1 b x + y = 2 3x − y = 2
y y
6 6
3x − y = 2
5 5
4
x−y=1 4
3 3
2 2
1 1 x+y=2
−1 −10 1 2 3 4 5x −0.5−10 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
x
−2 −2
−3 x+y=3 −3
−4 −4
−5 −5
−6 −6

c 5y − 8x + 7 = 0 5y − 6x = 1 d 4x + y = −10 y − 2x = 8
y 5y − 6x = 1
y
6 12
5 10
4 8 y − 2x = 8
3 6
2 4
5y − 8x + 7 = 0 2
1
−3−2−1 0 x −4 −3 −2 −1 −20 2 x
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1
−2 −4
−3
−4
4x + y = −10 −6
−8
−5 −10
−6 −12

e y − x = 4 3x + 2y = 8 f y + 2x = 3 2y + x = 0
y y
6 3
3x + 2y = 8 y−x=4
4 2 y + 2x = 3
2 1
−1 0 x x
−4 −3 −2 1 2 3 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
−2 −1
−4 −2
−6 −3 2y + x = 0

g y − 3x = 2 x − y = 2 h 2x + y = 8 4x + y = 15
y y
6 12
y − 3x = 2
10
4 8 4x + y = 15
6
2 x−y=2 4
2 2x + y = 8
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x −1 −20 1 2 3 4 5x
−2 −4
−6
−4 −8
−10
−6 −12


i 2y + 3x − 9 = 0 2y − 3x = 1 j 2y − 4x = 5 4y + 2x = 5
y y
5
2y − 3x = 1 6 2y − 4x = 5
4 4
3 2
4y + 2x = 5
2
−1.0 −0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 x
1 −2
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x −4
−1 −6
2y + 3x − 9 = 0
2 We12 Solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations using a graphical method.
a y=8−x b y = 3x + 10
y=x+2 y = 2x + 8
c y = 2x − 3 d y = 3 + 4x
x=5 y = 1 + 3x
e y = 16 − 3x f y=7
y = 11 − 2x y = 2x + 15
3 We13 At the grocery store, apples cost $5 per kg and bananas b
cost $2 per kg. Rhonda spends $30 on 9 kg of fruit. This can be 15
14 5a + 2b = 30
represented by the linear functions at right, where a represents the 13
diGiTal doC
Spreadsheet
number of apples and b represents the number of bananas. 12
11
doc-1539 Use the graph to find the mass of apples and bananas that 10
Simultaneous
Rhonda bought. 9
equations 8
7
6
5
4
3 a+b=9
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 a
4 a Sketch the graphs of y = 2x + 1 and y = 7 − x.

b Write down the point of intersection of the two graphs.
5 A rectangle has a length of x and a width of y.
a The perimeter of the rectangle is 22 cm. This can be represented by the linear function
2x + 2y = 22. Graph this function.
b The length of the rectangle is 5 cm longer than the width. This can be represented by the linear
function y = x − 5. On the same set of axes graph this function.
c Use the intersection of the two graphs to determine the length and width of the rectangle.
6 a Steve earns twice as much money each week as Theo. This can be represented by the linear function
s = 2t, where s represents the amount of money Steve earns and t represents the amount of money
Theo earns. Draw the graph of this function.
b The total of Theo and Steve’s wages is $750. This can be represented by the linear function
t + s = 750. Draw this function on the same set of axes.
c Use the intersection of these graphs to find Theo’s wage and Steve’s wage.
7 The sum of Tanya’s English and Maths marks is 135.
a Write a linear function that represents this information and sketch the function.
b Tanya’s English mark was 21 marks higher than her Maths mark. Write a linear function to
represent this piece of information and draw the graph on the same set of axes.
c Use the intersection of your two graphs to find Tanya’s mark in both English and Maths.

8 A computer firm, SuperComputers Inc., offers a back-up plan covering the ongoing service and
troubleshooting of its systems after sale. The cost of signing up for the service plan is $215, and
there is an hourly rate of $65 for the serviceperson’s time. Purchasers not signing up for the plan are
charged a flat rate of $150 per hour for service. Would it be advisable to sign up for the service plan
if you expected to need 3 hours of service assistance during the life of a computer purchased from
SuperComputers Inc?
9 A telephone company, Opus, offers calls to Biddelonia for a connection fee of $14, and $1 per minute
thereafter. Its rival, Belecom, offers calls for $2 per minute (no connection fee) to the same country.
a Compare the cost of a 10 minute call to Biddelonia using each company.
b At what point would it be cheaper to use Opus?
10 It costs you $6 to get into a taxi (the ‘flagfall’), and $1.50 per kilometre if you use PinkCabs, while
NoTop taxis charge $8 flagfall, and $1.20 per kilometre.
a How much would it cost with each company to travel 15 km in one of its cabs?
b When would it cost the same to use both companies?
11 Medirank, a health insurance company, charges $860 per year (for a single person), and requires
customers to pay the first $100 of any hospital visit. HAB, on the other hand, charges an annual fee
of $560 and requires its members to pay the first $150 of any hospital visit. Determine the number of
hospital visits in a year for which the cost of health services is the same for either company.
12 Nifty is a car hire firm that charges insurance of $135, and $50 per day car hire. A competitor, Savus,
simply charges $65 per day and offers ‘free’ insurance. You are planning a holiday and would prefer to
use Savus. Under what conditions (days hired) could you justify this choice?
practical applications
12e
of linear functions
1 — Step functions 11
10
9
Parking fee ($)
A step function is a linear function for which the rule changes 8 inTeraCTiViTY
7
as the value of the independent variable changes. 6
int-0804
linear modelling
Consider the case of a parking lot. The charge to park is $3 for the 5
4
first 2 hours and $1 per hour after that. 3
The graph for the parking charges is shown at right. The graph is 2
1
called a step graph because it looks like a staircase. 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of hours
Worked example 14
A telephone call is charged at 75c for the first minute and 25c per minute after that. Draw a graph
of the cost of the telephone call.
Think draW
1 Draw axes with time on the horizontal axis

and cost on the vertical axis. 3.00
Cost of telephone call ($)
2.75
2 Draw a step function at 75c with increases of 2.50
25c every minute. 2.25
2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (min)

2 — Conversion graphs
A conversion graph is a linear function that shows a conversion between one quantity and another. A
common application of a conversion graph is to convert between currencies.
Worked Example 15
The conversion graph below shows the currency exchange rate between Australian dollars (A$)
and US dollars (US$) on a particular day. (We say ‘on a particular day’ as currency exchange
rates change constantly by small amounts.)
a How many Australian dollars are needed to buy US$50?
b How many US dollars will A$20 buy?
Conversion between US$ and A$

80
70
United States dollars (US$)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Australian dollars (A$)
Think Write
a To convert US$50 to A$, read across from 50 on a Approximately A$62 is needed to buy US$50.
the US$ axis to the line and then vertically down
to the A$ axis.
b To convert A$20 to US$, read vertically up from b A$20 will buy US$16.
20 on the A$ axis to the line and then across to the
US$ axis.
As we saw in chapter 1 a linear function can be used to show the growth of an investment over a period
of time.
Worked Example 16
A sum of $5000 is invested at 6% p.a. simple interest. Draw a graph of the interest earned against
the length of the investment.
Think Write
1 Find the interest after one year I = Prn

= $5000 × 0.06 × 1
= $300
2 Find the interest after 2 years. I = Prn

= $5000 × 0.06 × 2
= $600

3 Plot the points (0, 0) (1, 300)
3500
(2, 600)
3000
2500
Interest in $
2000
1500
1000
500
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Years
In many cases when looking at representing a practical situation there are physical limitations on the
function.
For example, consider the case earlier when we considered the preschool staging a concert. The
equation was C = 80 + 3n. In such an example negative values of n would have no meaning. There would
also be maximum values for n when you consider the maximum number of students that could attend;
that is, there is a finite number of people who can attend.
Exercise 12E Practical applications of linear functions

1 WE14 The cost of a bus fare is $1.20 for one section and 40c per section thereafter. Show this in a
step graph.
2 The cost of posting a parcel is shown in the table below.
Mass 500 g or less 500 g to 2 kg Over 2 kg

Cost $2.50 $3.75 $5.50
Draw this information in a step graph.
3 A mobile telephone plan has a base charge of $25 per month, which includes 10 free calls. Every call
thereafter costs $1.50. Show this information in a step graph.
4 Use the step graph at right to complete this table of Air
Air Mail costs of large
Mail charges for large letters to various destinations in 12.00 letters to zone D
zone D. All countries in the table are in this zone.
Weight Destination Air Mail cost
10.00
a 28 g Algeria
b 15 g Argentina 8.00
Charge ($)
c 48 g Poland
d 126 g Uganda 6.00
e 445 g Lithuania
f 320 g Germany 4.00
g 200 g Chile
2.00
h 150 g Netherlands
i 50 g Afghanistan
0
j 103 g Iraq 0 50 125 250 500
Mass (g)

5 Look at the information in the following table on Air Mail charges for large letters to the Asia/Pacific
zone.
8.00
Air Mail charges for
Asia/Pacific zone
7.00
Air Mail
Weight charge 6.00
5.00
0 up to 50 g $1.20
Charge ($)
4.00
Over 50 g up to 125 g $2.40
3.00
Over 125 g up to 250 g $3.60 2.00
1.00
Over 250 g up to 500 g $7.20
0
0 250 500
Mass (grams)
a Copy and complete the step graph for Air Mail charges for posting large letters to the Asia/Pacific
region.
b What is the Air Mail cost to send a 75 g letter to Indonesia?
c What is the Air Mail cost to send a 460 g letter to New Zealand?
6 WE15 The exchange rate between Australian dollars (A$) and Japanese yen (¥) for a particular day is
as shown by this conversion graph.
9000 •
8000
7000
Japanese yen (¥)
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Australian dollars (A$)
a Convert the following A$ to yen for that day.

i $10
ii $75
iii $45
b Convert the following yen (¥) to A$.
i ¥1350
ii ¥8100
iii ¥2700
c i How many yen would you get for each A$?
ii Zola buys $2000 worth of yen. How many yen is this?
iii The next day A$1 buys ¥88. If Zola had waited till the next day to buy her yen, how many
fewer yen would she have bought?
iv If Zola sold her yen the next day, would she have made a profit or a loss?

7 mC This graph shows the conversion of Australian dollars (A$) to US dollars (US$).
80 Currency conversion graph

75
70
65
60
55
50
US$ 45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
A$
On coming home from a holiday in the United States of America, Robert had US$60 left. If he
then wants to convert this to Australian dollars, how much should he receive?
a $48 B $60
C $75 d $80
8 We16 Hayley invests $2000 at 8% p.a. simple interest. Draw the graph of the value of Hayley’s
investment against time.
9 The cost of having a parcel couriered is given by the equation C = 0.6m + 1.2, where C is the cost in
dollars and m is the weight of the parcel in kilograms. The maximum cost of sending the parcel is set at
$7.20.
a Draw a graph of the cost against weight.
b Explain why a negative value for m and C are both unreasonable.
c What is the maximum value of C?
d What is the smallest value of m to produce this maximum value of C?

10 A computer repair company charges the following rates.
$45 call out fee plus
$35 per half hour or part thereof
a Calculate the charge for the following service calls.
i 20 min
ii 45 min
iii 80 min
iv 90 min
b Draw a graph of charges (C) against the time (t) of the service call.
11 A mobile phone company charges users a rate of 20 cents for each completed 30 seconds of the call.
This means that calls of less than 30 seconds are free. Draw the graph of cost versus call length for calls
of up to 150 seconds
12 A hotel charges the following rates for a one week holiday package:
1 person $1800
2 people $3300
each extra person $1200.
a Explain why the number of people on the holiday is a discrete variable.
b Find the cost for:
i 1 person
ii 2 people
iii 3 people
iv 5 people
v 10 people.
diGiTal doC
c As the data is discrete the cost is graphed using only a dot on each point. Graph the cost of the WorkSHEET 12.2
holiday for up to 10 people. doc-10342

Summary
Graphing linear • A function is a rule for calculation that involves an independent variable and a dependent variable.
functions • If the function is a straight line when graphed, then the function is called a linear function.
• The independent variable is shown on the horizontal axis and the dependent variable on the vertical
axis.
• The function can be graphed by drawing a table of values and then plotting the points generated,
joining them with a straight line.
Gradient and • The gradient is the increase in the dependent variable per one unit increase in the independent
y-intercept variable.
• The gradient (m) can be found using the formula
m= .
• If the function is decreasing, then the gradient will be negative.
• The intercept on the vertical axis gives the value of the dependent variable when the independent
variable is equal to zero.
• A function is written in the form:
y = mx + b
where m equals the gradient and b equals the y-intercept.
• The gradient and the y-intercept can be used to help draw the graph of a function.
Simultaneous • The point of intersection of two linear functions gives the point where both functions hold true
equations simultaneously.
• This is known as solving simultaneous equations.
practical applications • A step function is where the dependent variable increases in steps rather than a continuous gradual
of linear functions increase.
• A conversion graph is a linear function that converts one quantity to another.
• Linear functions can be used in many practical situations. However, in those practical cases there
may be limitations on the values that one or both of the variables can take.

Chapter review
1 Look at the linear function drawn below. y m U lTip l e
The gradient of this function is: C ho iC e
a −2 2
1
B −
2 x
1 −4
C
2
d 2
2 The function y = 6 − x has a gradient of:
a −6 B −1
C 1 d 6
3 For which of the functions drawn below is the gradient the greatest?
a y B y
x x
C y d y
x x
4 The linear function drawn below is the graph of: y

1
a y= x−1
2
1
B y= x +1 1
2
1
C y=1− x −2 x
2
1
d y= x −2
2
1 The table below shows the labour charge for working on a motor vehicle. S ho rT
a n S W er
Hours (h) 1 2 3 4 5
Cost (C ) 55 80 105 130 155
a Draw the graph of this function.

b Use the graph to find the labour charge for 8 hours work.
2 The cost, C, of having a parcel delivered by courier is given by the linear function C = 20 + 3k, where k
is the number of kilometres the parcel must be delivered.
a Draw a graph of this function.
b Use the graph to determine the cost of having the parcel delivered a distance of 12 km.
3 For the functions below, find the gradient and vertical intercept.
a y b y c y
(3, 7)
3
x
1 −4
−2
x x
3

4 The table below shows the profit or loss that would be made from a cake stall given the number of
cakes sold.
Number 20 40 60 80 100
Profit −30 20 70 120 170
a Draw the graph of this function.

b State the gradient of this function. State the meaning of the gradient in this context.
c State the vertical intercept for this function. State the meaning of the vertical intercept in this
context.
5 For each of the linear functions below, state the gradient and the y-intercept.
3
a y = 3x − 2 b y = 4x + 7 c y=5−x
6 Sketch each of the functions shown below.
1
a y = 2x − 1 b y = 6 − 3x c y = 2x + 3
7 Use the graphs below, showing the given simultaneous equations, to write down the point of
intersection of the graphs and, hence, the solution of the simultaneous equations.
a x + 3y = 6 b 3x + 2y = 12
y = 2x − 5 2y = 3x
y y
3
6
2 5
4
3
−4 −2 0 2 4 6 7 x 2
−2 1
−2 −10 2 4 6 8 x
−4
−2
−6 −3
−4
−5

8 Solve each of the following pair of simultaneous equations.
a y = 3x + 1 b y = 2x − 1 c y = 10 − 2x
1 1
y = 8 − 2x y = 4x + 6 y=2
9 A rectangle has a length of l and a width of w.
a The length of the rectangle is 10 cm longer than the width. This can be represented by the linear
function w = l − 10. Draw this function.
b The perimeter of the rectangle is 40 cm. This can be represented by a linear function. On the same
set of axes draw this function. (Hint: Use the perimeter formula.)
c Use the point of intersection of your two functions to find the length and the width of the
rectangle.
10 The table below shows the cost per minute of a long distance telephone call.
Distance of call Cost per minute

Less than 150 km 30c
150 km–750 km 65c
Over 750 km 90c
Show this information in a step graph.
11 It is known that $1 Australian = $1.25 New Zealand. Draw a conversion graph to represent this.
1 The table below shows the values of x and y in a linear function. ex Ten d ed
r eS p o n S e
x 0 1 2 3 4
y −3 −1 1 3 5
a Plot the points and draw the graph of the linear function.
b What is the gradient of the function?
c What is the y-intercept?
d Write the equation of this function.
e On the same axes, draw the graph of y = 5 − 2x.
f Write the solution to the pair of simultaneous equations represented on your diagram.
2 a An equation is known to have a gradient of −2 and a y-intercept of 0. What is the equation of this
function? diGiTal doC
Test Yourself
b A second graph has an equation y = 3x − 5. What is the gradient and y-intercept of this function? doc-10343
c Find the point of intersection of the two graphs. Chapter 12

ICT activities
12a Graphing linear functions 12d Simultaneous equations
diGiTal doCS diGiTal doC
• Spreadsheet (doc-1531): Graph paper (page 393) • Spreadsheet (doc-1539): Simultaneous equations (page 408)
• GCprogram — Casio (doc-1525): Linear (page 393)
• GCprogram — TI (doc-1526): Linear (page 393) 12e practical applications of linear functions
• GCprogram — Casio (doc-1527): Myrule (page 393)
• GCprogram — TI (doc-1528): Myrule (page 393) diGiTal doC
• WorkSHEET 12.2 (doc-10342): Apply your knowledge of linear
relationships to problems. (page 413)
inTeraCTiViTY
diGiTal doCS • int-0804: Consolidate your understanding of linear modelling.
• Spreadsheet (doc-1530): Gradient (page 398) (page 409)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1531): Graph paper (page 398)
Chapter review
12C drawing graphs using gradient and intercept
diGiTal doC
diGiTal doCS
• Spreadsheet (doc-1532): Equation of a straight line (page 403)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1533): Linear graphs (page 403)
• Spreadsheet (doc-1534): Graph paper (page 403)
• WorkSHEET 12.1 (doc-10341): Draw graphs of linear functions. To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
(page 404)

Answers CHAPTER 12
modellinG linear e
x −2 −1 0 1 2
c
x −2 −1 0 1 2
relaTionShipS y −7 −6 −5 −4 −3
exercise 12a
y −11 −8 −5 −2 1
Graphing linear functions
y
1 M 2
y 1
500
400 1
−2−1 0 x
300 0 x −1 1 2 3 4 5
200 (5000, 250) −3−2−1
−1 1 2 3 −2
100 −2 −3
0 −3 −4
0 00 00 00 00 00 P −4 y = 3x − 5 −5 y = x − 5
20 40 60 80 10 0 −5 −6
−7
2 a $400.00 f d
b $475.00 x −2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2
3 Y y 4 5 6 7 8
Y = 80A y 4 2 0 −2 −4
90 000
80 000 y
70 000
60 000 y 8
50 000 6
40 000 3 y=x+6
30 000 (500, 40 000) 2 4
20 000 1 y = −2x 2
10 000 −3−2−1 0 x
0 −1 1 2 3 x
−2 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
0 00 00 00 00 00 A −3 −4
2 4 6 8 10
4 a g
x −2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2 e
x −2 −1 0 1 2
y 2 3 4 5 6 y −7 −3 1 5 9 y −10 −5 0 5 10
y y
y 10
6 8
6 6
5 4 y = 5x
4
4 2 y = 4x + 1 2
y=x+4
3 −3−2−1 01 2 3 x x
−3−2−1 0
2 −2 1 2 3
−4 −4
1 −6 −6
x −8
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −10
h
x −2 −1 0 1 2 f
b x −2 −1 0 1 2
x −2 −1 0 1 2
y 14 9 4 −1 −6 y −14 −7 0 7 14
y −3 −2 −1 0 1
y
y
6 y = 7x
y 4 y = −5x + 4 4
3 y=x−1 3 2
2 2 x
1 1 −3−2−1 01 2 3
−3−2−1 0 x −4
−3−2−1 0
−1 1 2 3
x −1 1 2 3 −6
−2 −2
−3
g
x −2 −1 0 1 2
c 5 a
x −2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2 y −11 −7 −3 1 5
y −6 −3 0 3 6 y 0 1 2 3 4 y
6
4
y y 2
3 3 y=x+2 −3−2−10 1 2 3 x
2 2 −4 y = 4x − 3
1 y = 3x 1 −6
0 x −3−2−1 0 x −8
−3−2−1
−1 1 2 3 −1 1 2 3 −10
−2 −2 −12
−3 −3
h
x −2 −1 0 1 2
d b
x −2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2 y 0 2 4 6 8
y −7 −5 −3 −1 1 y −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 y
8
7
y y 6
3 2 5
2 1 4 y = 2x + 4
1 0 x 3
−2−1
−1 1 2 3 4 2
−3−2−1 0 x −2
−1 1 2 3 1
−2 −3 y = x − 4 0 x
−3−2−1
−1 1 2 3
−3 y = 2x − 3 −4

i 9 C 16 $960
x −2 −1 0 1 2 C = 4 + 1.5d 17 a
100
90 (60, 94)
y −4 −1 2 5 8 80
70 900
60
y 50
8 40 800
7 30
6 20 700
10 (20, 700)
5
0 600
Income ($)
4
3 y = 3x + 2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 d
2 500
1 10 2
0 x 1.8 400
−3−2−1
−1 1 2 3 (10, 2)
1.6
−2 300
Height (m)
1.4
−3 1.2
−4 1 200
0.8
j 0.6 100
x −2 −1 0 1 2 0.4
0.2
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
y −6 −4 −2 0 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910
Years Number of households
y 11
Money earned ($)
2
b 300
600
1 500 (60, 600) c This is the fixed cost.
−3−2−1 0 x 400
−1 1 2 3 300 18 a
−2 y = 2x − 2 200
−3 10
100
−4
Distance (km)
0 8
−5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
−6 Hours worked 6
k 12 4
x −2 −1 0 1 2 7000
6000
(1000, 6150)
5000 2
Profit ($)
y 14 8 2 −4 −10 4000
3000
2000 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 1000
0 Time (hours)
3 −1000 0 0 0 0 0
2 y = −6x + 2
1
−2000 20 40 60 80 100
x Number of rolls of film b 5 hours
−3−2−1 0
−1 1 2 3
−2 13 a C = 2.5 + 5t exercise 12B
−3 Gradient and y-intercept
b C 1 a 2
l 20
x −2 −1 0 1 2 b 16
15
c −3
$
10
y 8 5 2 −1 −4 d 0.5
5
2 D
y 0 t 3 a
8 0 1 2 3 4 400 (1000, 360)
7 350
Payment ($)
6 Time (hrs) 300

