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THE EVOLUTION OF LIQUID DOMINATED GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR UNDER

EXPLOITATION AND SUSTAINABILITY: A REVIEW

Conference Paper · March 2015

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PROCEEDINGS, 4th ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015
Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung, Indonesia, March 16-20, 2015

THE EVOLUTION OF LIQUID DOMINATED GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR UNDER

EXPLOITATION AND SUSTAINABILITY: A REVIEW

Heru B. Pratama

Student of Magister Program in Geothermal Technology ITB

Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jl. Ganesa 10 Bandung, Indonesia
hb.pratama@gmail.com

ABSTRACT They contain liquid water in all channel ways and

interstitial pores, although bubbles of steam and gas
Mostly in the world, liquid-dominated hydrothermal
may be present in the water (Figure 1). Groundwater
system is used widely for direct and indirect utilization
recharge is not as restricted as in the vapor-dominated
even in Indonesia. Therefore, most study of
case, although alteration zones may be extensive. Hot
geothermal field discussed how to utilized liquid-
waters from the reservoir commonly leak at the earth’s
dominated hydrothermal system with proper
surface. Temperature and pressure will increase
production-injection strategies to obtain sustainable
steadily with increasing depth. If the rate of upflow is
development. Production and injection processes
rapid, boiling will form and temperature changes with
involving mass and heat transfer from the fluid
depth will closely follow the boiling-point curve.
reservoir will trigger changes in the characteristics of
the liquid-dominated reservoir. The characteristic
Many liquid-dominated reservoirs are overlain by a
changes include an increase of the enthalpy of the
low-pressure vapor zone that may extend hundreds of
fluid, boiling, steam-cap formation. The increased
meters deep. In this case fumaroles and acid hot
production of geothermal fluid needs a lot more of
springs occur at the surface as with true vapor-
steam, the process exploitation of steam from steam-
dominated systems. Temperature rises gradually with
cap can’t be offset by the establishment of its steam-
depth, however, whereas Pressure remains relatively
cap itself. Thus, a proper production-injection strategy
low. Once the reservoir is encountered, pressure
make sustainable for liquid-dominated geothermal
increases linearly because of the mass of liquid in the
reservoir.
reservoir while temperature remains at or below the
boiling point curve (BPD).
Keywords: liquid-dominated, steam-cap, production-
injection, sustainability.