5 c $17.50 250
4 200
3 14 a C = 60 + 8m 150
2 y = −3x + 2 100
1 b Cost ($) 50
x 0
−3−2−1 0 76
−1 1 2 3 0 00 00 00 00 00
−2 68 2 4 6 8 10
−3 60 No. of newspapers delivered
−4
b 0.3
6 C c 60
100 C = 1.5t
90 1 2 Time (min) 4 a
(60, 90) 350
80 300 (200, 300)
70 c $100 d 11 minutes 250
Profit ($)
60 200
50
40 15 a Piecework b P = 32 + 0.1n 150
100
30 c P 50
20 0
10 150 −50
0 −100 50 100 150 200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 t No. of patrons
in a cinema
7 a $25.50 100
b $67.50 b 2: $2 increase in profit per person
$
8 d attending
d = 15t 50
160 c −100: $100 cost is incurred before
140
120 anybody attends the movie.
100
80 (10, 150) 0 5 a
60 n x 0 1 2 3
40 0 500 1000 1500
20 No. of pamphlets
0 y −4 1 6 11
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 t d $197

b y c y 11 Some possible answers are:
6 (2, 6) (1, 5) a y = −x + 1 b y = 2x
5 y = 5x − 4 1
4
3
c y=− x−1
0 x 2
2
1 y = 5x Check other answers with your teacher.
0
−5−4−3−2−1 x 12 a The graph slopes downwards to the
−1 1 2 3 4 5
−2 4 y
right.
−3
−4 y = 1–2 x + 2 b The coefficient of x is negative.
−5
2 13 a The graph cuts the vertical axis above
(2, 3)
the origin.
c Gradient = 5, y-intercept = −4 x b Positive
−4
6 a Gradient = 1500, vertical intercept = 200 14 a 3 b −10
b There is a $200 delivery charge. 15 a y = 3x + 4 b y = −x − 4
c The generator costs an extra 5 a y
y = 3–4 x − 1 c 2y = 2 − x
$1500 per day. 16 The lines are parallel.
7 a Gradient = 8, vertical intercept = 60 (4, 2) 1
17 a − and 2
b There is a $60 appearance charge. x 2
−1 4– b The lines are perpendicular.
c The singing telegram costs $8 per minute. 3
8 a Answers will vary. exercise 12d
b Lines with the same gradient are b Simultaneous equations
y
1 a (2, 1) b (1, 1) c (4, 5)
parallel. (3, 1) d (−3, 2) e (0, 4) f (2, −1)
9 a Answers will vary. 1 1 1
b Lines with zero gradient are horizontal. 0 x g (−2, −4) h (3 , 1) i (1 3 , 2 )
2 2
10 a Answers will vary. y = 1–3x
j (−0.5, 1.5)
b Vertical lines have no horizontal change 2 a (3, 5) b (−2, 4) c (5, 7)
in position. This causes the gradient c y
d (−2, −5) e (5, 1) f (−4, 7)
y = 3–2x − 4
to be a fraction over zero which is 3 4 kg of apples and 5 kg of bananas
2 4 a
undefined. 2 –3 y y = 2x +1
2 x 10
11 17 (2, −1) 8
6
17 −4 4
12 − 2
0
300
2 −10−8−6−4 −2 2 4 6 8 10 x
13 6 y −4
25 −6
−8 y=7−x
14 c = 10H + 5 4
−10
The booking fee would be the vertical (1, 1)
intercept (5) and the hourly rate would be 4–
x
the gradient of the function (10). 3 b (2, 5)
y = 4 − 3x 5 a, 2x + 2y = 22 y
exercise 12C drawing graphs using b 10
7 a y 8
gradient and intercept 6
4
1 a Gradient = 2, y-intercept = 2 6 2 x
(1, 3) 0
b Gradient = 3, y-intercept = −8 −10−8−6−4−2−2 2 4 6 8 10
c Gradient = −4, y-intercept = 2 x −4
−6
3 2
d Gradient = , y-intercept = 3 −8
y = x − 5 −10
4
1
y = 6 − 3x
e Gradient = , y-intercept = 1
2 b y
3
f Gradient = − , y-intercept = 3 x c Length = 8 cm, width = 3 cm
2
−1 1–2 6 a,
2 y y = 2x − 3 s
−3 s = 2t
(1, −5) b 800
700
1 600
1 –2 500
x y = −2x − 3 400
(1, −1) 300
c y 200 t + s = 750
−3 100 t
4 y = − 1–2 x + 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 a y y = 2x + 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
(1, 3) x
1 8 c Steve = $500, Theo = $250
x 7 a, M
− 1–2 M = E − 21
8 C b 200
9 C 150
b y y = 3x − 6 10 Some possible answers are: 100
a y = 2x + 1 b y = −2x + 1 50 E + M = 135
x c y = −3x + 5 d y = 6x
0
2 e y = −2x − 1 f y=6 50 100 150 200
E
(1, −3)
−6 g y = 2x − 1
Check other answers with your teacher. c English = 78, Maths = 57

8 Yes ($410 compared to $450) 9 a 2 a C ($)
9 a Opus $24, Belcomm $20 90
8 80
b After 14 min 70
7 60
10 a PinkCabs $28.50, NoTop $26 50
b After 6.7 km 6 40
30
Cost ($)
11 6 visits 5 20
10
12 Savus would be cheaper for under 9 days 4 0
hire. 3 0 4 8 12 16 20 k (km)
exercise 12e practical applications of 2 b $56

linear functions 1 3 a Gradient = 2, y-intercept = 1
1 0 1
2.80
2.40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 b Gradient = − , y-intercept = −2
Fare ($)
2
2.00 Weight (kg)
1.60 c Gradient = −1, y-intercept = 3
1.20 b There can be no negative weight or cost. 4 a
0.80 500
c 7.20 d 10 kg 400
Profit ($)
1 2 3 4 5 300
Sections 10 a i $80 ii $115 200
iii $150 iv $150 100
2 6.00 0
b C ($) −100
5.50 40 80 120 160 200
Posting charge ($)
5.00
4.50 200 No. of cakes sold
4.00
3.50 150
3.00
2.50 100
b 2.5, means that an extra $2.50 profit is
2.00 made for every cake sold.
1.50
50
1.00
0.50
c −80, means that there is an initial cost of
$80 to run the stall which will be lost if
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0 30 60 90 t (min)
Mass of parcel (kg) no cakes are sold.
3 11 5 a Gradient = 3, y-intercept = −2
60 3
40 b Gradient = , y-intercept = 7
Cost (cents)
50 4
Cost ($)
35 40 c Gradient = −1, y-intercept = 5

30
30 20 6 a
10 y y = 2x − 1
25
0 30 60 90120150 1–
4 8 12 16 20 2
Number of calls Length of call (seconds)
0 x
4 a $1.80 b $1.80 c $1.80 12 a The number of people can only be a −1
d $5.40 e $10.80 f $10.80 whole number.
g $5.40 h $5.40 i $1.80 b i $1800
j $3.60 ii $3300 b y
5 a iii $4500
8.00 Air Mail charges for 6
Asia/Pacific zone iv $6900 (1, 3)
7.00
v $12 900 0 x
6.00 2
c
Charge ($)
5.00
4.00 14000 y = 6 − 3x
3.00 12000
Cost for holiday
2.00 10000 c y
y = 1–2 x + 3
1.00 8000
6000
0 50 125 250 375 500 3 (2, 4)
Mass (grams) 4000
b $2.40 c $7.20 0 x
2000 −6
6 a i ¥900 ii ¥6750 iii ¥4050 0
b i $15 ii $90 iii $30 0 2 4 6 8 10
c i ¥90 ii 180 000 Number of people 7 a (3, 1)
iii 4000 iv profit of A$45.45 b (2, 3)
7 C ChapTer reVieW 8 a x = 2, y = 7
8 b x = 4, y = 7
4000 mUlTiple ChoiCe
c x = 4, y = 2
1 C 2 B 9 a, w
3 D 4 B
Investment ($)
b 20
ShorT anSWer 15 w = l − 10
2000
1 a c b $230 10
300 5
250 l
200
150 0 5 10 15 20
100 2l + 2w = 40
0 50
0 2 4 6 8 0
Time (years) 01 2 3 45 67 8 h c l = 15, w = 5

10 exTended reSponSe
Cost per minute (cents)
90 1 a, y
80 y = 2x − 3
70 e 5
60 4
50 3
40 2
30 1
20 0
10 −5−4−3−2−1 x
−1 1 2 3 4 5
0 −2
0 00 00 00 00 00 −3
2 4 6 8 10 −4
Distance of call (km) −5
y = 5 − 2x
11
1400
b 2
1200
c −3
1000
d y = 2x − 3
NZ cents
800
f (2, 1)
600 2 a y = −2x
400 b Gradient = 3, y-intercept = 5
200 c x = 1, y = −2
100
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 9001000
Australian cents

ChaptEr 13
Mathematics and communication
ChaptEr ContEnts
13a Calculating costs
13B Reading a mobile phone bill
13C Phone usage
13d Choosing the best mobile phone plan for your needs
13E Units of storage
13F Digital transfer rates
13g Random selection
sECtIon 1 — moBIlE phonE BIlls

13a Calculating costs
Many of you probably have your own mobile phone.
Have you actually considered the cost of each phone
call you make? What about the cost of the downloads
on your phone, or sending messages to friends?
Perhaps you have a pre-paid phone and simply wait
until credit runs out rather than considering the cost
of each individual call? Perhaps you have a post-paid
phone and feel the need to hide when your parents get
the bill each month?
ChaptEr 13 • Mathematics and communication 425

Regardless of whether you have a pre-paid (need to recharge) or post-paid (sent a bill each month)
phone, the way in which the charges are calculated are the same.
Usually the actual price of each varies based on the type of plan you have; however, the way in which
the costs are calculated is the same.
InvEstIgatE: Class discussion
Before we go any further we need to define some of the commonly used terms when dealing with
mobile phones. As a class discuss your understanding of the following terms and compare these to the
definitions on a phone company’s website. Once you have a good understanding of each term create your
own glossary for this Focus Study by writing a definition for each term that you will refer to throughout
this chapter.
• Pre-paid plan
• Post-paid plan
• Cap plan
• Connection fee (also called flag fall)
• SMS
• MMS
• Standard call
• International call
• Voice mail
• Excess usage
• Recharge
• Video calling
The above list is not exhaustive; remember to add new terms to your glossary as you come across them.
WorkEd ExamplE 1
Calculate the cost of 22 SMS at 35c per 160 characters.

Assume each message was 160 characters or less in length.
thInk WrItE
1 Calculate 22 × 35 which gives Cost = 22 × 35

the answer in cents.
2 Convert your answer from cents = 770 ÷ 100
to dollars and cents by dividing = $7.70
by 100.
WorkEd ExamplE 2
Jayne sends 5 standard picture messages in one day.

If each MMS costs 50c to send, what was the total
cost for the day?
thInk WrItE
1 Calculate 5 × 50 which gives the Cost = 5 × 50

answer in cents.
2 Convert your answer from cents = 250 ÷ 100
to dollars and cents by dividing = $2.50
by 100.

WorkEd ExamplE 3
Wayne’s phone plan includes 1 GB of data. He is charged for excess

usage at the rate of 55c per MB. What is the cost if Wayne downloads
15 MB of content above his limit?
thInk WrItE
1 Calculate 15 × 55 which gives the Cost = 15 × 55

answer in cents.
2 Convert your answer from cents to = 825 ÷ 100
dollars and cents by dividing by 100. = $8.25
When calculating the cost of phone calls charges are often either in 1 minute or 30 second blocks. Costs
are rounded up to the nearest minute or nearest 30 seconds respectively. For example: a call of 2 minutes
and 28 seconds would be charged either as 3 minutes or as five 30-second blocks depending on the
details of the call plan, although this is not clearly written in most plans. It is always important to read
the fine print. As well as charging for the actual length of the call an additional fee called a connection
fee (or flag fall) is often charged. This is a cost used by the company for actually allowing the call to
pass over their network.
WorkEd ExamplE 4
Phoung’s phone plan charges standard calls at 99c per minute or

part thereof plus a 35c connection fee. How much does Phoung
pay for a 3 minute 40 second call?
thInk WrItE
1 Calculate total number of minutes Number of minutes

charged by rounding up to the charged = 4 minutes
nearest minute.
2 Calculate 99 × 4 + 35 (cost Call cost = 99 × 4 + 35
per minute × no. of minutes
plus connection fee).
3 Convert your answer from cents to = $4.31
dollars and cents by dividing by 100.
Exercise 13a Calculating costs

1 WE1 Calculate the cost of 23 standard SMS at 25c per
160 characters. Assume all SMS are 160 characters or less.
2 Calculate the cost of sending 5 international SMS
at 55c per 160 characters. Assume all SMS are
160 characters or less.
3 Premium SMS is charged at $6.60 per message by
RingMYBell phone company. Calculate the cost of
3 messages per day for the month of March on this service.
4 A standard SMS is charged at 30c per 160 characters.
What is the total cost of sending two SMS if one is
115 characters long and the other is 212 characters long?

5 Juan’s phone bill shows that his SMS messages for the month cost $24.15. He knows that he sent
105 messages, what was the average cost of each?
6 WE2 Calculate the cost of 15 international MMS if they are charged at 65c per recipient. Assume each
MMS was sent to only one recipient.
7 In one month Harriet sends 5 international MMS, 6 international SMS, 10 standard MMS and
62 standard SMS messages. Use the table below to calculate the total cost of all messages sent.
Standard SMS 25c (per 160 characters)

Standard MMS 50c
International SMS 50c (per 160 characters)
International MMS 75c per recipient
8 WE3 Excess data usage on Wei’s phone plan is charged at 50c/MB. He has gone over his limit by
20 MB. What is the additional cost of this excess data usage?
9 Jan has a pre-paid mobile which has data charges at the rate of 10c/MB. Calculate the cost of the
212 MB of data used.
10 WE4 Find the total cost of a call that is 12 minutes long, if it is charged at 92c per minute or part
thereof plus 45c connection fee.
11 Rena makes a standard call of 5 minutes and 6 seconds. The RingMYBell phone company charges
standard calls at 98c per minute or part thereof plus 42c flag fall. How much did Rena’s call cost?
12 Brrrring Bring Phone company charges mobile calls as per the details in the table below:
Standard national calls 42c/30 seconds plus 50c flag fall

National video calls 80c/30 seconds plus 60c flag fall
International video calls $1.00/30 seconds plus 50c flag fall
Calls to 13/18 numbers 52c/30 seconds plus 50c flag fall
Voicemail $0 deposit and 42c/30 seconds retrieval
a Calculate the cost of a standard call of length 3 minutes 25 seconds.
b Calculate the cost of a call to an 1800 number of length 32 minutes and 5 seconds.
c Calculate the cost of an international video call of 5 minutes 10 seconds.
d Calculate the cost of retrieval of voicemail messages which took 42 seconds.
13 A section of José’s phone bill is shown below. His mobile service is provided by the RingMYBell
phone company, which charges standard calls at 98c per minute plus 42c flag fall.
Date Day Charge Type Origin Time Destination min:sec

23/05 Wed Mobile Call Charges Miller 9:12 Liverpool 0:01:00
23/05 Wed Mobile Call Charges Lurnea 9:16 Mobile 0:18:00
23/05 Wed Mobile Call Charges Moorebank 14:21 Mobile 0:01:00
23/05 Wed Mobile Call Charges Crossroads 16:48 Nowra 0:07:00
25/05 Fri Mobile Call Charges Chippendale 13:27 Liverpool 0:02:00
25/05 Fri Mobile Call Charges Moorebank 17:19 Mobile 0:01:00
25/05 Fri Mobile Call Charges Moorebank 17:21 Mobile 0:10:00
28/05 Mon Mobile Call Charges World Square 15:13 Sydney 0:01:00
28/05 Mon Mobile Call Charges Haymarket 15:14 Melbourne 0:04:00
Find the total cost of all calls shown.

14 Bryce has a prepaid mobile. He bought a $30 recharge and this was added to his existing phone credit
of $7.42. The phone company Bryce uses charges standard calls at 95c per minute plus 50c connection
fee and standard SMS at 23c per 160 characters.
a What is the total amount of credit Bryce has available after he recharges his phone?
b On Saturday Bryce is organising to meet his friends to go to the movies. He contacts his friends
using 2 phone calls, one lasting 5 minutes 42 seconds and the other 2 minutes 6 seconds. In
addition Bryce sent 3 SMS, each of less than 160 characters. How much credit does he have
remaining on his phone when he completes these calls?

15 Juan made a total of 89 phone calls, each of less than one minute duration, in a one month period. His
mobile service is provided by the RingMYBell phone company which charges standard calls at 98c per
minute plus 42c flag fall. Calculate the total cost of these calls.
16 Paul Power is with the Sunny Telephone Company. A list of their charges appears below:
Standard national calls 88c/min plus 50c flag fall

National video calls $1.10/min plus 60c flag fall
International video calls $1.60/min plus 50c flag fall
Calls to 13/18 numbers 99c/min plus 50c flag fall
Voicemail $0 deposit and 88c/min retrieval
Standard SMS 25c (per 160 characters)
Standard MMS 50c
International SMS 50c (per 160 characters)
International MMS 75c per recipient
Premium SMS $6.60 per message
Paul’s phone bill for 3 days is summarised below:

Talk National
Date Time Number Destination Description min:sec Amount
8-Feb 1730 XXX Other mobile Std national call 05:30
8-Feb 1800 XXX Sunny mobile Free Sunny to Sunny 23:00
8-Feb 2314 DIV-VoiceMail Voicemail Deposit 02:30
9-Feb 0610 XXX Haymarket Std national call 01:00
9-Feb 0612 XXX Sydney Std national call 01:30
9-Feb 0618 VoiceMail Retrieval 03:00
9-Feb 0715 XXX Sunny mobile Free Sunny to Sunny 10:30
Sub-total
Special
9-Feb 11:28 1800XXX Special 1800 Number 16:00
10-Feb 17:00 13XXX Special 13 Number 05:30
Sub-total
SMS Quantity
8-Feb National SMS 72
Sub-total
MMS
8-Feb 1757 XXX Other Mobile Picture message
8-Feb 2311 XXX Sunny mobile Picture message
Sub-total
(continued)
Chapter 13 • Mathematics and communication 429

Talk National (continued)
Date Time Number Destination Description min:sec Amount
Other
9-Feb 20:03 Content Services P/O
Sub-total
The amount column has been left blank. Use the charge information to answer the following
questions:
a Calculate the cost of all SMS.
b Calculate the cost of all MMS.
c Calculate the total cost of all phone calls. Don’t forget to include those listed as Special.
d Calculate the cost of the premium SMS listed under Other.
e What is the total cost of all charges to this phone?
reading a mobile
13B
dIgItal doC
doc-10349
phone bill
Bills
For this activity you will need copies of at least 3 different mobile
bills, preferably from different phone companies. Although all bills
contain the same basic information, the way in which that information
is displayed varies.
Use the different bills provided on the eBookPLUS or bills that you
have obtained to answer the following questions.
InvEstIgatIon
Answer questions 1–20 for each of the 3 phone bills, giving 60 answers in all.
1 What phone company is the bill for?
2 What was the issue date of the bill?
3 When is the bill due to be paid?
4 What methods of payment are available for this bill?
5 What is the tax invoice number? Why might you need it?
6 What is a customer number and what can you use it for?
7 Does the bill show the phone plan and details? If so what are they?
8 What is the invoice period for the bill?
9 How many phone calls were made during the billing period?
10 What was the total duration of the calls made?
11 On average how many calls were made per day?
12 What was the average length and cost of each call made?
13 How many SMS and MMS were made during the billing period?
14 What is the cost of an SMS on this phone plan?
15 What is the cost of an MMS on this phone plan?
16 Are calls charged in one minute or 30 second blocks of time? What is the cost and explain how you
calculated this.
17 How much data was used in total?
18 What was the value of the inclusions on the plan — calls, SMS, MMS, data?
19 What is the cost of the recurring or advance charges on the bill? What do you think these costs mean?
20 What other observations can you make about this bill?
Based on your study of the 3 different phone bills, which did you find easiest to read and understand?
Explain why.

Once you have completed the above investigation, visit some of the phone companies’ websites and
see if they have a guide on reading their mobile phone bills.
What new information, if any, did you find?
Reading a mobile phone plan

Deciding which plan to use is an important choice as the wrong decision could have a big impact on your
finances. Before you choose your plan it is important to understand what each plan includes. Sometimes
the cheapest plan may not be the best for you; you need to carefully consider the inclusions and all costs.
Exercise 13B Reading a mobile phone bill

RingMYBell Mobiles offers the following plans
Cap per month Calls/SMS/MMS Data Specials Charges

$30 $200 included 200 MB mobile Unlimited social National calls 99c/min + 40c flagfall
Minimum spend value* internet data media access Standard SMS 30c National, 60c
$30 per month included International
Minimum cost over Standard MMS 50c National, 75c
24 months is $720 International
Special 1300/1800 numbers
90c + 40c flagfall
Excess data 60c/MB
$50 $450 included 750 MB mobile Unlimited social National calls 99c/min + 40c flagfall
90c + 40c flagfall
Excess data 60c/MB
$60 $750 included 1 GB mobile Unlimited social National calls 90c/min + 40c flagfall
90c + 40c flagfall
Excess data 60c/MB
$80 $900 included 1.5 GB mobile Unlimited social National calls 80c/min + 40c flagfall
90c + 40c flagfall
Excess data 60c/MB
$99 Unlimited 3 GB Unlimited social National calls included
Minimum spend standard national media access Standard SMS 45c International
$99 per month voice calls, SMS Standard MMS 60c International
Minimum cost over and MMS within
24 months is $2376 Australia
80c + 40c flagfall
Excess data 50c/MB
*National voice calls to Australian GSM mobiles, SMS and MMS within Australia only included. Does not include call to premium services
1800/13 etc.

1 All contracts have the same length. What is the length of each contract?
2 Explain how the minimum cost over this period is calculated.
3 What is the cost of a 2 minute 15 second call using:
a a $30 plan?
b a $50 plan?
c a $80 plan?
4 Why doesn’t the $99 plan list the cost of national SMS and MMS?
5 Which plan has the cheapest international SMS?
6 What is the cost of a standard SMS on the $60 plan?
7 What is the cost of a standard MMS on the $30 plan?
8 What calls need to be paid for under the $99 plan?
9 What will be the total monthly bill for a person on the $99 plan if they send 12 international SMS,
3 international MMS and use a total of 2.4 GB of data?
Investigation
For this investigation you will need to collect a mobile phone rate plan information from 3 different
Australian providers. Ensure you get details for both pre-paid and post-paid plans for personal
users only.
1 Select a post-paid plan from each company with a similar monthly cost.
a Compare the cost of standard national calls, SMS and MMS for each company.
b Compare the amount of data included.
c Compare the hidden costs, i.e. the excess charges or costs for special services.
d Compare and contrast the free options/inclusions in each plan.
e What options are given for bill payments for each company? Are there costs involved for paying your
bill in cash, by credit card, etc?
f Which plan do you think offers the best value for money? Use your answers to the previous questions
to justify your choice.
2 Select two different pre-paid plans from each company.
a State the inclusions charges for both of these; i.e. long credit expiry, lots of texts etc.
b Do the benefits for each plan change based on the value of the recharge?
13C Phone usage

One of the factors used to help decide which mobile plan is most appropriate is how and when the
phone is used. One way of comparing mobile phone usage is to display the data graphically, as shown in
chapter 5, ‘Displaying single data sets’. This makes the data easy to read and interpret. You can also use
graphs to display call costs similar to those used in chapter 12, ‘Modelling linear relationships’.

Exercise 13C Phone usage
1 Consider the following call costs:
Charges: 90c per minute
Flag fall: 35c
a Complete the table below for calls up to 5 minutes in length.
Call length
(min:sec) Call cost
00:30
01:00
01:30
02:00
02:30
03:00
03:30
04:00
04:30
05:00
b Represent the data above in a step graph.
c Use your graph to determine the cost of a call that is 3 minutes and 40 seconds in length.
d Explain why this data is represented by a step graph.
2 The frequency table below records the number of mobile phone calls made at different times of the day
over a two month period. Call times are rounded up to the nearest EVEN hour.
Time of day Number of calls made

Midnight 1
2:00 am 0
4:00 am 3
6:00 am 5
8:00 am 12
10:00 am 20
Noon 35
2:00 pm 40
4:00 pm 18
6:00 pm 10
8:00 pm 8
10:00 pm 3
a What length of time is represented in each time period above?

b Where would a call that occurs at 7:59:32 pm be placed?
c Construct a radar chart of this data. Use Excel chart wizard to assist you drawing this chart.
d Briefly describe the pattern of calls shown on your radar chart.
3 The table below shows the costs of a monthly mobile phone bill.
Item Cost ($) Percentage of total bill

Mobile calls 310
SMS 80
MMS 10
Data charges 50
Total cost of bill 450
Note: The total cost of the bill shown above is before plan bonuses have been applied.

a Calculate the percentage of the total bill represented by each of the previously listed items. Round
answers to the nearest whole number.
b Construct a pie chart to represent this data. Use Excel chart wizard to assist you in drawing this
chart.
c Describe the pattern of usage shown by this graph.
For questions 4 and 5 you will need copies of the phone bills used earlier.
4 Use three monthly mobile phone bills from the same person and on the same plan to
a Complete the frequency table below:
dIgItal doC Number of calls Number of calls Number of calls Number of calls
doc-10349 made made made made
Bills
Time of day month 1 month 2 month 3 total
Midnight
2:00 am
4:00 am
6:00 am
8:00 am
10:00 am
Noon
2:00 pm
4:00 pm
6:00 pm
8:00 pm
10:00 pm
b On the same pie chart show the number of calls made for each of the three months listed. Use
Excel chart wizard to assist you. Don’t forget you will need to make sure you use different
coloured lines for each month and a legend for the chart.
c Compare and contrast the usage for each month shown.
d Display the total number of calls made for the three month period on a separate radar chart
e Describe the pattern of calls shown on your radar chart.
f Compare and contrast the total number of calls made with the individual months.
5 Using the same mobile phone bills from question 4:
a Create a frequency table for the duration of calls.
b Construct a graph to display this data.
c Explain the reason you choose that particular type of graph to display the data.
6 Using the same mobile phone bills as in question 4:
a Complete the table below for each of the monthly bills.
Item Cost ($) Percentage of total bill

Mobile calls
SMS
MMS
Data charges
Total cost of bill
Note: The total cost of the bill shown above is before plan bonuses have been applied. You may need to do
some calculations if the bill shows that plan bonuses have already been applied.
b Construct a pie chart to represent the data for each month. Use Excel chart wizard to assist you in
drawing this chart.
c What section of each monthly bill has the largest contribution to the overall cost?
d Compare and contrast the data shown on each of the charts.

13d Choosing the best mobile phone
plan for your needs
Deciding which phone plan to use is an important choice as the wrong decision could have a
big impact on your finances. The questions below should assist you in deciding on the best
plan for you by making the costs visible. It is important to remember that with a pre-paid
plan you buy the phone outright and then need to recharge when your credit runs out
(expires). There are several different plan options for a pre-paid mobile;
some have long expiry for your credit, some give you free text messages
and others allow only limited downloads before you have to recharge. The
availability of the actual telephones themselves may be restricted and those
available may not have all the latest features. It may be possible to buy the latest
handset outright and then just buy a pre-paid sim card to use with the phone. Buying
the latest phone outright can be expensive.
A post-paid phone requires signing a contract, which is basically a form of applying for
credit. For these contracts you pay an agreed amount each month and in return have set limits
on included calls (either by cost or minutes), downloads and messages. Plans are referred to as having a
‘cap’. The purpose of the ‘cap’ concept is to allow you to be able to predict your monthly phone bill and
this should keep costs lower; however, if you exceed the limits within your cap your bill often increases
dramatically. Rates for excess call and data charges are often much higher once your cap is exceeded.
Another factor to consider when choosing your plan is the phone that comes with the plan and
whether you are charged extra per month for the particular phone. This is called a handset cost and
is added to the price of your plan each month. It may be possible to pay out the handset cost at the
beginning of the plan. Contracts usually run for 24 months when packaged with a new handset (phone);
however, shorter contracts are available, especially if you are not upgrading or replacing the handset. It
is also possible to find a contract where you can bring your existing phone, either one you have bought
outright or by changing your pre-paid plan to a post-paid plan.
Points to consider when selecting a phone plan include:
• Do you already have a phone or do you want a new phone included in your plan?
• How many calls do you make each month?
• What time of day do you make calls? Are there different charges for peak and off-peak calls? If so,
what hours are defined as peak and off-peak?
• How many SMS/MMS do you send each month?
• How long do you usually spend on a call?
• What is the data allowance?
• What are the excess usage charges if you go over the limit?
• What charges are not included within the plan (for example, international calls)?
• Which phone company are your friends and/or family with? Does the company that most of them are
with offer deals or discounts, such as free calls or texts when calling/texting other mobiles from their
company?
• What is the cost of ending your contract early?
• How flexible is the plan? Can you change to another plan? If so what are the costs, if any, involved?
• What are the phone insurance costs in case your phone is lost or stolen?
• Does the company have good service in the area where you live, work, attend school?
• Are there any hidden costs? Check the fine print.
Choosing the best mobile phone

Exercise 13d
plan for your needs
InvEstIgatIon
Often clients ask mobile phone providers to recommend the best plan for them based on their usage
details. Based on your research in the previous investigation on reading mobile phone plans, consider
the needs of each of the following users and make recommendations about which plan would be the
most suitable for them. (Note: all clients are happy with their current phone.) Each recommendation

should include a summary of the user’s needs, clearly highlighting the overall cost of the plan, listing all
inclusions and giving a justification as to why this is the most appropriate plan.
Client 1: A university student who uses her mobile to keep in touch with friends via SMS and Facebook,
downloads podcasts of lectures, and plays games online when travelling to and from home. She also uses
internet banking.
Monthly usage summary:
Phone calls: 600 minutes
SMS: 350
MMS: 120
Internet usage: 3000 MB
Client 2: A mature gentlemen who uses his mobile for all calls; he doesn’t have a home phone and
checks his email online when travelling to work.
SMS: 150
MMS: 10
Client 3: A mum who uses her mobile phone for calls and text messages to keep in touch with her
children and her husband.
SMS: 160
MMS: 0
dIgItal doC
WorkSHEET 13.1 Now reconsider each of your above recommendations if all the clients would like to package a new phone
doc-10350 with their plan.
sECtIon 2 — dIgItal doWnload and

FIlE storagE
13E Units of storage
From your work on metric measurement you should be familiar
with many common prefixes. For example, the prefix ‘kilo’ means
1000 times larger.
1 kilometre = 1000 metres
1 kilogram = 1000 grams
All metric measurements are based upon powers of 10.
Digital storage, however, is much different. All digital memory is
in base 2 rather than base 10.
At the most elementary level all computers work on a series of
zeros and ones. Thus computers work on a base two system; that is, 0
or 1, thought of as on or off.
Consider the smallest piece of computer memory, the bit. Each bit
can be in only one of two states, that being OFF (● represented by 0)
or ON ( represented by 1).
Now if we add a second bit together they can be in one of four states
● ● represented by 00
● represented by 01
● represented by 10
represented by 11

Adding a third bit doubles the memory again as there are now eight states that the memory can be
in. These states are represented by the following numbers: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111.
As we are working with only two digits, 0 and 1, we can say that we are working in base 2,
which is also known as binary.
With every increase of one extra digit the amount of memory doubles.
1 bit = 21 = 2 states
2 bits = 22 = 4 states
4 bits = 24 = 16 states and so on..... up to
The memory in digital devices is generally measured in bytes. There are 8 bits in a byte, meaning that
each byte can be in 256 states (28).
The number of bytes in a computer’s memory continues to build in powers of 2.
1 kilobyte = 210 = 1024 bytes.
So as you can see the units that are used to measure digital storage vary from metric measures as the
term kilo in metric measure represents exactly 1000.
Other common measures of digital storage are
1 megabyte = 220 = 1 048 576 bytes
1 gigabyte = 230 = 1 073 741 824 bytes
1 terabyte = 240 = 1 099 511 627 776 bytes.
Worked Example 5
An iPod has a 16 gigabyte memory. Convert this to bytes.

Think Write
Multiply the number of gigabytes by 16 GB = 16 × 1 073 741 824

1 073 741 824. = 17 179 869 184 bytes
Investigate: Investigating data size
The common sizes and terms used for electronic data are:
Bit Byte Kilobyte
Megabyte Gigabyte Terabyte.
List the correct standard symbol used to denote each of the above measures.
When converting between units of memory it can be useful to use powers of 2.
Worked Example 6
Convert 2048 MB to GB using powers of 2.

Think Write
1 Write 2048 as a power of 2. 2048 MB = 211 MB

2 Multiply by 1 MB = 220 bytes. = 211 × 220
= 231 bytes
3 Divide by 1 GB = 230 bytes. = 231 ÷ 230 GB
= 2 GB
Using this method we are able to see that:

1 megabyte = 1024 kilobytes
1 gigabyte = 1024 megabytes
1 terabyte = 1024 gigabytes

Conversions of these units can be used using the diagram below.
Terabytes (TB)
×1024 ÷1024
Gigabytes (GB)
×1024 ÷1024
Megabytes (MB)
×1024 ÷1024
Kilobytes (KB)
Worked Example 7
Complete the following: 0.25 TB = ___GB.

Think Write
Multiply 0.25 by 1024. 0.25 Tb = 0.25 × 1024

= 256 GB
Exercise 13E Units of storage

1 Complete the following:
21 = 22 = 23 = 24 = 25 = 26 = 27 = 28 = 29 = 210 =
2 WE5 A computer is advertised as having a 500 gigabyte hard drive. Convert this to bytes.
3 Convert each of the following to bytes:
a 8 MB b 4 GB c 2 TB d 0.5 GB
e 1.2 TB f 2.8 MB g 6.2 MB h 0.05 TB
4 WE6 Convert 4096 GB to TB using powers of 2.
5 Complete each of the following conversions using powers of 2.
a 2048 bytes to KB b 4096 KB to MB c 512 GB to TB
6 Convert 6 MB to KB using powers of 2.
7 Complete each of the following conversions using powers of 2.
a 1.2 KB to bytes b 3.4 MB to KB c 0.8 TB to MB
8 WE7 Complete each of the following:
a 4096 bytes = ___ KB b 256 GB = ___ TB c 8192 MB = ___ GB
d 2 GB = ___ MB e 5.2 MB = ____ KB f 0.15 TB = ___ GB
9 My camera has a 4 GB memory card.
a Convert 4 GB to MB.
b If each photo uses an average 3.2 MB of memory how many photos can be stored on the card?
10 My MP3 player has a 16 GB memory.
a Convert 16 GB to MB
b If each song uses an average 6.8 MB of memory, how many songs can be stored on the player?
(Give your answer to the nearest 100 songs)
11 An advertisement for an MP3 player states that it will hold 4000 songs. Given that a typical song uses
5.3 MB of memory, estimate the memory of the MP3 player correct to the nearest GB.
12 Georgia is going on a 6 week European holiday. She estimates that she will take 100 photos per day.
On average each photo uses 2.7 MB of memory.
a Georgia has a 4 GB memory card for her camera. Approximately how many photos can be stored
on the memory card? Give your answer to the nearest 100.
b How many memory cards will Georgia need for her holiday?

In a class discussion identify the commonly used types of digital storage devices. Do the most
common devices come in a standard range of size? What are these? Convert these sizes to a common set
of units. By having these in common units we are then able to get a better feel for comparison of sizes. It
will also assist later on when we are calculating the number of photos, songs or other documents that can
be held on the device.
Have you noticed when you buy a device it mentions, for example, that it can hold 10 000 songs? Do
you think this is true? What may impact on this; for example, song length, etc?
13F Digital transfer rates

Do you ever hear, ‘Hurry up, it’s my turn on the computer’? If you are downloading data or copying files
from one device to another, can you tell someone how much longer it is going to take? Perhaps you just
sit and wait or possibly your computer tells you. Have you noticed that when the computer tells you how
long a particular operation will take that the time prediction can jump around a lot?
Sometimes a file may start out taking 39 minutes to download, but a few seconds later the time
has changed to, say, 3 minutes. Why does this happen? The size of the file being downloaded hasn’t
changed. The answer is that the download rate may be changing. Does this rate only vary when
downloading from the web? What happens to the rate if you are just transferring from one device to
another? Consider copying music from a CD to your iTunes folder on your computer.
The transfer rate may be given as 56 kbs.
Notice the use of the lower case ‘b’. This is because the lower case b represents bits, hence kbs stands
for kilobits per second.
1 kilobit = 1024 bits
Worked Example 8
A song is downloading from the Internet at 350 KB/s. The song uses a total of 5.3 MB of memory.
Calculate the amount of time it will take for the song to download.
Think Write
1 Convert 5.3 MB to to KB. 5.3 MB = 5.3 × 1024

= 5427.2 KB
2 Divide by 350 to find the number of seconds Time = 5427.2 ÷ 350
the download will take. = 15.5 sec
Generally upload speeds are much slower than download speeds. Uploading occurs when you send an
email or post something to the Internet.
Worked Example 9
Gavin is posting an article to his website. The article is 17 MB and the upload speed is 2500 kbs.
Calculate the length of time that this article will take to upload.
Think Write
1 Convert 17 KB to bytes and then to bits. 17 MB = 17 × 1024 × 1024

= 17 825 792 bits × 8
= 142 606 336 ÷ 1024 kilobits
= 139 264 kilobits
2 Divide the number of bits by the upload rate. Time = 139 264 ÷ 2500
56 sec
Exercise 13F Digital transfer rates

1 WE8 A song is downloading from the Internet at 350 KB/s. The song uses a total of 6.2 MB of
memory. Calculate the amount of time it will take for the song to download.
2 A television program is being downloaded from the Internet. The file size is given as 1 MB and the
download speed is 400 KB/s. Calculate the length of time that it will take to download the program.

3 Calculate the length of time for each of the following files to download given a download speed of
420 KB/s.
a 2 MB b 7.2 MB c 548 MB d 1.3 GB
4 WE9 Tanya is uploading a file to the Internet that uses 45 KB of memory. If Tanya’s upload speed is
320 kbs calculate the time that it will take to upload the file.
5 Andrew has an Internet connection with a download speed of 900 KB/s. Calculate the size of a file that
takes 3 minutes to download. Give your answer in MB correct to 1 decimal place.
6 Calculate the size of each of the following files given an Internet download speed of 720 KB/s and a
download time of
a 30 sec b 1 min 45 sec c 5 min 7 sec
d 15 min 34 sec e 1 hr 27 min
7 A file that is 2.3 MB takes 23 seconds to download. Calculate the download speed in KB/s.
8 Calculate the download speed of the following Internet connections given that
a A 3 MB file takes 15 seconds to download
b A 10.4 MB file takes 33 seconds to download
c A 1.2 GB file takes 15 minutes to download
d A 4.2 GB file takes 1 hour to download
9 Jenny has an Internet plan that allows her unlimited downloads at off-peak times. For Jenny this means
that she has unlimited downloads between 12 midnight and 10:00 am. When Jenny gets up at 7:30 am
she decides to download a movie. The file is 3 GB and the download speed is 360 KB/s. Will the
download be completed before Jenny’s unlimited download time expires?
10 Tom is downloading a song and his computer tells him that 2 minutes 30 seconds are remaining. The
download speed is 420 kbs.
a Calculate the amount of file still to be downloaded. (Give your answer in kilobits and KB.)
b Tom’s sister uses another computer and goes onto the Internet. This causes Tom’s download speed
to slow to 300 kbs. How long will it now take for the remainder of the file to download?
13g random selection

Ever use the shuffle option when playing music? Does it occasionally seem that some songs are played
more often than others? Theoretically all songs should have an equally likely chance of being played.
Mathematics, in particular probability, is applied to the selection of music played.
Use this simulation to investigate playing songs on shuffle mode. Remember this simulation is an
example of experimental probability.
InvEstIgatE: ipod music using shuffle mode
Your music device is based on computer technology, so it can’t be purely random as we would see in
IntEraCtIvItY nature. The actual selection of songs is based on the use of a random number generator.
int-0089
random number
generator
We can use the work we completed earlier on probability to calculate the likelihood of certain songs
being played.

WorkEd ExamplE 10
Ian’s iPod holds 10 000 songs and he has it on shuffle mode. He has a
favourite song which is one of 80 by his favourite band Aeroseat.
a What is the probability of Ian’s favourite song being played next?
b What is the probability that the next song played is by Aeroseat?
thInk WrItE
1
a The song has one chance of being played out a P(Favourite song) =
10 000
of 10 000.
80
b Aeroseat has 80 chances of being played out b P(Aeroseat) =
10 000
of 10 000. 2
= 250
Also consider the work done earlier on the fundamental counting principle.
WorkEd ExamplE 11
Andy buys a new MP3 player and downloads 5 songs onto it. If the songs are played in random
order in how many ways can the songs be played without any one song being repeated?
thInk WrItE
5 songs can be arranged in 5! ways. No. of arrangements = 5!

= 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
Exercise 13g random selection

1 WE10 Ila’s MP3 player holds 4000 songs and she has it on shuffle mode. One track on the iPod is a
stand up comedy routine, while 100 songs are by her favourite band The Caterpillars.
a What is the probability of the comedy routine being played next?
b What is the probability that the next song played is by The Caterpillars?
2 An iPod has 150 songs stored on it. Of these 15 songs are from the album 22 at 44
by John Elton. If the iPod is on shuffle mode what is the probability that the next
song played is from the album 22 at 44?
3 On Michael’s MP3 player each song is classified by its genre. Of 4500 songs on the
player, 750 are classified as being of the metal genre. What is the probability that the
next song played is one of this genre?
4 Kim has an iPod with 3000 songs. The genres of her songs are
Rock 500 Pop 1000 Metal 300
Dubstep 50 Punk 800 Soul 350
Find the probability that the next song played is:
a rock b metal c not pop d either rock or metal.
5 Jasper’s iPod has 3750 songs and they are categorised as 950 by male solo artists, 225 by female solo
artists and the rest by groups.
When the iPod is on shuffle mode, find the probability that the next song played is:
a by a male solo artist b by a group c by a solo artist.
6 WE11 On Katy’s computer the folder ‘My music’ has four sample tracks. If she uses the media player
to play these songs in random order, in how many ways can they be played without any song repeating?
7 Nguyen decides to play the album Brothers At Arms by Dyre Straights. This album has 12 songs.
Nguyen randomly plays the songs from this album. In how many different ways can they be played?
8 Beth has 1750 songs on her iPod. The iPod is left on shuffle mode and the last song she listened to was
called ‘Boogie, Oogie, Oogie’. The average song length on Beth’s iPod is 3 minutes 30 seconds.
a How many hours of listening time will it be before Beth can expect to hear ‘Boogie, Oogie,
Oogie’ start to play again?
dIgItal doC
b Given that Beth listens to her iPod for 2 hours a day, how long will it be before she hears this song WorkSHEET 13.2
again? doc-10351

Summary
Calculating costs • Mobile phone plans can be either pre-paid, in which case you purchase credit, or post-paid where
you receive a bill.
• Calls are charged according to a flag fall (to connect to the network) and then in 30 second or one
minute blocks.
• You may be on a plan where you receive a lot more call value than you pay; however, you need to
be sure that you do not exceed any caps on calls or data. If you do it can become very expensive.
phone usage • Phone usage can best be shown in a graph.

• Call costs are best shown by using a step graph.
Units of storage • The memory for digital devices is based on binary numbers.
• The smallest unit of memory is the bit, which can be thought of as being in two states: OFF
(represented by 0) or ON (represented by 1).
• 8 bits = 1 byte.
• 1 kilobyte = 1024 bytes
1 megabyte = 1024 kilobytes
1 gigabyte = 1024 megabytes
1 terabyte = 1024 gigabytes
digital transfer rates • Digital documents are transferred in rates that are given in kbs (kilobits per second) or KBs
(kilobytes per second).
• Use your work on rates to calculate the time that it will take to transfer a file, the size of a file or
the transfer speed.
random selection • Probability can be used to calculate the chance of a certain song being played on an MP3 player in
shuffle mode.
• The fundamental counting technique can be used to determine the number of different ways in
which tracks can be played without repetition.

Chapter review
1 Calculate the cost of 45 SMS messages sent at the standard rate of 25c per 160 characters.
2 If a standard SMS is charged at 30c per 160 characters, what is the total cost of sending two SMS if one
is 220 characters long and the other is 340 characters long?
3 Mick’s phone bill shows that his SMS messages for the month cost $32.25. He knows that he sent
215 messages. What was the average cost of each?
4 Laura receives 25 MB of free data per month on her phone. Excess data is charged at a rate of 45c/MB.
Calculate the cost if Laura has used a total of 40 MB of data.
5 The RingMYBell phone company charges standard calls at 48c per 30 second block plus 42c flag fall.
Calculate the cost of each of the following calls:
a 2 minutes b 3 min 30 sec c 7 min 48 sec d 15 min 16 sec
6 Using the RingMYBell plans on page 431 state each of the following:
a The minimum length of each plan
b The amount of included data on the $60 plan
c The cost of an international MMS on the $50 plan
d The included value in the $30 plan.
7 Consider the following call costs:
Charges: 30c per 30 second block
Flag fall: 25c
a Complete the table at right for calls Call length
up to 5 minutes in length. (min:sec) Call cost
b Represent the data above in a step
graph. 00:30
c Use your graph to determine the 01:00
cost of a call that is 3 minutes and 01:30
40 seconds in length. 02:00
02:30
03:00
03:30
04:00
04:30
05:00
8 The frequency table below records the number of mobile phone calls made at different times of the day
over a two month period. The times are rounded up to the nearest EVEN hour.
Time of day Number of calls made
12 midnight 0
2:00 am 1
4:00 am 3
6:00 am 8
8:00 am 10
10:00 am 30
12 noon 25
2:00 pm 32
4:00 pm 50
6:00 pm 20
8:00 pm 28
10:00 pm 10
Show this data on a radar chart.

9 Calculate each of the following
a 23 b 25 c 28 d 210
10 Convert 3.2 MB to bytes
11 Complete each of the following
a 256 TB = ___ GB b 2048 MB = ___ GB c 768 MB = ___ GB
12 A USB flash drive has a memory of 8 GB. If the drive is to be used to store photos with an average file
size of 2.8 MB, how many photos can be stored? Give your answer correct to the nearest 100 photos.
13 A song is downloading from the Internet at 360 KB/s. The song uses a total of 6.4 MB of memory.
Calculate the amount of time it will take for the song to download.
14 Calculate the size of a file that takes 4 minutes 30 seconds to download given an Internet download
speed of 720 KB/s.
15 A file that is 3.2 GB takes 1 hour to download. Calculate the average download speed.
16 There are 8000 songs on Roy’s MP3 player.
a Roy has one song that was recorded by his own band. If his iPod is on shuffle mode what is the
probability that the next song played is by Roy’s own band?
b There are 2500 songs by groups on Roy’s iPod. What is the probability that the next song played
dIgItal doC is by a group?
Test Yourself
doc-10345 c On his iPod Roy has 6 podcasts (one for each subject) that summarise work for his HSC. If he
Chapter 13 plays these in random order in how many different ways is it possible for these to be played?

ICT activities
13B reading a mobile phone bill 13g random selection
dIgItal doC IntEraCtIvItY
• Bills (doc-10349): Review the bills provided to assist you in answering • int-0089: Random number generator (page 440)
questions (page 430) dIgItal doC
• WorkSHEET 13.2 (doc-10351): Apply your knowledge of
13C communication to problems (page 441)
phone usage
dIgItal doC
• Bills (doc-10349): Review the bills provided to assist you in answering Chapter review
questions (page 434) dIgItal doC
• Test Yourself Chapter 13 (doc 10345): Take the end-of-chapter test to
13d Choosing the best mobile phone plan for
your needs
dIgItal doC
• WorkSHEET 13.1 (doc-10350): Apply your knowledge of
communication to problems (page 436)

Answers CHAPTER 13
mathEmatICs and c $3.95 4 4 TB
d The cost is calculated on time periods 5 a 2 KB b 4 MB
CommUnICatIon c 0.5 TB
which are rounded up to the nearest
Exercise 13a Calculating costs 6 6144 KB
minute.
1 $5.75 2 a 2 hours 7 a 1228 b 3481
2 $2.75 b 8:00 pm c 838860
3 $613.80 c Number of calls made 8 a 4 KB b 0.25 TB
4 90c 5 23c Midnight c 8 GB d 2048 MB
6 $9.75 7 $27.25 10:00 pm
40
2:00 am e 5324 KB f 153 GB
8 $10 9 $21.20 30 9 a 4096 MB
10 $11.49 11 $6.30 8:00 pm 20 4:00 am b 1280
12 a $3.44 b $34.30 10 a 16 384 MB
10
c $11.50 d 84c b 2400 songs
6:00 pm 0 6:00 am
13 $47.88 11 20 GB
14 a $37.42 b $27.18 12 a 1500 b 3
15 $124.60 4:00 pm 8:00 am
Exercise 13F digital transfer rates
16 a $47.25 b $2.00
2:00 pm 10:00 am 1 18.14 sec
c $41.16 d $26.40
Noon 2 2.56 sec
e $114.30
d The peak of calls were made in the early 3 a 4.88 sec b 17.55 sec
Exercise 13B reading a mobile c 22 min 16.1 sec
afternoon with the majority between
phone bill 12 noon and 3:00 pm. Very few calls d 54 min 6 sec
1 2 years were made during the night. 4 1.125 sec
2 24 months multiplied by the minimum 3 a 5 158.2 MB
spend per month. 6 a 21.1 MB b 73.8 MB
3 a $3.37 Percentage c 215.9 MB d 656.7 MB
b $3.37 Item Cost ($) of total bill
e 3.58 GB
c $2.80 Mobile calls 310 69% 7 102.4 KB/s
4 The plan includes free unlimited standard SMS 80 18% 8 a 204.8 KB/s b 323 KB/s
SMS and MMS c 1398 KB/s d 1223.3 KB/s
MMS 10 2%
5 $80 plan 9 Yes, it will take 2 hours 25 minutes
6 25c Data charges 50 11% 38 seconds.
7 50c Total cost of bill 450 10 a 63 000 kilobits; 7875 KB
8 Special 1300/1800 numbers b 3 min 30 sec
b Cost ($)
9 $106.20
Exercise 13g random selection
Exercise 13C phone usage 1 1
1 a 1 a 4000 b 40
Call length
1
(min:sec) Call cost Mobile calls 2 10
0:30 $1.25 1
SMS 3 6
1:00 $1.25 MMS
4 a 6
1 1
b 10
1:30 $2.15 Data charges 2 4
c 3 d 15
2:00 $2.15 19 103
5 a 75 b 150
2:30 $3.05
47
3:00 $3.05 c 150
c The majority of the expense is in call
3:30 $3.95 costs with very little spent on MMS. 6 24
4 Check with your teacher. 7 479 001 600
4:00 $3.95
5 Check with your teacher. 8 a 102 hours and 5 min
4:30 $4.85 6 Check with your teacher. b 52 days
5:00 $4.85 Exercise 13d Choosing the best mobile
phone plan for your needs ChaptEr rEvIEW
b The cost for a timed call 1 $11.25
Answers will vary depending on the results of
5 your investigation. 2 $1.50
3 15c
4 Exercise 13E Units of storage 4 $6.75
Call cost ($)
1 21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 8, 24 = 16, 25 = 32, 5 a $2.34

3
26 = 64, 27 = 128, 28 = 256, 29 = 512, b $3.78
2 210 = 1024 c $8.10
2 536870912000 d $15.30
1 3 a 8388608 b 4294967296 6 a 2 years
c 2199023255552 d 536870912 b 1GB
0
1 2 3 4 5 e 1319413953331 f 2936012 c 75c
Call length (minutes) g 6501171 h 54975581389 d $200

7 a b The call cost for a timed call 9 a 8
Call length b 32
(min:sec) Call cost 3
c 256
Call cost ($)

2 d 1024
00:30 $0.55
10 3 355 443
1
11 a 262 144 GB
01:00 $0.85
b 2 GB
0
01:30 $1.15 1 2 3 4 5 c 0.75 GB
Call length (minutes) 12 2900
02:00 $1.45 c $2.65 13 18.2 sec
8 Number of calls made 14 189.8 MB
02:30 $1.75 Midnight 15 932.1 KB/s
50 1
10:00 pm 2:00 am 16 a 8000
40
03:00 $2.05 30
4:00 am 5
8:00 pm b 16
20
03:30 $2.35 10 c 720
6:00 pm 0 6:00 am
04:00 $2.65
04:30 $2.95 4:00 pm 8:00 am
05:00 $3.25 2:00 pm 10:00 am

Noon

ICT activities
In this project we will be exploring a number of
questions.
1. Many people earn money from a movie. Some people
The cost of piracy are paid a fee and some earn a royalty. Research
the movie industry to obtain a list of people who
SEARCHLIGHT ID: PRO-0135
may earn a royalty from cinema admission, DVD
distribution and from movies being shown both on
pay and free to air television.
2. Research what the film industry claim is the total cost
to the Australian movie industry each year of video
piracy. In such cases who is not being paid?
3. What are the main sources of illegally pirated movies?
4. At what stage of the distribution cycle do pirated
movies become available?
5. Compare the cost of hiring a DVD with the cost of
downloading a movie illegally. (To do this you will
have to look at the cost of your internet connection,
electricity and the value of any time that you need to
spend downloading.)
6. Compare the cost of illegal movie piracy in Australia
with other countries, especially those with significant
film industries. Where does Australia rank in the world
in terms of the amount of illegally copied movies?
scenario Your task

In this activity students are asked to estimate the cost of 1. Watch the introductory video.
video piracy each year in Australia and compare this to
the worldwide cost.
Video piracy is the illegal downloading and
reproduction of movies. If you have hired a DVD it is
likely that you will have seen an advertisement very
similar to the one here explaining video piracy.
Advertisements such as this often refer to piracy as
theft in the same way that pirates at sea would steal
from other boats and ships. This is because by copying
a video you are denying not just actors but all those
involved in the production of the movie payments such
as royalties.

2. Find out all the sources from which a production team. Invite another member of your class to form a
company can earn income from a movie and partnership. Save your settings and the project will
compare the amount generally earned from each be launched.
source. Produce a sector graph to compare revenue • Your teacher will have access to a number of
from each of these income sources. websites that will get your research started. Use
3. Research all of those involved in the creation of these websites to analyse the available data and find
a movie that are entitled to a ‘cut’ of the royalties the answers to the key questions.
generated by the movie. Produce a sector graph • You will need to access the details of your home
to show the income distribution among all the Internet connection. This may be available in the
stakeholders. contract or on your internet provider’s website.
4. List some sites from which movies can be illegally • Import the data into an Excel spreadsheet.
downloaded and find out any other sources of pirated • Use the spreadsheet to create suitable graphs to
DVDs. display the information.
5. Find out the file size of the average movie and • Create a summary of your findings to present to an
compare this to the download rate on your internet audience in an appropriate format (e.g. PowerPoint/
connection. Determine the time and the total cost of a movie/etc.)
download. • Write a report that includes the results of all your
6. Research the estimated total cost and total number of findings. Submit this to your teacher for assessment.
pirated videos in Australia.
7. Present graphs comparing the cost of video piracy in
Australia with other developed countries.
process Your ProjectsPLUS application is available in
this chapter’s Student Resources tab inside your
eBookPLUS. Visit www.jacplus.com.au to locate
your digital resources.
suggested software
• ProjectsPLUS
• Open the ProjectsPLUS application for this chapter in

dIgItal doC
your eBookPLUS. Watch the introductory video, click pro-0135
the ‘Start Project’ button and then set up your project projectsplUs
ICT activities — projectsplus 449

ChApTer 14
Mathematics and driving
ChApTer ConTenTs
14A Depreciation of new cars
14B Insurance and stamp duty
14C Financing your vehicle
14D Fuel costs
14e Straight line depreciation
14F Declining balance method of depreciation
14g Speed and stopping distances
14h Blood alcohol concentration (BAC)
seCTion 1 — CosTs oF purChAse

AnD insurAnCe
ChApTer 14 • Mathematics and driving 451

14A Depreciation of new cars
Many of you may now be at the stage of thinking about buying your first car.
However, have you considered the actual cost of getting a car on the road before you even leave the
car yard? There are many decisions that need to be made.
• Should I buy a new or used car?
• What make of car should I buy?
• Should I buy from a dealer or private sales?
• How will I insure the vehicle?
In this section we will look at some of these decisions and what some of the hidden costs of
purchasing a car or motorcycle actually are.
The first decision that you will need to make is whether to buy a new or used vehicle. Obviously it
will be much cheaper to buy a used or second-hand car. This loss of value between a new car and a used
car is called depreciation. It is often said that the value of a car depreciates significantly as soon as it is
driven out of the car yard.
Worked Example 1
In 2012 Lewis was interested in buying a Toyota Camry.

The cost of a new Camry is $36 000, but a one-year-old
Camry can be bought for $27 000.
a How much is saved by buying the one-year-old car?
b What is the percentage saving on the price of the
new car?
Think Write
a Subtract the one-year-old price from the new a Saving = $36 000 − $27 000
car price. = $9000
$9000
b Write the savings as a percentage of the new b Percentage saving =× 100%
$36 000
car price.
= 25%

Exercise 14A Depreciation of new cars
1 WE1 A new Nissan Patrol costs $54 000 while a
similar vehicle that is one year old costs $43 200.
a Calculate the amount that is saved by
purchasing the second-hand car.
b Calculate the percentage saving made by
purchasing the second-hand car.
2 A new Toyota Camry costs $28 990 while a
similar car that is one year old can be bought for
$24 995.
a Calculate the amount that can be saved by
buying a one-year-old car as opposed to
buying a new car.
b Calculate the percentage saving giving your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
3 A new Yamaha 1000cc motorbike costs $28 990. If a one-year-old motorbike costs $21 500 calculate
the percentage decrease in the price of the motorbike. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
4 Michael is starting a trucking business and can purchase a new 18-wheeler for $750 000. Michael saves
money by purchasing a one-year-old truck for $590 000. Calculate the percentage saving that Michael
has made, correct to 1 decimal place.
5 The table below shows the new price and one-year-old price of a variety of cars.
Type of car New price One-year-old price Percentage decrease

a Toyota Camry Altise auto $28 990 $24 995
b Hyundai Getz 1.6 $14 990 $13 500
c Ford Focus $19 990 $16 800
d Nissan X-Trail manual $39 990 $31 990
e Honda Civic manual $25 990 $21 790
Complete the percentage decrease column in the table, giving

each answer correct to 1 decimal place.
6 A new Nissan Patrol costs $48 600. A saving of 25% can be
made by purchasing a one-year-old Nissan Patrol.
a Calculate the amount of the saving that can be made.
b Calculate the price of a one-year-old Nissan Patrol.
7 A new Holden Commodore can be purchased for $39 990. If the
cost of a one-year-old Holden Commodore is 15% less calculate
to the nearest $100 the price of this vehicle.
8 The table below shows the new cost of a number of cars and
the percentage by which they will depreciate after one year.
Complete the table, giving each of your answers correct to the
nearest $100.
Type of car New price Percentage decrease One-year-old price

a Holden Captiva $43 990 20%
b Holden Astra Equipe $22 990 15%
c Mazda3 Neo Sport $20 490 12.5%
d Kia Magentis $23 990 17.5%
e Toyota Yaris YR $14 990 9.5%
9 MC A new Toyota Rav 4 costs $39 000. However, a one-year-old equivalent will cost $32 175. This
represents a saving of
A 10% B 17.5% C 21% D 82.5%
Chapter 14 • Mathematics and driving 453

10 MC The price of a one-year-old Yamaha motorcycle is 12.5% cheaper than the new equivalent. Given
that a one-year-old Yamaha motorcycle can be bought for $28 875 the price of the equivalent new
motorbike will be closest to
A $25 000 B $32 500
C $33 000 D $41 000
11 The price of a one-year-old Ford Fiesta is $27 000. This price represents a decrease of 10% on the price
of the same car when sold new. Calculate the price of a new Ford Fiesta.
12 The price of a one-year-old Honda motorcycle is $18 275. This motorcycle has depreciated by 15%
since purchased new. Calculate the price of the motorcycle when purchased new.
Investigate: New or used?
When purchasing a car we all want to

get the best deal that we can. After all, a
car is one of the biggest purchases most
of will make in our lifetime. We need to
decide whether to buy the car new or used
and if we decide to buy a second-hand car
we have to decide whether to purchase
the car from a dealership or privately.
To buy a car privately means that you
purchase the car from another person
who usually advertises that car in the
newspaper or on the Internet using a
website such as Trading Post or eBay.
Using the car or motorcycle of your
choice, research the following
1 What is the new price of the vehicle?
2 When the vehicle is purchased from a
dealership, find the price of the same
model vehicle that is
a 1 year old b 3 years old
c 5 years old d 8 years old
e 10 years old.
Graph these prices
3 What is the price of the same model vehicle of the same ages when purchased through private sale?
On the same graph show these prices.
4 What advantages exist when you purchase the vehicle from a dealership as opposed to purchasing
privately?
5 Compare your results with others in the class. Is the rate at which the vehicle depreciates similar for
different makes and types of vehicles?
14B Insurance and stamp duty

There are several types of insurance related to motor vehicles.
Compulsory third par ty (CTP or

‘green slip’) insurance
CTP insurance is to cover the cost of injury to a person caused in an accident
at which the driver of your car is at fault. This is the only type of insurance
that is compulsory. When you purchase the insurance you are given a green
certificate of insurance, known as the green slip, which you must present to
register your vehicle.

Investigation
For this investigation you will need to visit three insurance company websites.
Suppose that you are interested in purchasing a new Toyota Camry.
Obtain three quotes for CTP insurance assuming that the car is a sedan used for private purposes and
being driven by an 18 year old.
What will be the difference in the price of the CTP insurance if:
1 The car is a hatchback?
2 The age of the youngest driver is 30?
3 The driver has been involved in accidents in the last two years?
4 The driver has a 60% no claim bonus?
Also compare the cost of the insurance for a car that is
5 Garaged in various suburbs in Sydney with being garaged in various country areas
6 Used for business purposes.
Third par t y proper t y insurance

Many people choose not to insure their vehicle against damage, choosing to save large premiums on cars
that are not worth a lot of money. The danger is that if you cause an accident you may be liable for the
damage to another vehicle.
Third party property insurance is designed to protect you in this circumstance. Your vehicle is not
insured but you are insured against any claim for damage to another car in an accident which is deemed
to be your fault.
Comprehensive insurance
Comprehensive insurance is the insurance that you take out to cover the cost of repairing or replacing
your own vehicle if it is damaged in an accident or stolen. Comprehensive insurance covers all that is
covered by third party property insurance as well as your own vehicle.
Investigation: Comprehensive insurance
For the purpose of this investigation we will assume that you are buying a five-year-old Toyota Camry.
The car is to be garaged at your home each night.
1 To understand comprehensive insurance you will need to understand each of the following terms. Go to
an insurance company website and find the definition of each of the following terms.
a excess
b no claim bonus
c agreed value
d market value
2 When you first take out insurance it will be very expensive. This is because you are a young driver, who
has never had an insurance policy previously and hence will not have a no claim bonus.
a Use an online calculator to get a quote for first time insurance.
b Repeat part a, however this time enter that you are 28 years old and have maximum no claim bonus.
What is the maximum amount of no claim bonus? How much is the saving?
3 Using the online calculator, is there the option to increase the amount of the excess in order to save
money on the premium? If so, how much can be saved?
4 Does the policy give the customer a choice between agreed value and market value? Which of these
two methods of valuing the car give a cheaper premium?
5 Consider the body type of the car. Compare what the insurance premium would be if the car is a
a sedan
b hatchback
c station wagon.
6 Can money be saved on the premium by having nominated drivers (that is, the car will only be covered
when the nominated drivers are at the wheel)?

Stamp duty
Stamp duty is a tax that is levied by the Office of State Revenue. Stamp duty is payable on many things,
such as house purchases and registration of contracts. In this section we consider how stamp duty is
levied on motor vehicle purchases.
Stamp duty is levied at the rate of 3% of the market value of the vehicle up to $45 000, plus 5% of the
value over $45 000.
The stamp duty calculation is based on $3 or $5 per $100 or part thereof. This means that before
calculating the stamp duty the price needs to be rounded up to the nearest $100.
Worked Example 2
Stamp duty is levied at 3% on the first $45 000 and 5% on the balance of the price of a motor
vehicle. Calculate the stamp duty payable on a car that has a market value of $55 000.
Think Write
1 Calculate 3% of $45 000. 3% of $45 000 = $1350

2 Calculate 5% of the next $10 000. 5% of $10 000 = $500
3 Add the two parts together. Stamp duty = $1350 + $500
= $1850
Exercise 14B Insurance and stamp duty

For all questions the stamp duty rate is 3% of the first
$45 000 and 5% of the balance of the price of the vehicle.
1 WE2 Calculate the stamp duty payable on a 2008
Toyota Corolla purchased for $12 888.
2 Calculate the stamp duty payable on a Kia Sorrento
Platinum purchased for $48 888.
3 Calculate the stamp duty payable on vehicles that cost
each of the following amounts.
a $5000 b $12 500 c $30 000 d $45 000
e $50 000 f $75 000 g $91 250 h $112 000
4 Meridee’s parents buy a new Honda Civic for $24 990.
a Calculate the stamp duty payable on this car.
b Meridee’s parents give her their old car when she gets her licence. Meridee thinks she will not
have to pay stamp duty as the cost of the car is $0. This is not correct as the car has a market value
of $4000 and in the case of a gift, stamp duty is paid on the car’s value. Calculate the amount of
stamp duty that Meridee must pay.
5 a Calculate the stamp duty on a car that costs
i $35
000 ii $45
000 iii $55 000.
b Explain why the difference between these amounts is not the same.

6 a Complete the table below.
Price
0 10 20 30 40 45 50 55 60
(×$1000)
Stamp duty
b Use the answers to part a to draw a graph that shows stamp duty from $0 to $60 000.
14C Financing your vehicle

Many, if not most, people cannot afford to pay cash for a
vehicle. When this is the case people need to be provided
finance to meet the cost and this can turn out to be very
expensive. It may be that you take out a loan from a bank
or it may be that the car yard has finance available.
If using bank finance you will need to recall your work
on interest and in particular the simple interest formula
SI = Prn.
Worked Example 3
April borrows $12 000 to buy a car at a flat rate of 8.5% p.a. interest. April is to repay the loan,
plus interest, over 3 years. Calculate the total amount that April is to repay on this loan.
Think Write
1 Convert the interest rate to a decimal. r = 8.5 ÷ 100

= 0.085
2 Write the interest formula. SI = Prn
3 Substitute the values of P, r and n. = $12 000 × 0.085 × 3

4 Calculate the interest. = $3060

5 Calculate the total repayments by adding the Total repayments = $12 000 + $3060
interest and principal. = $15 060
Worked Example 4
Bianca borrows $15 000 to buy a car. This is to be repaid over 5 years at $420 per month. Calculate
the flat rate of interest that Bianca has been charged.
Think Write
1 Calculate the total amount that is repaid. Total repayments = $420 × 60

= $25 200
2 Subtract the principal from the total Interest = $25 200 − $15 000
repayments to find the interest. = $10 200
3 Calculate the interest paid each year. Interest per year = $10 200 ÷ 5
= $2040
4 Write the annual interest as a percentage of $2040
the amount borrowed. Interest rate = × 100%
$15 000
= 0.136
= 13.6%
The examples above both refer to using bank finance. If you choose to use finance from the car
dealership things get a little more complicated and you need to be a lot more aware of the hidden costs.

ELTHAM MOTORS
FREE SERVICING FOR
THE 1st YEAR*
ALL NEW ALL NEW ALL NEW
FROM FROM
JEEP LEASE FROM
JEEP $68â GRAND
$118^c $102^b
COMPASS PER WEEK JEEP PER WEEK PER WEEK
CHEROKEE
GRAND
JEEP COMPASS CHEROKEE
SportsManual
Sports Manual LAREDO
LAREDO
DON’T MISS OUT

Near New Cars
Jeep Wrangler - $85 PER WEEK^d Jeep Patriot - $99 PER WEEKê
Approved applicant only for business purposes on Commercial Hire Purchase over 60 months at 10.99%. Cash
selling price a) $26 500 b) $39 990 c) $46 500 d)$32 990 e) $25 000. Monthly repayment a) $296.59
b) $443.46 c) $514.33 d) $389.13 e) $280.26; Deposit a) $7950 b) $11 997 c) $13 950 d) $9897 e) $7500.
Total amount payable including the deposit a) $33 695 b) $50 601 c) $58 759.80 d) $41 829 e) $31 815.60.
Fees and charges apply.
*Servicing is free for the first 2 years or the first 48 000 km, whichever is reached first.
Consider the advertisement shown above.

There is lots of information to take in but it is the small print at the bottom of the page where the real
costs are shown. Although most advertisements advertise the cost of repaying a car in weeks in fact the
financial world repayments are based on a monthly system. To convert an advertised weekly payment to
a monthly payment we multiply by 52 to convert to a yearly amount and then divide by 12 to convert to
a monthly amount.
Worked Example 5
On the advertisement on the previous page the Jeep Compass is advertised at $68 per week.
Convert this to a monthly repayment
Think Write
1 Multiply $68 per week by 52 to convert to a Annual repayment = $68 × 52

yearly amount. = $3536
2 Divide the result by 12 to convert to a Monthly repayment = $3536 ÷ 12
monthly amount. = $294.67

You can simplify the steps to this question by multiplying $34 by 52 and dividing by 12 in one step.
In this advertisement if you read the small print you will see that the monthly repayment is $296.59.
This slight discrepancy is due to the advertisement rounding the true weekly payment of $68.44 off to
the nearest dollar.
When buying a car on dealer finance you are actually using commercial hire purchase. This means
that you pay a deposit of 30% of the cash price of the car and then you are hiring the car for the term of
the agreement. At the end of the term you are then required to pay an amount equal to a percentage of
the original cash price. This is called paying a residual.
Worked Example 6
In the advertisement on the previous page all cars are repaid over a 5 year term and have a
30% deposit and 30% residual to be paid at the end of the finance agreement. For the Dodge
Journey SXT:
a What is the cash price of the car?
b Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment
c Calculate the amount of the residual
d Calculate the total cost of the car on terms.
Think Write
a Read the cash price from the small print at the a Cash price = $39 990
bottom of the advertisement.
b Multiply the weekly payment by 52 and divide b Monthly repayment = $102 × 52 ÷ 12
the result by 12. = $442.00

c The residual is 30% of the advertised price. c Residual = 30% of $39 990
= $11 997

d Add the deposit, all monthly payments and the d Total cost = $11 997 + $442 × 60 + $11 997
residual. = $50 514

In most cases when you see a car advertised at a certain price, this is not the price at which you are
able to drive the car away for. There are costs involved in simply getting a car on the road. The most
significant of these are registration, stamp duty and insurance.
All of the above examples used the simple interest formula. Some loans are calculated using what is
called a reducing balance personal loan. This is where the interest that is charged, usually each month, is
calculated using the outstanding balance on the loan. To calculate the monthly repayment on a reducing
balance personal loan we need to use either a table or an online calculator.
The table below shows the monthly repayment per $1000 on a reducing balance personal loan.
Interest rate
Year 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12%
1 $86.53 $86.99 $87.45 $87.92 $88.38 $88.85
2 $44.77 $45.23 $45.68 $46.14 $46.61 $47.07
3 $30.88 $31.34 $31.80 $32.27 $32.74 $33.21
4 $23.95 $24.41 $24.89 $25.36 $25.85 $26.33
5 $19.80 $20.28 $20.76 $21.25 $21.74 $22.24
6 $17.05 $17.53 $18.03 $18.53 $19.03 $19.55
7 $15.09 $15.59 $16.09 $16.60 $17.12 $17.65
8 $13.63 $14.14 $14.65 $15.17 $15.71 $16.25

Worked Example 7
Steven borrows $12 000 to purchase a second-hand car. The loan is to be repaid over 4 years at
9% p.a. reducible rate of interest.
a Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment
b Calculate the total repayments on the loan
Think Write
a 1 Look up the monthly repayment for $1000 at a Repayment = $24.89 per $1000
9% p.a. over 4 years.
2 $12 000 is being borrowed so multiply this Monthly repayment = $24.89 × 12
amount by 12. = $289.68
b Multiply the monthly repayment by 48 for the b Total repayments = $289.68 × 48
number of monthly repayments. = $14 336.64

Exercise 14C Financing your vehicle
1 WE3 Luke borrows $9000 for a new motorcycle. The loan is to be repaid over 3 years at 12% p.a. flat
interest. Calculate the total repayments that Luke must make.
2 Jane borrows $32 000 to buy a new car.
a Jane pays a 15% deposit. Calculate the amount of the deposit.
b Interest is charged on the balance at a rate of 9.5% p.a. flat interest over a 3 year term. Calculate
the amount of interest that Jane is charged.
c Calculate the total repayments on the loan.
d Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
3 Hasan purchases a second-hand motorcycle for $9500 on dealer finance with the following terms:
20% deposit with the balance repaid over 2 years at 12.5% p.a. flat interest in equal monthly
instalments. Calculate:
a the deposit b the balance owing
c the interest on the loan d the total repayments
e the amount of each monthly repayment.
4 MC A trail bike with a cash price of $2700 is bought on the following terms: 20% deposit with the
balance paid in 12 equal monthly instalments at 12% p.a. flat interest. The total cost of the trail bike
when purchased on terms is:
A $259.20 B $324.00 C $2959.20 D $3024.00

5 WE4 Sun-Le borrows $6400, which is to be repaid over 4 years at $176 per month. Calculate the flat
rate of interest that Andy has been charged.
6 WE5 A Mitsubishi Colt is advertised with a repayment of $23 per week. Convert this to a monthly
repayment.
The advertisement below is to be used for questions 7 to 10.
ELTHAM MOTORS
DON’T MISS OUT
Near New Cars
Jeep Wrangler - $85 PER WEEK^d Jeep Patriot - $99 PER WEEKê
Approved applicant only for business purposes on Commercial Hire Purchase over 60 months at 10.99%. Cash
selling price a) $32 990 b) $25 000. Monthly repayment a) $389.13 b) $280.26; Deposit a) $9897 b) $7500.
Total amount payable including the deposit a) $41 829 b) $31 815.60. Fees and charges apply.
*Servicing is free for the first 2 years or the first 48 000 km, whichever is reached first.
7 By reading the small print at the bottom of the advertisement find the monthly repayment on a
a Dodge Journey SXT b Jeep Compass
c Jeep Grand Cherokee
8 By reading the small print at the bottom of the advertisement find
a the cash price of the Jeep Patriot
b the residual of the Jeep Patriot
c what percentage of the cash price is the residual.
9 WE6 The Grand Cherokee has a cash price of $46 500.
a Convert the weekly repayment to a monthly repayment.
b Calculate the total amount to be made in repayments over 5 years
c What is the total cost of the vehicle, as stated in the fine print?
d Explain how this advertisement is misleading.
10 The fine print at the bottom of the advertisement contains all details of the finance agreement. By
reading the fine print answer the following questions about the Jeep Compass.
a What is the advertised interest rate being charged?
b What is the cash price of the vehicle?
c What is the total repayment on the vehicle?
d How much interest is being charged on the vehicle?
e Calculate the amount of interest being charged as a percentage of the cash price of the vehicle.
Answer as a percentage correct to 2 decimal places.
f Explain the discrepancy between your answer and the advertised interest rate.
11 WE7 Sandra borrows $15 000 to purchase a second-hand car. The loan is to be repaid over 5 years at
8% p.a. reducible rate of interest.
a Use the table on page 459 to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
b Calculate the total repayments on the loan.
12 Use the table on page 459 to calculate the total cost of repaying each of the following reducible interest
loans.
a $21 000 at 7% p.a. over 3 years b $29 000 at 11% p.a. over 5 years
c $42 500 at 12% p.a. over 8 years

13 Mustafa borrows $25 000 over 4 years at 9% p.a. reducing.
a Use the table on page 459 to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
b Calculate the total amount that it will cost Mustafa to repay the loan.
c Trang also borrows $25 000 over 4 years but is charged 9% p.a. simple interest. Calculate Trang’s
total repayments.
d Who has the cheaper loan and by how much?
14 Delilah borrows $18 000 to be repaid at 10% p.a. reducible rate of interest over 3 years.
a Calculate the amount of Delilah’s monthly repayment.
b Calculate Delilah’s total repayments
c Calculate the amount of interest that Delilah has paid on the loan.
d Calculate the equivalent rate of simple interest paid per annum on this loan. Answer as a
percentage correct to 2 decimal places.
Section 2 — Running costs and

depreciation
14D Fuel costs
Running costs are the costs that you have as you drive your car. The
most significant of these running costs is of course petrol.
The amount of petrol that your car consumes will depend on a
number of factors.
• Engine size — a four cylinder car will use less fuel than a
six cylinder car, which in turn will use less than a V8. Most
motorcycles will use less fuel than most cars.
• Whether you are driving in the city or on country roads. Driving
in the city uses more fuel than driving on country roads even
though you drive faster on the country roads. This is because
in the city you stop and start a lot more often and it is the
acceleration of the car that uses fuel.
• The manner in which you drive your car. Driving the vehicle more slowly and running the engine at
fewer revolutions per minute (revs) will save fuel.
Fuel economy is generally measured as a rate in litres per 100 km.
Worked Example 8
A motorbike travels 425 km on a tank of 25 litres of fuel. Express the fuel consumption in
L/100 km. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
Think Write
1 425 km is 4.25 lots of 100 km.

2 Divide the number of litres by the number Fuel consumption = 25 ÷ 4.25
of 100 km. ≈ 5.9 L/100 km
Worked Example 9
A Mitsubishi Colt is advertised as having fuel economy of 12.1 L/100 km of city driving and
8.7 L/100 km of country driving. Calculate the amount of fuel used in a 470 km of city driving and
b 730 km of country driving.
Think Write
a 1 Divide the number of kilometres by 100. a 470 km ÷ 100 = 4.7

2 Multiply this result by the fuel economy for Fuel used = 4.7 × 12.1
city driving. = 56.87 L

b 1 Divide the number of kilometres by 100. b 730 km ÷ 100 = 7.3
2 Multiply this result by the fuel economy for Fuel used = 7.3 × 8.7
country driving. = 63.51 L
Worked Example 10
A Holden Commodore is advertised as having a fuel consumption of 13.4 L/100 km of city driving.
Joel drives 560 km in the city each week. Calculate:
a his weekly fuel consumption
b his weekly petrol costs at an average price of 152.9 cents per litre.
Think Write
a 1 Joel drives 5.6 lots of 100 km per week. a
2 Multiply the number of 100 km by the number Fuel consumption = 5.6 × 13.4
of litres used. = 75.04 L
b Multiply the numbers of litres used by the b Cost = 75.04 × 152.9

petrol price. = 11473.616 cents

= $114.74

Exercise 14D Fuel costs

1 WE8 A motorcycle travels 375 km on a
tank of 20 litres of fuel. Express the fuel
consumption in L/100 km. Give your
answer correct to 1 decimal place.
2 Express each of the following in
L/100 km correct to 1 decimal place.
a 800 km on 45 L
b 76 km on 5.5 L
c 420 km on 27 L
3 A Toyota Corolla has a four cylinder
engine and travels 200 km from
Ulladulla to Sydney on 24 L of fuel. The
Toyota Camry, which has a six cylinder
engine, uses 32 L of fuel to make the
same journey.
a What is the fuel consumption of the Corolla in L/100 km?
b What is the fuel consumption of the Camry in L/100 km?
c What is the difference in fuel consumption per 100 km between the car with the four cylinder
engine and the car with the six cylinder engine?
4 WE9 A Mazda 626 is advertised as having a fuel economy of 13.5 L/100 km of city driving and
10.1 L/100 km of country driving. Calculate the amount of fuel used in
a 530 km of city driving
b 530 km of country driving.
5 Barry drives a Holden Commodore with a V8 engine to work each day. He uses 100 L of petrol in
travelling the 580 km to and from work each week. Express Barry’s weekly fuel consumption in
L/100 km correct to 1 decimal place.
6 WE10 A Holden Commodore is advertised as having a fuel consumption of 13.4 L/100 km of city
driving. Joel drives 560 km in the city each week. Calculate
a his weekly fuel consumption
b his weekly petrol costs at an average price of 152.9 cents per litre.

7 During a certain week the average price of petrol is 161.9c per litre. For each of the following vehicles
calculate the cost of a 489 km journey.
a A motorcycle that uses 7.4 L/100 km
b A four cylinder car that uses 9.8 L/100 km
c A six cylinder car that uses 12.7 L/100 km
d A V8 that uses 15.2 L/100 km
8 mC A car with a 50 L fuel tank will travel 410 km on a tank of petrol during city driving and 620 km
on the same tank when driving on country roads.
Which of the following statements is correct?
A The car will use 4.1 more litres per 100 km on country roads.
B The car will use 4.1 less litres per 100 km on country roads.
C The car will use 4.2 more litres per 100 km on country roads.
D The car will use 4.2 less litres per 100 km on country roads.
9 The Robinson family set out to drive from Sydney to Melbourne. On their journey petrol will cost
an average 162.9c per litre. The total length of the journey is 1000 km, but of this 175 km will be city
driving and the rest country driving. Their car uses 12.4 L/100 km in city traffic while on country roads
it uses 9.7 L/100 km.
a Calculate the amount of petrol that the car will use for the journey.
b What will be the cost of fuel for the trip to Melbourne?
10 Theo owns and runs a taxi. Theo estimates that in city driving his taxi uses fuel at the rate of
15 L/100 km.
a If Theo travels 100 000 km per year calculate the number of litres of fuel that Theo will use in a
year.
b If petrol costs an average 162.9c/L calculate Theo’s annual fuel bill.
c To save money Theo considers having his taxi converted to LPG. If he does this the average price
of fuel will drop to 72.5c/L but his fuel consumption will rise to 18 L/100 km. Calculate the
amount that Theo will save in fuel by converting his taxi to LPG.
11 Rita also considers converting her car to LPG at a cost of $2200. The local petrol station sells unleaded
petrol for 165.9c/L and LPG for 78.9c/L. Rita estimates that she will travel 15 000 km each year and
plans to keep her current car for a further 3 years. Rita’s fuel consumption is 11.5 L/100 km but will
rise to 14.2 L/100 km if she converts. Will it be worth Rita having her car converted to LPG under these
circumstances? Explain your answer.
12 Darius is also thinking of converting his car to LPG. On petrol his car uses 12.3 L/100 km at an average
cost of 159.9c/L. If converted at a cost of $2750 the car will use 16.1 L/100 km at an average cost
of 71.4c/L Calculate the distance that Darius will need to travel in his converted car before the LPG
conversion begins to pay off. Give your answer to the nearest 1000 km.
13 Robbie travels 25 km through the city in each direction every weekday when travelling to and
from work. Robbie’s car uses approximately 12.7 L/100 km in city driving. Petrol costs average
171.9c/L.
a Calculate the amount that Robbie will spend each week in travelling to and from work.
b Robbie has two friends who live and work in similar areas to him and so they organise a car pool.
To pick up everyone in the morning and drop everyone home of an evening the distance that he
must drive increases to 35 km in each direction. Calculate the new cost of driving to and from
work each week.
c In the car pool Robbie will only need to drive every third week. The time spent travelling
increases by 30 minutes in each direction each day. Discuss if the car pool is worthwhile for
Robbie given the savings that will be made.
invesTigATion: Fuel watch
Often on news broadcasts focus will turn to the price of petrol, not only because it is a product almost
everyone needs, but also because of the flow-on effect petrol prices has on almost all other products.
1 Research the average price per litre of ULP over the past five years.
2 Compare this information with the price per barrel of oil on international markets.
DigiTAl DoC 3 Record the daily price of petrol at a petrol station near you each day for 4 weeks. Is there a pattern about
WorkSHEET 14.1 the days on which it is cheapest? Can you explain this?
doc-10352

14e straight line depreciation
Earlier in this chapter we saw that the older that a vehicle is, the cheaper it is to buy. The longer you own
the car the less value it has. This is known as depreciation. Straight line depreciation is where the value
of an item depreciates by a constant amount each year. The depreciated value of an item is called the
salvage value, S. The salvage value of an asset can be calculated using the formula:
S = V0 − Dn
Where V0 is the purchase price of the asset, D is the amount of depreciation apportioned per period
and n is the number of periods.
WorkeD exAmple 11
A new car is bought for $48 000. The car depreciates at a rate of $4500 per year. Calculate the
salvage value of the car after 6 years.
Think WriTe
1 Write the formula. S = V0 – Dn

2 Substitute the values of V0, D and n. = $48 000 – $4500 × 6
3 Calculate the value of S. = $21 000
By solving an equation we are able to calculate when the value of an asset falls below a particular
amount.
WorkeD exAmple 12
A van for work costs $60 000. The value of the van is depreciated by $7500 per year. When the
value of the equipment falls below $10 000 it can be written off for tax purposes. Calculate the
number of years after which the equipment should be replaced.
Think WriTe
1 Write the formula. S = V0 − Dn

2 Substitute for S, V0 and D. 10 000 = 60 000 − 7500n
3 Solve the equation to find the value of n. 7500n = 50 000
2
n = 63
4 Give a written answer, taking the value of n The van can be written off after 7 years.
up to the next whole number.

Exercise 14E Straight line depreciation
1 WE11 A car that is purchased for $45 000 depreciates by $5000 each year. Calculate the salvage value
of the car after 5 years.
2 Calculate the salvage value:
a after 5 years of a trail bike that is purchased for $5000 and depreciates by $800 per year
b after 7 years of a motorbike that is purchased for $25 000 and depreciates by $2100 per year
c after 6 years of a semi-trailer that is purchased for $750 000 and depreciates by $80 000 per year
d after 2 years of a utility vehicle that is purchased for $65 000 and depreciates by $4400 per year
e after 4 years of a farmer’s plough that is purchased for $80 000 and depreciates by $12 000 per
year.
3 A bus company buys 15 buses for $475 000 each.
a Calculate the total cost of the fleet of buses.
b If each bus depreciates by $25 000 each year, calculate the salvage value of the fleet of buses after
9 years.
4 The price of a new car is $25 000. The value of the car depreciates by $300 each month. Calculate the
salvage value of the car after 4 years.
5 WE12 An aeroplane is bought by an airline for $600 million. If the aeroplane depreciates by
$40 million each year, calculate the number of years it takes for the value of the aeroplane to fall below
$300 million.
6 Calculate the number of years for each of the following vehicles to depreciate below the value given.
a Purchase price of $5600 to depreciate to less than $1000 at $900 per year
b Purchase price of $12 000 to depreciate to less than $5000 at $1600 per year
c Purchase price $60 000 to become worthless at $7500 per year
d Purchase price $120 000 to depreciate to less than $25 000 at $15 000 per year
7 A motor vehicle depreciates from $40 000 to $15 000 in 10 years. Assuming that it is depreciating in a
straight line, calculate the annual amount of depreciation.
8 Calculate the annual amount of depreciation in a vehicle that depreciates:
a from $20 000 to $4000 in 4 years
b from $175 000 to $50 000 in 10 years
c from $430 000 to $229 500 in 9 years.
9 A car that is 5 years old has an insured value of $12 500. If the car is depreciating at a rate of
$2500 per year, calculate its purchase price.
10 The graph drawn below shows the depreciation of a new motorcycle over a 10 year period.
40 000
35 000
30 000
Value ($)
25 000
20 000
15 000
10 000
5000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Years
a What was the purchase price of the motorcycle?

b What is the value of the motorcycle after 5 years?
c By how much does the motorcycle depreciate each year?
d How many years does it take for the motorcycle to fall to less than half its value?
e By extrapolating the graph estimate the number of years that it will take for the motorcycle to
become worthless.

11 Find the new price of the following vehicles that have been subject to straight line depreciation.
a After 5 years the value is $50 000 and is depreciating at $12 000 per year.
b After 15 years the value is $4000 and is depreciating at $1500 per year.
c After 25 years the value is $2000 and is depreciating at $500 per year.
12 Angelo owns a taxi that depreciates at $6500 per year and is written off after 12 years. Calculate the
purchase price of that taxi.
13 Bryce buys a car for $25 000 and it depreciates by $3750 per year. Draw a line graph to show the
depreciation of the vehicle and use the graph to find the number of years after which the vehicle
becomes worthless.
14F Declining balance method

of depreciation
The declining balance method of depreciation occurs when the value of an asset depreciates by a given
percentage each period.
Consider the case of a car purchased new for $30 000, which depreciates at the rate of 20% p.a. Each
year the salvage value of the car is 80% of its value at the end of the previous year.
After 1 year: S = 80% of $30 000
= $24 000
After 2 years: S = 80% of $24 000
= $19 200
After 3 years: S = 80% of $19 200
= $15 360
Worked Example 13
A small truck that was purchased for $45 000 depreciates at a

rate of 25% p.a. By calculating the value at the end of each year,
find the salvage value of the truck after 4 years.
Think Write
1 The salvage value at the end of each year

will be 75% of its value at the end of the
previous year.
2 Find the value after 1 year by calculating After 1 year: S = 75% of $45 000
75% of $45 000. = $33 750
3 Find the value after 2 years by calculating After 2 years: S = 75% of $33 750
75% of $33 750. = $25 312.50
4 Find the value after 3 years by calculating After 3 years: S = 75% of $25 312.50
75% of $25 312.50. = $18 984.38
5 Find the value after 4 years by calculating After 4 years: S = 75% of $18 984.38
75% of $18 984.38. = $14 238.28
The salvage value under a declining balance can be calculated using the formula:
S = V0(1 – r)n
where S is the salvage value, V0 is the purchase price, r is the percentage depreciation per period
expressed as a decimal and n is the number of periods.
This formula can be considered as being similar to the compound interest formula. In the case of
depreciation, however, you need to subtract the depreciation rather than add the interest expressed as a
decimal from 1.

Worked Example 14
The purchase price of a small motorcycle is $15 000. The value of the motorcycle depreciates by
10% p.a. Calculate the salvage value of the motorcycle after 8 years.
Think Write
1 Write the formula. S = V0(1 – r)n (n.b r = 0.10)

2 Substitute values for V0, r and n. = $15 000 × 0.98
3 Calculate the salvage value. = $6457.00
To calculate the amount by which the asset has depreciated, we subtract the salvage value from the
purchase price.
Worked Example 15
The purchase price of a motor vehicle is $40 000. The vehicle depreciates by 12% p.a. Calculate
the amount by which the vehicle depreciates in 10 years.
Think Write
1 Write the formula. S = V0(1 – r)n

2 Substitute the value of V0, r and n. = $40 000 × 0.8810
3 Calculate the value of S. = $11 140.04
4 Calculate the amount of depreciation by Depreciation = $40 000 – $11 140.04
subtracting the salvage value from the = $28 859.96
purchase price.
Declining balance method of

Exercise 14F
depreciation
1 WE13 The purchase price of a new Mazda RX7 is $50 000. The value of the car depreciates by 20% p.a.
By calculating the value of the car at the end of each year, find the salvage value of the car after 4 years.
2 A trailer is purchased for $5000. The value of the trailer depreciates by 15% each year. By calculating
the value of the trailer at the end of each year, calculate:
a the salvage value of the trailer after 5 years (to the nearest $10)
b the amount by which the trailer depreciates:
i in the first year
ii in the fifth year
3 A trucking company purchases a semi-trailer for $3 000 000. The value of the semi-trailer depreciates
by 15% p.a. By calculating the value at the end of each year, find the number of years that it takes for
the salvage value of the semi-trailer to fall below $1 000 000.

4 WE14 Use the formula S = V0(1 – r)n to calculate the salvage value after 7 years of a truck purchased
for $800 000 that depreciates at a rate of 10% p.a. (give your answer correct to the nearest $1000).
5 Calculate the salvage value of a vehicle (correct to the nearest $100) with a purchase price of:
a $10 000 that depreciates at 10% p.a. for 5 years
b $250 000 that depreciates at 15% p.a. for 8 years
c $5000 that depreciates at 25% p.a. for 5 years
d $2.2 million that depreciates at 30% p.a. for 10 years
e $50 000 that depreciates at 40% p.a. for 5 years.
6 A plumber purchases a panel van for work at a cost of $48 000. If the value of the panel van depreciates
by 30% each year, calculate the value of the van after 3 years.
7 WE15 A luxury car is purchased new for $95 000. The value of the car depreciates by 22% p.a.
Calculate the amount that the car will depreciate in value over the first 5 years (correct to the nearest
$1000).
8 A new car is purchased for $35 000. The owner plans to keep the car for 5 years and then trade the car
in on another new car. The estimate is that the value of the car will depreciate by 16% p.a. Calculate:
a the amount the owner can expect as a trade in for the car in 5 years (correct to the nearest $100)
b the amount by which the car will depreciate in 5 years.
9 MC A bus company purchases a new bus for $520 000. Three years later, the bus company is asked to
value the bus for insurance. If the bus company allows for depreciation of 15% on the bus, which of the
following calculations will give the correct estimate of their value?
A 520 000 × 0.853 B 520 000 × 0.153 C 520 000 × 0.55 D 520 000 × 0.45
10 MC A car purchased for $30 000 will depreciate by 25% p.a. The salvage value of the car after 4 years
will be closest to:
A $0 B $100 C $9500 D $20 000
11 An electrician purchases a van for $80 000. Each year the electrician is entitled to a tax deduction for
the depreciation of the van. If the rate of depreciation allowed is 33%, calculate:
a the value of the van at the end of one year (correct to the nearest $1)
b the tax deduction allowed in the first year
c the value of the van at the end of two years (correct to the nearest $1)
d the tax deduction allowed in the second year.
12 A motorbike is purchased for $24 000. The value
of the motorbike depreciates by 33% p.a. When the
value of the bike falls below $5000, the owner will
no longer insure the bike. For how many years will
the owner insure the bike?
13 A new car has a price of $40 000. The car
depreciates by 25% in the first year.
a Calculate the value of the car after one year.
b In each year after the first year the car
depreciates by 10% p.a. Calculate the value
of the car after five years.
14 Maya purchases a new car for $40 000 which she uses for her work-from-home business. For this
reason Maya is allowed to claim the depreciation on the car as a tax deduction. When claiming a tax
deduction for a vehicle the taxpayer has the choice of using the straight line depreciation method or the
declining balance depreciation method.
Once the vehicle falls below 10% of its purchase price under either method the entire remaining
balance is depreciated in that year and the car is written off for tax purposes.
a Given that Maya can depreciate this car by $4000 per year under the straight line method or
15% p.a. under the declining balance method complete the tables below.
Straight line method
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Depreciation
Car value

Declining balance method
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Depreciation
Car value
b Use the table to draw the graph to show the value of the car each year over 10 years.
15 The figure below shows the depreciating value of a new car under both straight line and declining
balance depreciation.
40 000
35 000
30 000
Value ($)
25 000
Straight line value
20 000
15 000
10 000 Declining balance
5000 value
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Years
a Find the amount of depreciation in the first year under both methods.
b What is the percentage depreciation under the declining balance method?
c How many years does it take before the car is worth more under declining balance depreciation
than under straight line depreciation?
Section 3 — Road safety
14G Speed and stopping distances

It’s a wet day; you are driving a modern car with good brakes. A child runs onto the road 45 metres
ahead of you while you are travelling at 60 km/h. You brake hard but will you stop in time?
The answer is NO! You will actually hit the child while still travelling at 32 km/h. Travelling at
50 km/h, however, you will stop the car with 5 metres to spare.
The stopping distance of a vehicle is the distance travelled in the reaction time plus the distance
travelled under brakes. The average reaction time of a driver is 1.5 seconds.

The graph below shows what happens in the above situation at various speeds.
Wet stopping distance
200
180
160
Stopping distance (m)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Speed (km/h)
This also explains one of the reasons that speed limits were reduced in most urban streets from
60 km/h to 50 km/h.
It is important that you understand the difference in stopping distance between wet and dry conditions.
The graph below shows the same situation with a dry road.
Dry stopping distance
160
140
Stoppig distance (m)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Speed (km/h)
In dry conditions the car would have just touched the child as it would take 45 metres to stop the car.
In a previous chapter we looked at converting speeds from kilometres per hour to metres per second.
This is important when we are calculating stopping distances which are measured in metres and time is
measured in seconds.
Worked Example 16
Frank is travelling at 58 km/hr. It takes him 1.6 seconds to react to seeing a red light. Calculate the
distance that Frank’s car travels in his reaction time. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
Think Write
1 Convert 58 km/hr to m/s. 58 km/hr = 58 000 m/h

= 16.111 m/s
2 Multiply this speed by the reaction time of Reaction time distance = 16.111 × 1.6
1.6 sec. = 25.8 m
Once we have calculated the reaction time distance we need to calculate how far the car will travel under
brakes; that is, the braking distance. The braking distance is different under wet and dry conditions.
Because a car will skid slightly in the wet it takes longer to come to a complete stop.

The braking distance is a function of the square of the speed of the car. For an average-size car, with
tyres in good condition and with good brakes travelling on a road with a good surface, the relationship
can be approximated as follows:
Dry braking distance ≈ 0.0056 s2
Wet braking distance ≈ 0.0078 s2
where s is the speed on the car in km/h.
WorkeD exAmple 17
Use the formula dry braking distance = 0.0056 s2 to calculate the braking distance of a car that is
travelling at 78 km/h on a dry road. Give your answer correct to the nearest metre.
Think WriTe
1 Write the formula. Dry braking distance = 0.0056 s2

2 Substitute. = 0.0056 × 782
3 Calculate. = 34 m
Stopping distance = reaction-time distance + braking distance.
WorkeD exAmple 18
Julie is travelling at 100 km/h on a wet road when she sees a kangaroo ahead. Julie has a reaction
time of 1.75 sec. Calculate Julie’s stopping distance.
Think WriTe
1 Convert 100 km/h to m/s. 100 km/h = 100 000 m/h

= 27.778 m/s
2 Calculate the reaction time distance. Reaction time distance = 27.778 × 1.75
= 48.6 m
3 Write the wet road braking distance formula. Wet braking distance = 0.0078s2
4 Substitute. = 0.0078 × 1002
5 Calculate. = 78 m
6 Add the reaction time distance and the Stopping distance = 48.6 + 78
braking distance. = 126.6 m

Exercise 14G Speed and stopping distances
1 WE16 Alan is travelling at 53 km/hr. It
takes him 1.8 seconds to react to seeing
a child on the road ahead. Calculate the
distance that Alan’s car travels in his reaction
time.
2 In each of the following cases calculate the
reaction time distance. Give your answers
a Travelling at 48 km/h with a reaction time
of 1.5 sec
b Travelling at 55 km/h with a reaction time
of 1.6 sec
c Travelling at 70 km/h with a reaction time
of 1.8 sec
d Travelling at 82 km/h with a reaction time
of 1.4 sec
e Travelling at 103 km/h with a reaction
time of 1.75 sec
3 WE17 Use the formula dry braking distance = 0.0056s2 to calculate the braking distance of a car that
is travelling at 60 km/h on a dry road. Give your answer correct to the nearest metre.
4 Use the formula wet braking distance = 0.0078s2 to calculate the braking distance of a car that is
travelling at 60 km/h on a wet road. Give your answer correct to the nearest metre.
5 Calculate the braking distance of each of the following vehicles.
a Travelling at 50 km/h in dry conditions
b Travelling at 62 km/h in wet conditions
c Travelling at 79 km/h in dry conditions
d Travelling at 95 km/h in wet conditions
e Travelling at 110 km/h in wet conditions
6 Ian is driving at a speed of 56 km/h on a dry road.
a When Ian sees a pedestrian ahead he has a reaction time of 1.6 seconds. Calculate the distance
that Ian’s car travels in that time.
b Use the formula dry braking distance = 0.0056s2 to calculate Ian’s braking distance.
c What is Ian’s total stopping distance?
7 WE18 Linda is travelling at 110 km/h on a dry freeway when she sees the car ahead braking. Linda
has a reaction time of 1.4 sec. Calculate Linda’s stopping distance.
8 Greg is travelling at 92 km/h on a wet road when he is forced to brake. Given that Greg has a reaction
time of 2 sec, calculate his stopping distance.
9 a Complete the table below to calculate the stopping distance of a car at various speeds under both wet
and dry conditions. In each case assume a reaction time of 1.5 seconds.
Speed Dry road Wet road
40 km/h
50 km/h
60 km/h
70 km/h
80 km/h
90 km/h
100 km/h
110 km/h
120 km/h
b Show your results on a line graph.

10 David is driving at 64 km/h on a dry road.
a Calculate David’s stopping distance given that he has a reaction time of 1.5 seconds.
b With a BAC (blood alcohol concentration) of 0.05%, David’s reaction time is slowed to 2.0 sec.
Calculate David’s new stopping distance.
c At 0.08% BAC the reaction time is slowed to 2.4 seconds. What would the stopping distance at
0.08% BAC become?
d High range BAC is at 0.15% when the reaction time becomes 3 seconds. What would be the new
stopping distance for David?
14H Blood alcohol concentration (BAC)

Once on the roads you are in control of a very dangerous piece of
equipment. Several thousand people die in motor vehicle accidents in
Australia each year. Many more are injured, so from a very young age
we are all taught about road safety.
Alcohol and speed are the two biggest killers on the road and in this
section we will look at the effect that alcohol has on your ability to
control a motor vehicle.
When you drink, alcohol accumulates in your bloodstream. The
amount of alcohol, called your blood alcohol concentration (BAC), is
measured in grams of alcohol per 100 millilitres of blood (g%). BACs
may vary widely. For people holding a black licence in NSW the
maximum BAC is 0.05%. For P plate drivers the limit is 0%.
BAC levels are very difficult to predict, although a few very general
guidelines are given. BAC levels are generally higher for women than
for men drinking the same quantities of alcohol at the same rate.
When discussing BAC much mention is made of the term ‘standard drink’. A standard drink is any
drink containing 10 grams of alcohol. It is usually expressed as a certain measure of beer, wine or spirits.
The table below shows the relationship between numbers of standard drinks, alcohol content and
body size.
Male Approximate blood alcohol percentage (by vol.)

Female One drink has (15 ml) alcohol by volume
Body weight
Drinks 40 kg 45 kg 55 kg 60 kg 70 kg 80 kg 90 kg 100 kg 110 kg
– 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
1
0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02
– 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03
2
0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04
– 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.05
3
0.15 0.14 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06
– 0.15 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.06
4
0.20 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.08
– 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.09 0.08
5
0.25 0.23 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09
– 0.23 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09
6
0.30 0.27 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11
– 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11
7
0.35 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13
– 0.30 0.25 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.13
8
0.40 0.36 0.30 0.26 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.15
– 0.34 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14
9
0.45 0.41 0.34 0.29 0.26 0.23 0.20 0.19 0.17
– 0.38 0.31 0.27 0.23 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16
10
0.51 0.45 0.38 0.32 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.19
Note: Subtract approximately 0.01 every 40 minutes after drinking.

Worked Example 19
Yu-Lin is female and weighs approximately 60 kg. Yu-Lin goes out with her friends and over
a three hour period has 6 glasses of wine. Will Yu-Lin be over a BAC of 0.05%? Explain your
answer.
Think Write
1 From the table look up the effect that 6 glasses for a 60 kg female = 0.16
6 glasses of wine will have.
2 Calculate the number of 40 min periods in 3 hours = 180 min ÷ 40
3 hours. = 4.5 period
3 Subtract 0.01 for every 40 min period. 4.5 × 0.01 = 0.045
0.19 – 0.045 = 0.145
4 Make a conclusion. Yu-Lin cannot drive as she has a BAC of 0.145, well
over the 0.05 limit.
A number of formulas can be used to estimate BAC. These formulas

tend to be complicated because there are so many variables, but
we will look at one such formula for men and one for women.
Males Females
(10N − 7.5H) (10N − 7.5H)
BACmale = BACfemale =
6.8M 5.5M
In these formulas
N = number of standard drinks
H = number of hours drinking
M = person’s mass in kilograms.
These formulas are only approximations and should not be used
as conclusive rules as to whether a person is able to drive or not.
Other factors which will have an effect on BAC include, fitness,
overall health and liver function.
Worked Example 20
Ken is an 80 kg man who drinks five middies of full strength beer in two hours. Estimate Ken’s
BAC content and decide if Ken should drive or not.
Think Write
(10N − 7.5H)
1 Write the formula for a male. BACmale =
6.8M
2 Write the value of the variables N, H and M. N = 5, H = 2, M = 80
(10 × 5 − 7.5 × 2)
3 Substitute. =
6.8 × 80
4 Calculate the BAC level. = 0.064%
5 Make a conclusion about if his BAC is Ken is not able to drive as he is over the limit
over 0.05%. of 0.05%.
When testing drivers the police measure BAC and if a driver is over the limit they are charged with one
of the following PCA (prescribed content of alcohol) offences.
• Low range PCA if between 0.05% and 0.08%
• Mid range PCA if between 0.08% and 0.15%
• High range PCA if over 0.15%

Your bloodstream can quickly absorb alcohol, causing your BAC to rise, but reducing your BAC is
a much slower process. There have been many cases of people still being over the legal BAC limit the
morning after.
One rule of thumb that is used is that BAC will drop by 0.01% each hour that you do not have a drink.
One formula that can be used to calculate the waiting time before driving is
BAC
Number of hours = .
0.015
Worked Example 21
Julio has a BAC of 0.1%. How many hours should Julio wait before Julio considers driving?
Think Write
1 Write the formula. BAC

Number of hours =
0.015
2 Write the value to substitute for BAC. BAC = 0.015
3 Substitute. Number of hours = 0.1
0.015
4 Calculate.
= 6.
5 Give a written answer. Julio should wait at least 6 hours and 40 minutes
before considering driving again.
Exercise 14H Blood alcohol concentration (BAC)

1 WE19 Chris is male and weighs
approximately 90 kg. Chris goes out with
his friends and over a three hour period has
5 standard drinks. Use the table on page 474 to
determine if Chris will be over a BAC of 0.05%.
2 Christine is female and weighs approximately
80 kg. Christine has 5 standard drinks over a
three hour period. Use the table on page 474 to
determine if Christine will be over a BAC of
0.05%. Explain your answer.
3 Use the table on page 474 to estimate if the
following males are fit to drive.
a Jim, 60 kg who has 2 standard drinks in
one hour
b Jackson, 75 kg who has 6 standard drinks in
three hours
c Ju-Lin, 98 kg who has 10 standard drinks in
five hours
4 Use the table on page 474 to estimate if the
following females are fit to drive.
a Kylie, 50 kg who has 2 standard drinks in
1 hour
b Kayleigh, 95 kg who has 6 standard drinks in three hours
c Kim-Lea, 62 kg who has 10 standard drinks in 5 hours
5 Larry is a 100 kg male. He is at a party with friends and is the designated driver. The party is expected
to last for five hours. Use the table to estimate the maximum number of standard drinks that Larry can
have over this period of time and still fulfil his role as designated driver.
Note: As the designated driver Larry should have nothing to drink!

6 We20 Ken is an 80 kg man who drinks five middies of full strength beer in two hours. Use the
(10N − 7.5H)
formula BACmale = to estimate Ken’s BAC content and decide if Ken should drive or not.
6.8M
7 Carly is a 95 kg woman who drinks eight standard drinks in five hours. Use the formula
BACfemale = (10N − 7.5H) to estimate Carly’s BAC content and decide if Carly should drive or not.
5.5M
8 When testing drivers the police measure BAC and if a driver is over the limit they are charged with one
of the following PCA (prescribed content of alcohol) offences.
• Low range PCA if between 0.05% and 0.08%
• Mid range PCA if between 0.08% and 0.15%
• High range PCA if over 0.15%
Use the formulas in questions 6 and 7 to determine the BAC of each of the following people and
what range they would be charged with if caught driving.
a Sandra, a 59 kg woman who has 6 standard drinks in four hours
b Michael, a 55 kg male who has 9 standard drinks in five hours
c Terry, a 87 kg male who has 15 standard drinks in six hours
d Grace, a 82 kg female who has 12 standard drinks in five hours.
BAC
9 We21 Xanthe has a BAC of 0.12%. Use the formula Number of hours = to estimate the length
0.015
of time Xanthe should wait before she considers driving.
10 For each of the people in question 8 find the length of time that each should wait before they consider
driving again.
11 Frank is a 90 kg male. After the football one day he arrives at the club at 5:00 pm and spends the next
eight hours drinking 15 standard drinks, leaving the club at 1:00 am.
a Use the formula BACmale = (10N − 7.5H) to estimate his BAC.
6.8M
b Frank is woken to go to work at 7:00 am. Considering that it is now 14 hours since he started
drinking use the formula to again find his BAC.
 BAC 
c At what time can Frank again consider driving? Use  N = .
 0.015
12 Narelle is a 53 kg female. At a party Narelle drinks 12 standard drinks between 6:00 pm and midnight.
a Use the formula BACfemale =
(10N − 7.5H) to estimate Narelle’s BAC at midnight.
5.5M
b Again use the formula to find Narelle’s BAC at 8:00 am the next morning.
BAC
c Use Narelle’s midnight BAC together with the formula Number of hours = to estimate
0.015
when Narelle can start driving again. Give your answer to the nearest half hour.
BAC
d Use Narelle’s 8:00 am BAC together with the formula Number of hours = to estimate when
0.015
Narelle can start driving again. Give your answer to the nearest half hour.
e Explain any discrepancy in the answers between parts c and d.
13 Nick is 75 kg and began drinking at 5:00 pm. The table below shows the number of drinks consumed
each hour.
Time Drinks consumed BAC
5:00 pm to 6:00 pm 3
6:00 pm to 7:00 pm 2
7:00 pm to 8:00 pm 1
8:00 pm to 9:00 pm 2
9:00 pm to 10:00 pm 3
10:00 pm to 11:00 pm 3
a Complete Nick’s BAC for each hour.

b Assuming that Nick stops drinking at 11:00 pm calculate his BAC for each hour up until 9:00 am
DigiTAl DoC
the next morning. WorkSHEET 14.2
c Draw a graph of Nick’s BAC against time. doc-10353

Summary
Depreciation of new • A car or any vehicle loses value as soon as it has sold.
cars • This loss of value is called depreciation and is usually expressed as a percentage of the new price
of the vehicle.
insurance and stamp • There are three main types of insurance on vehicles
duty – Compulsory third party (green slip) insurance insures you against the medical costs in an
accident where the driver of your vehicle is at fault.
– Third party property insurance insures you against any damage that the driver of your car may
cause to another vehicle.
– Comprehensive insurance insures your own car against damage or theft.
• Stamp duty is a state government tax that is payable when you first register a vehicle in your name.
Stamp duty is levied at 3% on the first $45 000 of the purchase price and 5% on the balance.
Financing your vehicle • Finance for a car or other type of vehicle can come in a number of forms.
• The finance may take the form of a loan which can be taken out at either:
– Simple interest, which is calculated using the formula SI = Prn
– Reducible interest, which calculates the interest each month on the reducing balance. A table of
values is usually used to calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.
• Many car dealerships offer finance that is a lease arrangement. A payment is made at the start of
the deal, monthly payments are made and then a final amount called a residual is paid at the end of
the agreement.
Fuel costs • Fuel is charged by the petrol station in cents/litre.

• Fuel consumption is measured in litres/100 km.
• The larger the engine the greater the fuel consumption. Fuel consumption is also greater in city
traffic than on freeways and on country highways.
Depreciation • Depreciation is the rate by which the value of an asset (in this case a motor vehicle) loses value.
• The value of the vehicle at any point in time is called the salvage value.
• Depreciation can be calculated in two ways
– Straight line depreciation is where the value of the vehicle depreciates by the same amount of
money each year. The salvage value is calculated using the formula S = V0 – Dn.
– Declining balance depreciation is where the value of the vehicle depreciates by a fixed
percentage each year. The salvage value is found using the formula S = V0(1 – r)n.
speed and stopping • The distance that it takes to stop a vehicle is the total of the reaction time distance and the stopping
distances distance.
• To calculate the reaction time distance, convert the speed of the vehicle to metres per second and
then multiply by the reaction time.
• The braking distance of a car can be approximated using the following rules.
– Dry braking distance = 0.0056s2
– Wet braking distance = 0.0078s2
Blood alcohol • Blood alcohol concentration (BAC) is measured as grams of alcohol per 100 milligrams of blood.
concentration (BAC) • The higher your BAC the lower your ability to handle a motor vehicle.
• For drivers with a full driver’s licence the maximum BAC is 0.05% but for P plate drivers the limit
is 0%.
• BAC can be estimated by using charts or formulas but is subject to many variables and so these can
only be considered an estimate.
• Drink and drive — no one thinks big of you.

Chapter review
1 A new Suzuki motorcycle costs $28 500. A similar motorcycle that is one year old costs $24 225. This
m u lTip l e
represents a saving of C ho iC e
A 5% B 10% C 15% D 17.6%
2 Joel’s car uses 23 L in 189 km of city driving and 28 L in 312 km of country driving. Which of the
following statements is correct?
A The car uses 3.2 L less per 100 km when being used for country driving.
B The car uses 3.2 L more per 100 km when being used for country driving.
C The car uses 2.9 L less per 100 km when being used for country driving.
D The car uses 2.9 L more per 100 km when being used for country driving.
3 Which of the following tables gives an example of declining balance depreciation?
A Year Salvage value B Year Salvage value
New (0) $20 000 New (0) $20 000
1 $18 000 1 $18 200
2 $16 200 2 $16 400
3 $14 580 3 $14 600
4 $13 122 4 $12 800
C Year Salvage value D Year Salvage value

New (0) $20 000 New (0) $20 000
1 $18 000 1 $17 000
2 $16 500 2 $15 200
3 $15 580 3 $14 000
4 $15 000 4 $13 500
4 The value of a new car depreciates by 12.5% p.a. The salvage value in five years of a car that was
purchased new for $37 500 is closest to:
A $9375 B $18 300 C $19 200 D $32 800
5 Ken and Barbie are both 70 kg and both have 4 standard drinks in a 2 hour period. Use the formulas
(10N − 7.5H) (10N − 7.5H)
BACmale = and BACfemale = to determine which of the following
6.8M 5.5M
statements will most likely be correct.
A Ken’s BAC will be 0.013% higher than Barbie’s
B Ken’s BAC will be 0.013% lower than Barbie’s
C Ken’s BAC will be 0.036% higher than Barbie’s
D Ken’s BAC will be 0.036% lower than Barbie’s
6 A speed of 75 km/h is equal to
A 1.25 m/s B 7.5 m/s C 20.8 m/s D 48 m/s
1 A new Toyota Yaris costs $49 500. The purchase price of a similar one-year-old Yaris would cost s ho rT
A n s W er
$40 000. What is the percentage saving that can be made by buying a one-year-old model?
2 Jim has purchased a used car for $9500. To take out comprehensive insurance the premium for Jim
would be $1615.50. Each year that Jim has comprehensive insurance he receives a no claim bonus that
increases by 10% each year. Calculate the number of years that it would take for Jim to pay more in
insurance premiums than he would for the cost of the car.
3 Stamp duty is levied at 3% on the first $45 000 and 5% on the balance of the price of a motor vehicle.
Calculate the stamp duty payable on a car that has a market value of $59 950.
4 Madison borrows $15 000 to purchase a car at 9% p.a. flat interest to be repaid over 4 years.
a Calculate the amount of interest that Madison must pay.
b Calculate the total amount to be made in repayments.
c Calculate the amount of each monthly repayment.

5 Gary also purchases a car by borrowing $15 000 at 9% p.a. over 4 years. However, Gary’s loan is a
reducing balance loan. Use the table on page 459 to calculate
a The amount of each monthly repayment.
b The total repayments on Gary’s loan.
c The amount of interest that Gary will pay.
d The saving on Gary’s loan compared to the equivalent flat rate loan.
6 A motorcycle travels 458 km on a tank of 30 L of fuel.
a Express the fuel consumption in L/100 km.
b The motorcycle is to be used for a 230 km trip. Given that petrol costs an average 168.9c/L
calculate the fuel cost for this journey.
7 The purchase price of a car is $32 500. The car depreciated by $2750 each year.
a Calculate the salvage value of the car after 4 years.
b The car is written off for tax purposes when the salvage value falls below $6000. Calculate the
number of years that it takes to fall below $6000 and its value at the time.
8 A trucking company buys a new rig for $780 000. The rig depreciates under declining balance at a rate
of 8% p.a.
a Calculate the salvage value of the rig after 6 years (answer to the nearest $1000).
b Calculate the number of years that it takes for the rig to fall to a value of less than $100 000.
9 Leanne is female and weighs approximately 55 kg. Leanne has 6 standard drinks in 3 hours. Use the
table on page 474 to determine if Leanne will be over the 0.05% legal BAC limit.
10 Tim is an 89 kg male who has 7 standard drinks between 4:00 pm and 7:00 pm.
a Use the formula BACmale = (10N − 7.5H) to estimate his BAC correct to 2 decimal places.
6.8M BAC
b Use the formula Number of hours = to estimate when Tim can consider driving again.
0.015
11 Calculate to the nearest whole number:
a the average speed of a car that travels 110 km in 1 hour and 45 minutes
b the distance travelled in 2 hours 20 minutes at an average 72 km/h
c the time taken to travel 48 km at an average 72 km/h.
12 Convert a speed of:
a 56 km to m/s b 12 m/s to km/h.
13 Raymond is driving his car at a dangerous speed of 120 km/h on a wet road. He sees danger ahead and
has to brake suddenly.
a Given that Raymond has a reaction time of 1.8 seconds calculate his reaction time distance.
b Use the formula for Wet braking distance = 0.0078s2 to determine his braking distance.
c What is the total distance that it will take Raymond to stop the car?
e x T enDeD 1 Bryce buys a new Holden Commodore with a cash price of $49 000 on terms. He must pay weekly
r e spons e
repayments of $278.92 over 4 years, leaving him with a 30% residual payment at the end of the
agreement.
a Calculate the total cost of the vehicle.
b How much must Bryce pay up front with expenses for insurance of $1318.75, registration of
$278.15, green slip insurance of $274.90 and stamp duty at a rate of 3% on the first $45 000 and
5% on the balance of the price?
c The average fuel consumption of the vehicle is estimated at 13.1 L/100 km. Given that Bryce
estimates he will drive 30 000 km per year and that petrol costs an average 172.9c/L, calculate the
amount Bryce will spend each week on petrol.
d Bryce must plan a budget. How much should he set aside for weekly car expenses given that
he must pay for petrol, his repayments as well as setting money aside for the following year’s
insurance and registration?
e The value of the car depreciates at a rate of 12.5% p.a. Calculate the value of the car after 4 years
and determine whether the car is worth more or less than the residual payment that Bryce must
make at this time.

2 Aiden is at a party and over a period of 5 hours has 11 standard drinks, having his last drink at 11:00 pm.
a Given that Aiden weighs 95 kg, use the formula BACmale = (10N − 7.5H) to estimate his BAC.
6.8M
b Aiden is asked to drive his mother to work the next morning at 7:00 am. Explain whether Aiden
BAC
would be fit to do so by using the formula, Number of hours = .
0.015
c Aiden’s normal reaction time to a braking situation when driving is 1.5 seconds. Calculate the
total stopping distance when Aiden is driving at 60 km/h on a dry road by using the formula Dry
braking distance = 0.0056s2.
d If Aiden were to drive home from the party his reaction time would have slowed to 2.7 seconds. DigiTAl DoC
Test Yourself
Calculate the percentage increase in his reaction time. doc-10347
e Calculate the percentage increase in his stopping distance. Chapter 14

ICT activities
14D Fuel costs Chapter review
DigiTAl DoC • Test Yourself Chapter 14 (doc-10347): Take the end-of-chapter test to
• WorkSHEET 14.1 (doc-10352): Apply your knowledge of driving to check your progress. (page 481)
14h Blood alcohol concentration (BAC)
DigiTAl DoC
• WorkSHEET 14.2 (doc-10353): Apply your knowledge of driving to

Answers CHAPTER 14
mAThemATiCs AnD Driving b The difference is greater between 4 a 71.55 L b 53.53 L
$45 000 and $55 000 because the rate 5 17.2 L/100 km
exercise 14A Depreciation of new cars at which stamp duty is levied increases 6 a 75.04 L b $114.74
1 a $10 800
after $45 000. 7 a $58.59 b $77.59
b 20%
6 a c $100.54 d $120.34
2 a $3995 Price Stamp
(×$1000) duty 8 B
b 13.8%
9 a 101.725 L b $165.71
3 25.84% 0 0 10 a 15 000 L b $24 435 c $11 385
4 21.3%
10 $300 11 It will be worth converting her car as there
5
One- 20 $600 is an annual saving of $1181.21, saving
Type New year- Percentage her $3543.63 on fuel over three years.
of car price old price decrease 30 $900 This more than covers the $2200 cost of
40 $1200 converting the car to LPG.
a Toyota $28 990 $24 990 13.8%
Camry 45 $1350 12 34 000 km
Altise 13 a $54.58 b $76.41
50 $1600
auto c The saving over three weeks will be
55 $1850 $87.33 (average $29.11 per week). You
b Hyundai $14 990 $13 500 9.9% could, however, discuss if this saving is
60 $2100
Getz 1.6 worth spending an extra one hour per
b
c Ford $19 990 $16 800 16.0% $ Stamp duty day travelling.
Focus 2500 exercise 14e straight line depreciation
2000 1 $20 000
d Nissan $39 990 $31 990 20.0%
1500 2 a $1000 b $10 300
X-Trail
manual 1000 c $270 000 d $56 200
500 e $32 000
e Honda $25 990 $21 790 16.2%
0 3 a $7 125 000 b $3 750 000
Civic 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
4 $10 600
Manual Price (× $1000)
5 8 years
6 a $12 150 b $36 450 exercise 14C Financing your vehicle 6 a 6 years b 5 years
7 $34 000 1 $12 240 c 8 years d 7 years
8 2 a $4800 b $7752 7 $2500 per year
Type New Percentage One-year-
c $34 952 d $970.89 8 a $4000 b $12 500
of car price decrease old price
3 a $1900 b $7600 c $22 277.78
a Holden $43 990 20% $35 200 c $1900 d $9500 9 $25 000
Captiva e $395.83 10 a $35 000 b $23 000
4 C c $2250 d 8 years
b Holden $22 990 15% $19 500
Astra 5 8% e 15 years
Equipe 6 $99.67 11 a $110 000 b $26 500
7 a $443.46 b $296.59 c $514.33 c $14 500
c Mazda3 $20 490 12.5% $17 900 8 a $25 000 b $7500 c 30% 12 $78 000
Neo 9 a $511.33 b $30 680 c $58 759.80 13 $
Sport d The main part of the advertisement 25 000 Salvage value
d Kia $23 990 17.5% $19 800 leads the reader to believe that the only
Magentis cost will be the weekly repayment of
$118 per week.
e Toyota $14 990 9.5% $13 600 10 a 10.99% b $26 500 c $17 680
Yaris YR
d $7195 e 27.15%
9 B f The hire purchase agreement bases 6 years 8 months
10 C the interest rate at a reducible rate of Years
11 $30 000 interest.
exercise 14F Declining balance method
12 $21 500 11 a $304.20 b $18 252
12 a $23 345.28 b $37 827.60 of depreciation
exercise 14B insurance and stamp duty 1 $20 480
c $66 300.48
1 $386.64 13 a $622.25 b $29 868 c $34 000 2 a $2220
2 $1544.40 d Mustafa’s by $4132 b i $750 ii $391.50
3 a $150 14 a $580.86 b $20 910.96 3 7 years
b $375 c $2910.96 d 5.39% 4 $383 000
c $900 5 a $5900 b $68 100
d $1350 exercise 14D Fuel costs c $1200 d $62 100
e $1600 1 5.3 L/100 km e $3900
f $2850 2 a 5.6 L/100 km 6 $16 464
g $3662.50 b 7.2 L/100 km 7 $68 000
h $4700 c 6.4 L/100 km 8 a $14 600 b $20 400
4 a $749.70 b $120 3 a 12 L/100 km b 16 L/100 km 9 A
5 a i $1050 ii $1350 iii $1850 c 4 L/100 km 10 C

11 a $53 600 exercise 14g speed and stopping 5 At seven Larry would be too close to the
b $26 400 distances limit so he should limit himself to six
c $35 912 1 26.5 m. drinks.
d $17 688 2 a 20 m b 24.4 m 6 BAC = 0.064%. Ken should not drive.
12 4 years c 35 m d 31.9m 7 BAC = 0.081%. Carly should
13 a $30 000 e 50.1 m not drive.
b $19 683 3 20 m 8 a BAC = 0.09%, low range PCA
14 a Straight line method 4 28 m b BAC = 0.14%, mid range PCA
5 a 14 m b 30 m c BAC = 0.18%, high range PCA
Year Depreciation Car value c 35 m d 70 m d BAC = 0.18%, high range PCA
e 94 m 9 8 hours
1 4 000 36 000
6 a 25 m b 18 m 10 a 6 hours
2 4 000 32 000 c 43 m b 9.3 hours
7 111 m c 12.7 hours
3 4 000 28 000 8 117 m d 12 hours
9 a 11 a BAC = 0.147%
4 4 000 24 000 Speed Dry road Wet road b BAC = 0.07%
5 4 000 20 000 c 12 noon
40 km/h 26 29
12 a BAC = 0.257%
6 4 000 16 000 50 km/h 35 40 b BAC = 0.051%
c 5:00 pm
7 4 000 12 000 60 km/h 45 53 d 11:30 am
8 4 000 8 000 e Both formulas are only approximations
70 km/h 57 67 and are subject to variables such as the
9 4 000 4 000 fitness, health and metabolism of the
80 km/h 69 83
individual.
10 4 000 0 13 a
90 km/h 83 101 Drinks
Declining balance method 100 km/h 98 120 Time consumed BAC
Year Depreciation Car value 5:00 pm to 3 0.04%

110 km/h 114 140
6:00 pm
1 6 000 34 000 120 km/h 131 162 6:00 pm to 2 0.07%
2 5 100 28 900 b
7:00 pm
3 4 335 24 565 160 7:00 pm to 1 0.07%
8:00 pm
Stopping distance (m)
140 Wet road

4 3 685 20 880
120
8:00 pm to 2 0.10%
5 3 132 17 748 100 9:00 pm
80
6 2 662 15 086 60 Dry road 9:00 pm to 3 0.14%
40 10:00 pm
7 2 263 12 823
20
10:00 pm to 3 0.19%
8 1 923 10 900 0 11:00 pm
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
9 1 635 9 265 Speed (km/h) b
Time BAC
10 1 390 7 875 10 a 50 m
b 58 m Midnight 0.17%
b c 66 m
d 76 m 1:00 am 0.16%
40000
35000 exercise 14h Blood alcohol 2:00 am 0.14%
30000 Straight line value
concentration (BAC)
Car value ($)
25000 1 Chris is marginally under the limit at 3:00 am 0.13%

20000 approximately 0.045. As the table is only a
Declining 4:00 am 0.11%
15000
balance value guide it would be unwise for Chris to take
10000 the risk. 5:00 am 0.10%
5000 2 Christine would be over the limit at 0.085
and so cannot drive. 6:00 am 0.08%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 a Yes, Jim is at 0.035.
Year b No, Jackson is at 0.095. 7:00 am 0.07%
15 a Straight line depreciation = $4000. c No Ju-Lin is at 0.095.
Declining balance depreciation = $7500 4 a No, Kylie is 0.065.
8:00 am 0.05%
b 21.4% b No, Kayleigh is at 0.095.
9:00 am 0.04%
c 9 years c No, Kim-Lea is 0.235.

c BAC 3 $2097.50
0.20% 4 a $5400 b $20 400 c $425
0.18% 5 a $373.35 b $17 920.80
0.16% c $2920.80 d $2479.20
0.14% 6 a 6.55 L/100 b $25.44
0.12% 7 a $21 500
0.10% BAC b 10 years value = $5000
0.08% 8 a $473 000 b 25 years
0.06% 9 Leanne will be over her .05 drink limit in three hours.
0.04% 10 a BAC = 0.08%
0.02% b After midnight
11 a 63 km/h b 168 km c 40 min
0
12 a 15.6 m/s b 43.2 km/h
6: pm
7: pm
8: pm
9: pm
:0 m
:0 m
:0 m
1: am
2: am
3: am
4: am
5: am
6: am
7: am
8: am
9: am
am
10 0 p
11 0 p
12 0 p
13 a 60 m b 112 m c 172m
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
5:
exTenDeD response
1 a $72 715.36 b $3421.80
ChApTer revieW c $130.67 d $445.61
mulTiple ChoiCe e The car is worth more ($28 700) than the residual payment
1C 2 A
($14 700).
2 a 11.2%
3A 4 C 1
5B 6 C b It would take Aiden 7 hours to be fit to drive so he should be
2
able to drive.
shorT AnsWer
c 45 m
1 19.2% d 80%
2 9 years e 44%

ICT activities
Causes of accidents
SEARCHLIGHT ID: PRO-0136
scenario
Your task is to review penalties for both minor and more
serious traffic offences. To determine which offences
are considered minor and which are more serious you
will need to look at the statistics behind the causes of
accidents, in particular fatal accidents.
At present minor traffic offences are dealt with by

police at the scene, including minor speeding offences
and failing to indicate. These offences are dealt with by
a fine and loss of points from the driver’s licence.
Major traffic offences include drink driving, which
requires the driver to attend court with a penalty to be
determined by a magistrate.
You will also need to research the penalty for each of
these actions and attempt to match the severity of the
offence with the severity of the penalty. This matching
can be done by considering the frequency of accidents
being caused by each infringement.

your task team. Invite another member of your class to form a
partnership. Save your settings and the project will
be launched.
• Your teacher will be able to provide you with a list of
websites that will help you to identify the causes of
traffic accidents.
• Visit www.rta.gov.au. On this site you will be able to
find both the monetary and points penalties for each
listed traffic offence.
• Put your data into an Excel spreadsheet and draw a
graph that compares the severity offence (in terms
of frequency of accidents caused) with the severity of
the penalty (in terms of money and points).
• Create a summary of your findings.
• Write a report which includes the results of all your
findings. Submit this report to your teacher for
assessment.
1. Watch the video, which will inform you about the
causes of many accidents.
2. Use the internet to research the statistics on the
causes of motor vehicle accidents. Try to split your
findings between fatal and non-fatal accidents. Your ProjectsPLUS application is available in
3. Visit the RTA site to find the penalty for minor traffic this chapter’s Student Resources tab inside your
offences. eBookPLUS. Visit www.jacplus.com.au to locate
4. Research what penalties for major offences may your digital resources.
be issued by the courts. Examine the difference in
penalty between first offenders and repeat offenders. suggested software
5. Present appropriate graphs that demonstrate your • ProjectsPLUS
findings and present a report on the appropriateness
of penalties for the range of driving offences.
process
• Open the ProjectsPLUS application for this chapter in
DigiTAl DoC
your eBookPLUS. Watch the introductory video, click pro-0136
the ‘Start Project’ button and then set up your project projectsplus
ICT activities — projectsplus 487

Glossary
Adjacent: The side next to the angle used for reference in a right- Cubic: A function where x is raised to the power of 3.
angled triangle. Cumulative frequency: A progressive total of the frequencies.
Allowance: An extra payment made to a worker for working in Cumulative frequency histogram: A histogram drawn of the
unfavourable conditions. cumulative frequencies. No space is left before the first column of a
Angle of depression: The angle through which you must look down cumulative frequency histogram.
from the horizontal to sight an object. Cumulative frequency polygon: A line graph drawn from the corner
Angle of elevation: The angle through which you must look up from of the axes to the top right corner of each column on a cumulative
the horizontal to sight an object. frequency histogram.
Annual leave: A period of time that each permanent employee is Data: Information before it is organised.
allowed each year for holidays. Database: An organised set of data on a population.
1
Annual leave loading: An extra payment of 17 2 % of the gross pay Debenture: A form of investment offered by private companies to
made to employees when they take their annual leave. raise money. Debentures are for a fixed period of time and simple
Appreciation: The amount by which an item grows in value over interest is paid.
time. Decile: A band of 10% of scores in a data set.
Bar graph: A graph where categorical data are displayed in Decreasing function: A function for which the dependent variable
horizontal bars, with the categories on a vertical axis and quantity on decreases as the value of the independent variable increases. The
the horizontal axis. graph of a decreasing function decreases from left to right.
Bias: Bias occurs when the results of a survey are influenced by Deductions: A sum of money that is deducted from an employee’s
outside factors such as a poorly chosen sample. In such a case, one set gross pay before receiving net pay.
of circumstances is more prevalent than in the wider population. Dependent variable: In a function, the dependent variable is the
Bimodal: A set of scores for which two scores occur most often. variable for which the value is obtained by substitution of another
Box-and-whisker-plot: A method of graphically displaying a five- variable, the independent variable.
number summary. The plot is drawn to scale with the box representing Direct linear variation: This occurs when one quantity varies directly
the interquartile range and the whiskers representing the range. Within with another. In other words, the value of one quantity can always be
the box, the median is also shown. calculated by multiplying the other quantity by a constant amount.
Budget: A list of a person’s income and expenses. A personal budget Discrete data: Discrete data are where the data can take only certain
is made to try to avoid spending more than is earned. A balanced values, usually whole numbers.
budget is where income equals expenditure. Dividend: A payment made to a shareholder in a company. The
Casual rate: A higher rate of pay to compensate casual workers for company distributes all or part of its profit by paying an amount per
the lack of holiday and sick pay. share called a dividend.
Categorical data: Data which are not numerical and are put into Dividend yield: This is the company dividend expressed as a
categories such as types of car. percentage of the value of each share.
Census: Data gathered from the entire population. Dot plot: A graph where the data set is displayed as dots on a number
Central tendency: A method for describing a typical score in a data line.
set. There are three measures of central tendency — mean, median Double time: A penalty rate that pays the employee twice the normal
and mode. hourly rate.
Column graph: Similar to a bar graph, but the data are displayed in Elevation: A scale drawing of what a building will look like from one
vertical columns. side.
Commission: Payment made to a salesperson. A commission is Equally likely outcomes: These occur when each element of the
usually paid as a percentage of sales. sample space for a probability experiment is equally likely to occur.
Complementary events: Two events that cover all possible Event: An occurrence that is being examined in a probability
outcomes to a probability experiment. The sum of the probabilities of experiment.
complementary events is 1. External sources: Data sources that are used when data previously
Compound interest: A form of interest payment. The interest paid at gathered, often by a different person, are used in the statistical
the end of one period is added to the principal before the next interest investigation.
calculation is made. Compound interest can be calculated using the Extrapolating: Extending a graph so as to make a prediction about
formula A = P(1 + r)n. future trends.
Compound value interest factor: The amount to which $1 will Favourable outcomes: Elements from the sample space that meet the
amount under a compound interest investment. requirement for an event to occur.
Compounded value: see Future value. Five-number summary: A summary of a data set consisting of the lower
Compounding period: The length of time between interest payments extreme, lower quartile, median, upper quartile and upper extreme.
in a compound interest investment. Frequency: The number of times an event occurs.
Concentration: The amount of one substance that is contained in Frequency histogram: A graph suitable for statistical (quantitative)
another. The concentration of a mixture is usually stated as a mass/ data. It is a column graph drawn with scores or class centres on the
mass rate or a mass/volume rate. horizontal axis and frequency on the vertical axis. A half unit (half
Congruent figures: A special case of similar figures where the scale column width) space is drawn before the first column with no other
factor is equal to 1. Congruent figures are identical in shape and size. gaps between columns.
Continuous data: Data that can take any value within a given range. Frequency polygon: A line graph often drawn on the same axes as a
Cosine ratio: The ratio of the adjacent side and hypotenuse in a right- frequency histogram. The line is drawn from the corner of the axes to
angled triangle. the centre of each column.
Glossary 489
Frequency table: A table displaying statistical data. For ungrouped Mean: The average of a data set, found by totalling all the scores then
data the table will have columns for score, tally, frequency and dividing by the number of scores.
possibly cumulative frequency. For grouped data the score column Median: The middle score or the average of the two middle scores in
will be replaced with a class column and a class centre column. a data set.
Function: A rule that connects an independent variable with a Medicare levy: A payment made as part of our tax system that
dependent variable such that there is at most one value of the covers the cost of basic health care services. The basic levy is 1.5%
dependent variable for every value of the independent variable. of gross income; however, low income earners pay the levy at a
Fundamental counting principle: The number of elements of the reduced rate.
sample space for a multi-stage probability experiment is found by Mode: The score in a data set with the highest frequency.
multiplying the number of ways each stage can occur. This is the Multi-stage event: This occurs when there is more than one part
fundamental counting principle. to a probability experiment. For example, tossing two coins can be
Future value: The amount to which an investment will grow under considered as tossing one coin then tossing another, therefore there are
compound interest. two parts to this experiment.
Goods and Services Tax: A tax that is levied on the price of all items Net pay: The amount of money actually received by an employee
other than fresh food. The GST is levied at a rate of 10%. after all deductions have been subtracted from the gross pay.
Gradient: The rate of increase (or decrease) in the dependent variable Offset: In a traverse study, an offset is a line perpendicular to the
per one unit increase in the independent variable. transversal. It is drawn from the transversal to a vertex on the area
Gross pay: A person’s earnings before any deductions are taken out. being surveyed.
Group certificate: A statement of gross income and the PAYG tax Ogive: Another term for cumulative frequency polygon.
deducted from that income throughout the financial year. It is given to Opposite: The side opposite to the angle used for reference in a right-
the employee by the employer at the end of each financial year. angled triangle.
Grouped data: A data set tabulated in small groups rather than as Ordinary rate: The normal hourly rate for a wage earner.
individual scores. Outcome: A possible result to a probability experiment.
Histogram: A column graph that displays the frequency for a set of Overtime: This is when a person earns more than the regular hours
scores. each week.
Hypotenuse: The longest side of a right-angled triangle. The PAYG: Pay As You Go. The method usually applied to the collection
hypotenuse is opposite the right angle. of tax.
Income: Money received by a person, usually in exchange for labour Payment by piece (Piecework): Payment for the amount of work
or the result of an investment. completed.
Income tax: Tax that is paid on all income received. Penalty rate: A higher rate of pay made to a person who is working
Increasing function: A function for which the dependent variable overtime.
increases as the value of the independent variable increases. The Per annum: Per year.
graph of an increasing function increases as we look at it from left
Percentage chance: The probability of an event expressed as a
to right.
percentage.
Independent variable: In a function, the independent variable is
Percentage error: The maximum error in a measurement as a
the variable for which any value can be substituted and which will
percentage of the measurement given.
produce the value of another variable, the dependent variable.
Piecewise linear function: A linear function that follows different
Indirect tax: Any tax that is not paid directly to the government by
rules for different values of the independent variable.
the taxpayer. For example, the GST is an indirect tax because it is
paid to the retailer who then passes it on to the government. Piecework: see Payment by piece.
Inflation: A percentage amount that describes the average rise in Poll: A collection of information obtained by questionnaire.
prices over one year. Polygon: A line graph displaying the frequency for a set of scores.
Information: When data are processed, presented and conclusions Population: An entire group of people or objects to which a statistical
have been drawn they become information. inquiry is applied.
Interest: A payment made for the use of money. It is paid to a Power: An index. The number to which a base is raised, indicating
depositor by a financial institution or by a borrower to a financial the number of times the base is multiplied by itself.
institution. Interest is usually expressed as a rate per annum. Prefix: The first part of a word. In measurement, the prefix indicates
Interest rate: The percentage amount of interest paid per annum. the relative size of the units of measurement.
Internal sources: The person conducting the statistical investigation Present value: The current value of an investment.
gathers the data. Prism: A solid shape with a constant cross-section.
Interpolate: Drawing a graph using data found at the end points. Principal: The amount on which interest calculations are made.
Interquartile range: A number that represents the spread of a data Probability: A number between 0 and 1 that describes the chance of
set. The interquartile range is calculated by subtracting the lower an event occurring.
quartile from the upper quartile. Proportional to: Two quantities are proportional to each other (in
Investment bonds: A form of investment offered by the State or proportion) when one quantity can be found by multiplying the other
federal government to raise money. Money is invested for a fixed by a constant amount.
amount of time and simple interest is paid. Pyramid: A solid shape with a plane shape as its base and triangular
Linear function: A function that is a straight line when drawn. sides meeting at an apex.
Line graph: A graph used to show the way in which one quantity Quadratic: A function with a greatest power of 2.
changes with respect to another. The graph is drawn by marking the Quality control: A statistical process used by companies to ensure
data points on a set of axes and joining them with straight lines. that their product meets the required standard.
Lower extreme: The lowest score in the data set. Quantitative data: Data that can be measured. A numerical value can
Lower quartile: The lowest 25% of scores in a data set. be assigned to them.
490 Glossary
Quartile: 25% of the data set. The upper quartile is the top 25% of Standard deviation: A measure of the spread of a data set. The
the data set and the lower quartile is the bottom 25% of the data set. standard deviation is found on a calculator using either the population
Questionnaire: A set of questions completed for a statistical standard deviation or the sample standard deviation.
investigation. Statistical inquiry: The process of gathering statistics.
Radar chart: A type of line graph drawn around a central point. The Statistics: Numerical facts compiled to describe a data set.
categories are labelled in a circle and data points marked on each line Stem-and-leaf plot: A method of displaying a data set where the
emanating from the centre. The points are then joined. A radar chart first part of a number is written in the stem and the second part of the
is suitable to show a pattern that is likely to repeat. For example, sales number is written in the leaves.
made during each month of the year.
Step function: A linear function for which the rule changes as the
Random sample: The members of the sample are chosen by a value of the independent variable changes.
method in which luck is the only factor in deciding which members
are to participate in the sample. Strata: A group within a population that reflects the characteristics of
the entire population.
Range: A number that represents the spread of a data set. The range is
calculated by subtracting the smallest score from the largest score. Stratified sample: The group to participate in the sample is chosen so
that is has similar characteristics as the entire population, for example
Rate: A comparison of two quantities of a different type. the same percentage of men and women.
Rate of change: The change in one quantity per one unit change in
Summary statistic: A number such as the mean, median or mode
another.
which describes a data set.
Ratio: A comparison of two quantities of the same type.
Systematic sample: The members of the sample are chosen according
Reduction: A similar figure, drawn smaller in size than the original. to some organised pattern.
Relation: A rule connecting two variables. Tangent ratio: The ratio of the opposite side and the adjacent side in
Relative frequency: A number between 0 and 1, usually a decimal, a right-angled triangle.
which describes how often an event has occurred. The relative Taxable income: The amount of income upon which the amount of
frequency is found by dividing the number of times an event has tax due is calculated. Taxable income is calculated by subtracting any
occurred by the total number of trials. allowable tax deductions from the total gross income.
Retainer: A fixed payment usually paid to someone receiving Tax deduction: An amount that can be deducted from gross income
commission. They receive the retainer regardless of the number of before income tax is calculated. Tax deductions are allowed for work-
sales made. related expenses and other items such as charity donations.
Royalty: A royalty is a payment made to the owner of a copyright Tax return: A form completed by every taxpayer at the end of the
such as a musician or author. The royalty is usually a percentage of financial year, which states all income earned, any allowable tax
sales. deductions and all taxes already paid. The total amount of tax that
Salary: A form of payment where a person is paid a fixed amount to should have been paid is then calculated. The taxpayer then either
do their job. A salary is usually based on an annual amount divided receives a tax refund or must pay a tax debt.
into weekly or fortnightly instalments. 1
Time and a half: A penalty rate where the employee is paid 1 2 times
Sample: When data are gathered from a portion of the population, the normal hourly rate.
that is taken to be representative of the whole population.
Traverse survey: A survey done to calculate the area of an irregularly
Sample space: A list of all possible outcomes to a probability shaped block of land. A diagonal is constructed and offsets divide the
experiment. shape into triangles and quadrilaterals from which the area can be
Scale factor: A number by which the side lengths on the first of two calculated.
similar figures is multiplied by to obtain the measurements on the Tree diagram: A method of listing the sample space for a multi-stage
second of the figures. probability experiment. The diagram branches once for each stage of
Score: Each piece of quantitative data is a score. the experiment at each level showing all possible outcomes to each
Sector graph: A graph where a circle is cut into sectors. Each sector stage.
then represents a section of the data set. Each sector is the same Trial: The number of times a probability experiment has been
proportion of the circle as the part of the data set it represents. conducted.
Shares: A share is a part ownership of a company. Shares are traded on Trigonometry: A branch of mathematics in which sides and angles of
the stock exchange and fluctuate in value daily. The return from investing triangles are calculated.
in shares comes from both the dividend and the share rising in value. Ungrouped data: Data for which each score is individually tabulated.
Significant figures: The number of non-zero digits to which a number
Unitary method: A method used in ratio and percentages.
is approximated.
Upper extreme: The highest score in a data set.
Similar figures: Two or more figures with corresponding angles equal
and corresponding sides in the same ratio. Upper quartile: The highest 25% of scores in a data set.
Simple interest: Interest that is paid without any interest payments Value added tax: Similar to the GST, a VAT is levied on the cost of
being added to the principal before the next interest calculation. goods and services in many countries. The rate of VAT varies from
Simple interest is calculated using the formula I = Prn. country to country.
Sine ratio: The ratio of the opposite side and the hypotenuse in a Wage: A form of payment that is based on an hourly rate.
right-angled triangle. y-intercept: The value of y when a function crosses the vertical axis.
Glossary 491
Index
abnormal conditions in sample selection 126 computer applications gradient and y-intercept
accuracy of measurements 231–3 calculating taxable income 88–9 connection between 395–400
alcohol, effect on body 474–7 compound interest spreadsheets 57 drawing graphs using 400–4
algebraic expressions simple interest spreadsheets 52 graphs, appropriate use and misuse of
expanding and simplifying 374–5 spreadsheets 7–8 169–76
operations with 369–72 tax calculation 96–7 ‘green slip’ insurance on cars 454–5
allowances wages 18 gross pay (wage) 22–3
government 19 wages template 26
for unfavourable working conditions 4 concentration of substances 244 handset cost of mobile phone 435
angles congruent figures 287 health insurance, private 90
of elevation and depression 312–14 connection fees for mobile phones 427 hidden costs of car purchase 457–8
finding in right-angled triangles 308–11 Consumer Price Index (CPI) 68 highest common factor (HCF) 239
annual leave loading 23 continuous data 123 hourly rates of pay 3
appreciation 68–71 conversion between rates 244 house plans as similar figures 291–2
area conversion graphs 410–11 household bills 29–33
applications of 271–2 cosine ratio 300, 303
of plane shapes 262–8 cube volume 273 impossibility of event occurrence 333,
units of 235 cumulative frequency 146–52 351–2
cumulative frequency histogram and income 1
balancing budgets 28 polygon (ogive) 148–9 income tax 81
bias in statistics 125–31 cylinder, volume of 274 income test for youth allowance
bills, household 27–33 19–20
bimodal distributions 200 data increasing functions 396
blood alcohol concentration (BAC) 474–7 collection 114–18 independent variables 391
bonds, investment 46 in statistical processes 110–14 index laws, first and second 370–2
box-and-whisker plots (boxplots) 165–9 types 122–5 inflation 68–71
braking distance 471 debentures 46 insurance on cars 454–7
budgeting 27–9 deciles 157 intercept and gradient, drawing graphs
decimals, writing probabilities as using 400–4
calculators 348–51 interest on investment 43
in degrees mode 298 declining balance method of interest rate 43
finding point of intersection using depreciation 467–70 interpolation 64
406–7 decreasing functions 396 interpretation bias 126
inverse functions on 300 deductions from gross pay 22–3 interquartile range 155
in statistics mode 192–3 dependent variables 391 inverse functions on calculator 300–1
call caps for mobile phones 435 depreciation investment bonds 46
capacity units 234 declining balance method 467–70 investment growth 53
car insurance 454–7 straight line method 465–7
car purchase depreciation of new cars 452–4 leading questions 126
buying new or used 452, 454 digital file storage, units of 436–9 length units 234
financing 457–62 digital transfer rates 439–40 likelihood of event occurrence,
carbon tax 94 discrete data 123 predicting 334
cars, fuel costs 462–4 dividend yield 62 line graphs
casual rates of pay 5 dividends on shares 62–4 for share performance 65–7
categorical data 122–3 division of algebraic functions 372–3 for simple interest functions 48–52
census, collecting data from 114 dot plots 142 for tax functions 101–2
certainty of event occurrence 333, 351–2 double time wages rate 14 linear equations, solving 379–83
chance of event occurrence 333 download speeds 439 linear functions
characteristics of populations 118–22 graphing 391–5
circles, areas of 263 elevations 292 practical applications 409–13
clinometers 312 equally likely outcomes 341–3 linear simultaneous equations, solving
column graphs 111 extrapolation 64 404–9
commission 8–9 liquid volume units 234
complementary events 356–9 field diagrams 268–70 location, measures of 189
composite figures, areas of 263 financing car purchase 457–62 lower extreme 164–5
compound interest five-number summaries 164–9 lower quartile 155
calculation 53–7 flag fall for mobile phones 427
spreadsheets for 57 foreshortening vertical axis of graphs 171 mass units 234
compound value interest factor (CVIF) 57–8 frequency tables 146–52 mean, calculation 189–97
compounded value 53 functions 391 measurements
compounded values, tables of 57–60 fundamental counting principle 329–33 as approximations 231–4
compounding period 54 future value (FV) of investments 53, 54 units of 234–8
comprehensive insurance on cars 455 median 155, 198–205
compulsory third party (CTP) insurance Goods and Services Tax (GST) 97–100 Medicare levy 90–1
on cars 454–5 government allowances 19 misleading graphs bias 126
492 Index
mobile phones pronumerals 369 for taxable income 88–9
calculating costs of 425–30 proportional diagrams 316 to produce misleading graphs 127–8
choosing best plan 435–6 Pythagoras’ theorem 258 for wages 18
reading bills 430–1 stamp duty on car purchase 456–7
reading plans 431–2 quantitative data 122–3 standard deviation 205–12
terms used 426 quartiles 155 ‘standard drink’ definition 474
usage 432–4 questionnaire design, bias in 126 statistical interpretation bias 126
mode 200–5 statistical processes
multi-stage events 325–9 radar charts 141–2 analysing and drawing conclusions 112
multiple-step equations 380 random sampling 115 collecting data 110
multiplication of algebraic fractions 372–3 random selection of music files 440–1 displaying data 111–12
music files, random selection of 440–1 range organising data 110
of data 154 posing questions 109
net pay 22 of probabilities 351–6 writing reports 112
new cars, depreciation of 452–4 rate of change 395 stem-and-leaf plots 142
nominal data 123 rates step functions 409
non-linear scales on graph axes 172 in comparing quantities 242–7 stopping distance and speed 470–4
non-random methods of sampling 126 simplification 243 straight line method of depreciation 465–7
non-response rate in sampling 126 ratios 239–42 stratified samples 115–16
reaction time 470 substitution into algebraic expressions
offsets 268 real costs of car purchase 458–9 376–9
omission of values on graphs 171 rectangular prisms, volume of 274 summary statistics, appropriate use of
one-step equations 379–80 reducing balance personal loan, monthly 212–14
ordinal data 123 repayments on 459–60 systematic sampling 116
ordinary rates of pay 3 relations 391
outcomes relative frequency 336–40 tangent ratio 297–9, 303
equally likely 341–3 residuals 459 target populations, sampling 114–18
of experiments 333 retainers 9 tax
outliers in data sets 213 right-angled triangles calculating 91–7
overtime 14–18 applications of 312–16 deductions 81–5
finding the unknown side 302–7 returns 81
particular responses bias 126 rounding off decimals 232 tax functions, graphing 101–2
Pay As You Go (PAYG) tax 81 royalties 8 taxable income 81, 85–8
payment by piece 12–13 running costs of cars 462–4 telephone polls 126
payment summaries 93 terminology, unfamiliar 126
penalty rates 14 salaries 1–3 terms open to interpretation bias 126
percentage chance of event occurrence 348 salvage value of cars 467–8 third party property insurance on cars 455
percentage change 247–9 sample standard deviation 206–8 time and a half wages rate 14
percentages, writing probabilities as 348–51 sampling bias 126 transfer rates for digital files 439–40
percentiles 157 sampling target populations 114–18 traverse surveys 268
perimeter of plane shapes 257–61 scale factors 286–90 tree diagrams 325–9
petrol costs 462–4 scale on vertical axes, changing 170–1 trials 336
piecework 12–13 scientific notation 236–8 triangles, finding the unknown side 302–7
plan options for mobile phones 435 sector graphs 111–12 trigonometric ratios 297–301
plane shapes share performance, graphing 64–7
area of 262–8 shares, dividends on 62–4 unitary method for ratios 239
perimeter of 257–61 shuffle function on digital music unknown side of right-angled triangles,
polygon (ogive), cumulative frequency 148 players 440–1 finding 302–7
population characteristics 118–22 significant figures 231–4 upload speeds 439
population standard deviation (σn) 205–6 similar figures upper extreme 164–5
post-paid phone contracts 435 definition 285–90 upper quartile 155
pre-paid mobile phone plans 435 solving problems using 291–7
predicting likelihood of event simple interest value added tax (VAT) 98
occurrence 334 calculating 43–5 vertical axes of graphs, manipulating
prescribed content of alcohol (PCA) spreadsheets for 52 170–2
offences 475 simple interest functions, graphing video piracy, cost of 448–9
present value (PV) of investments 54, 58 48–52 visual impression manipulation of
principal 43 simultaneous equations, solving 404–9 graphs 171
prisms, volume of 273–8 sine ratio 299, 303 volume
private health insurance 90 SOHCAHTOA mnemonic 304 of prisms 273
probabilities solid volume, units of 236 units of 234, 236
range of 351–6 speed and stopping distance 470–4
writing as decimals and percentages spreadsheets wages 3–7, 18
348–51 for compound interest 57 wages template 26
probability formula 343–8 for gross pay 7–8
probability statements 333–6 for simple interest 52 y-intercept, and gradient 395–400
problem solving using similar figures 291–7 for tax calculation 96–7 youth allowance 19
Index 493

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MATHS QUEST

First edition published 2000

Typeset in 10/12pt Times LT Std

The moral rights of the author have been asserted.

National Library of Australia

Author: Rowland, Robert, 1963–

Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

Reproduction and communication for other purposes

Illustrated by Aptara and Wiley Composition Services

Typeset in India by Aptara

Chapter 12 ICT activities — Projectsplus

examples appear beside the first ‘matching’ question throughout the

student website — eBookPlus

Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics

ANITA CANN ROBERT CAHN

Next generation teaching and learning

This book features eBookPLUS:

Using the JacarandaPLUS

viii About eBookPLUS

1A Calculating salary payments

1 There are 26 fortnights in a year, so we Fortnightly pay = $46 800 ÷ 26

ChAptEr 1 • Earning money 1

1 There are 12 months in a year, so multiply Annual salary = $3500 × 12

Charlotte works as a laboratory technician and is paid an annual

1 Calculate the weekly pay by Weekly pay = $41 560 ÷ 52

Exercise 1A Calculating salary payments

Annual salary Weekly pay Fortnightly pay Monthly pay

2 Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General

ChAptEr 1 • Earning money 3

Multiply $13.65 (the hourly rate) by 38 Wage = $13.65 × 38

Divide $483.84 (the wage) by 42 Hourly rate = $483.84 ÷ 42

1 Calculate Ryan’s normal pay by multiplying Normal pay = $9.45 × 35

4 Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General

Exercise 1B Calculating wages

3 Alicia is an apprentice chef. In the first year

ChAptEr 1 • Earning money 5

Name Wage Hours worked Hourly rate

6 Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General

Computer Application 1 Spreadsheets

2. Enter a pay rate of $11.20 per hour for each employee.

ChAptEr 1 • Earning money 7

1C Commission and royalties

Calculate 12% of $150 000. Commission = 12% of $150 000

A real estate agent is paid commission on his sales at

8 Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General

1 Calculate 5% of $75 000. 5% of $75 000 = $3750

1 Calculate the commission of 2% of $12 250. Commission = 2% of $12 250

1 Calculate the amount on which commission is $84 000 − $50 000 = $34 000

Exercise 1C Commission and royalties

Chapter 1 • Earning money 9

10 Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General

Chapter 1 • Earning money 11

A person delivering to a letterbox is paid for piecework.

Multiply the pay rate by the number of Pay = $2.25 × 24

1 Divide 3500 by 1000 to calculate the number of 3500 ÷ 1000 = 3.5

Tristan has a job picking apples. He is paid $4.40 per basket.

12 Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General

a Multiply 21 (the number of baskets) by $4.40 (the pay a Pay = 21 × $4.40

Exercise 1D Payment by piece

Chapter 1 • Earning money 13

Gustavo is paid $9.78 per hour in his job as

14 Maths Quest Preliminary Mathematics General

1 Calculate Natasha’s normal pay. Normal pay = $11.80 × 38

ChAptEr 1 • Earning money 15