1. INTRODUCTIONS
The classification of hydrothermal system based on
reservoir fluid are vapor-dominated and liquid-
dominated. Only 4 vapor-dominated geothermal field
in the world exist and two of them are in Indonesia
(Darajat and Kamojang). Most of geothermal filed
used as power generation is liquid-dominated Figure 1. Schematic model of liquid-dominated
hydrothermal system, then the knowledge of reservoir (Goff, F., and Janik, C.J., 2000)
characteristic liquid-dominated reservoir and proper
production-injection strategies is become importantly Liquid-dominated reservoirs have maximum
most. temperatures of ≤ 370 0C. When fluid is produced by
wells, liquid water will be depressurized (flashed) to
Hydrothermal reservoir is a geothermal system that produce steam for the turbines. This is done under
has a fluid water, water vapor or a mixture of both in controlled conditions with large steam separators.
the reservoir. Reservoir hydrothermal has two Commonly, a well supplying liquid yield to 20%
distinction that are liquid-dominated and vapor- steam the remaining 80% of the fluid is liquid water
dominated. Liquid-dominated system, the reservoir that must be disposed of in some manner, usually by
has more dominant of liquid phase than the vapor reinjection.
phase. Most geothermal systems are liquid-dominated.
2. CONCEPTS OF CHANGE LIQUID-
DOMINATED RESERVOIRS UNDER
EXPLOTATION
Geothermal reservoirs is a key part in geothermal
systems and utilization geothermal energy.
Productions and injection involve heat and mass
transfer from geothermal fluids. This movement
trigger a change of reservoir pressure and will have
direct impact to geothermal power plant performance
and his manifestations.
The simplest concept of the flow of geothermal fluid
in the reservoir is the analogy of the flow of liquid
water in a confined aquifer. If the reservoir is at a fairly
uniform temperature, the flow is isothermal. If there is
a distribution of temperature or if there is reinjection
of cooled fluids, it is necessary to compute the motion
of thermal changes along streamlines. Figure 2
illustrates such a flow.
Figure 2. Water flow in exploited reservoir. (Grant,
M.A., et.al., 1982, 2011)
In this liquid model, if there is a net mass loss of fluid
in the reservoir, there will be a resultant decline in
pressure. If the reservoir contains compressed liquid,
this pressure decline causes expansion of water and the
rock matrix; if there is a free surface, then there is a
fall in this surface. Rocks cooled by the advance of
colder water account for the net heat loss.
In high-temperature geothermal reservoirs, a decline
in pressure caused by exploitation may initiate boiling
in part or all of the reservoir. In this case the changes
in the reservoir caused by exploitation will include
changes in the steam/water ratio, as well as pressure
and temperature changes. Grant (1982) has a concept
model that describes the phenomenon above. The first
model, assume the reservoir has a mixture of water
vapor and uniform. The second model is to assume that
water drains from the upper parts of the reservoir,
forming a vapor zone (stamp-cap or steam-zone).
A vapor-dominated zone underlying a liquid-
dominated zone. The second model assumes the force
of gravity while the first model ignores gravity. Both
model assume water and vapor in a state of thermal
equilibrium.
Figure 3 shows the model of the formation of vapor
zones. In the initial state there is a near-hydrostatic
pressure profile. With production, the pressure in the
reservoir decline and the pressure is less than the
hydrostatic pressure. Due to the pressure drop, the
boiling occur or increased so that the aqueous phase
turns into vapor phase. The aqueous phase will move
down while the vapor phase will move up from the
reservoir. With increasing time and their good vertical
permeability layer, two phases will separated. The
separation resulted in the formation of vapor in the
upper zone (steam cap) and the bottom of the reservoir
water is present in the compressed state. In the upper
of the steam-cap there is usually a lower permeability
layer.
Figure 3. Fluids distribution at natural state and
exploited state from liquid-dominated
system. (Modification from Grant, M.A.,
et.al., 1982, 2011).
The assumption that the boiling fluid will segregate
into vapor-dominated and liquid-dominated zones
depends on the vertical permeability and the vertical
extent of boiling conditions. High vertical
permeability and a small temperature range of boiling
conditions are expected to give more rapid segregation
of the liquid and steam phases.
This concept of change liquid-dominated reservoir
under exploitation that Grant propose match with
Wairakei, Tongonan, Awibengkok and Wayang
Windu Geothermal Field. And most of them harvest
the steam from steam cap and change the production
strategies to maintain or increased production rate.
Page 2 of 8
3. PRODUCTIONS AND INJECTIONS
Well targeting prioritized in areas of high permeability
Geothermal utilization involve extraction/exploitation
and high temperature. The selection a big holes wells
of mass and heat from the geothermal reservoir. Mass
in areas with high production capability will decrease
and heat transfer are a dominating processes during
a number of wells are required for steam supply to the
undistributed natural state, with this transport driven
power plant and cost-effective drilling. The spacing
by global pressure variations in the geothermal
between well do not too close in other to mass and heat
system. During production, the mass and heat
from wells do not cause production declining in
transport forced upon the system cause spatial as well
another wells.
as transient change in the pressure state of reservoir.
Therefore, it may be stated that is the only one of the
Geothermal reinjection involve the return partial or all
most essential parameters involved during
of water that produced from reservoir back to
exploitation.
geothermal systems after the energy extracted from
geothermal fluids. In some cases, instead of the
Energy content, both represented as internal energy or
reservoir water is injected into reservoir. Reinjection
enthalpy, is the other crucial parameter during
was originally a method of disposal of waste water
exploitation. In single phase conditions, this depends
production in some geothermal field, but slowly
on temperature only, and pressure and temperature
became popular in later years. Reinjection now
define the state of reservoir. In two phase conditions,
considered an important part of the management of the
pressure and temperature are related and additional
geothermal resouerce and an important part of
parameter in needed, such as water saturation or
sustainable utilization and environmentally.
enthalpy.
Reinjection provided additional recharge for reservoir
The potential production geothermal energy is
to reduce the pressure drawdown rate as a result from
determine by pressure decline due to production, but
production and heat extraction from the reservoir rock.
also by avability of energy content. The pressure
Reinjection in many cases incresses the production
decline is determined by the rate of production, the
capacity, reduce investment and operating cost. This
size of the system, permeability of the rock and hot
probably the best way and the economical in orther
recharge.
increasing the potential geothermal energy production.
In addition of the benefits above, reinjection may
The nature of geothermal systems is the effect of
cause a problems and operation hazards. This included
production of small portion so can be maintained for a
a probability the cooling well, because a short spacing
very long time otherwise the effect of production is so
between production an injection well or cold-water
great, however, it can’t be maintained for a very long
thermal breaktrough, scaling in surface facilities and
time. With time, pressure declines continuously,
injection well because precipitation of chemical
particularly in closed systems or with low hot
content from water, aquifer clogging by a sand carried
recharge. Production potential is therefore, often
water from injection well. With tracer test, this
limited by lack of water than lack of thermal energy.
problem can be learned and mitigated, because tracer
test is the best tool for studying connectivity between
The extraction of water, steam or either both of them
wells.
from geothermal reservoir causes, in all case, some
decline in reservoir pressure. Direct changes caused by
The purpose of using reinjection in the management of
lowered reservoir pressure, such as: decreasing well
geothermal resources are the following (Axelsson,
discharge, increasing boiling in high enthalpy wells,
Gudni, 2012):
lowered water level, changes in surface activity.
(1) Disposal of waste-water (separated water and
Indirect change caused by increasing recharge to
steam condensate) from power plants, and return-
reservoir, such as: changes in chemical composition of
water from direct applications, for environmental
the reservoir fluid, changes in the reservoir
reasons. Such waters often contain chemicals
temperature, changes in temperature and enthalpy of
harmful to the environment as well as causing
reservoir fluids.
thermal pollution.
(2) Additional recharge to addition the natural
Productions and injections should needed in
recharge to geothermal systems, which often is
geothermal reservoir management and should plane
limited.
well. Production strategies included spacing between
(3) Pressure support to offset, or reduce, pressure
well, casing and liner configuration in a well, pressure
decline due to mass extraction.
well flowing. A wells with high production capability
(4) To improve thermal extraction from reservoir
obtained by performing the following:
rocks along flow-paths from injection wells.
Page 3 of 8
(5) To offset surface subsidence caused by production
induced pressure decline.
(6) Targeted reinjection to enhance, or revitalize,
surface thermal features such as hot springs and
fumaroles
Base on theoretical studies and operational experience,
reinjection provide additional recharge. Reinjection
has also, it can be used as a tool to counteract pressure
drawdown generated by production with providing
additional recharge. Production capacity controlled by
pressure respond so the reinjection can increase
production capacity.
Because production capacity is controlled by a
pressure response (Axelsson, 2008), reinjection can
increase production capacity. Figure 4 shows an
example of the calculation of geothermal modelling
based on actual monitoring data.
The selection of reinjection zone or reinjection wells
depends on the purpose of the reinjection itself. In a
general way, reinjection wells are design and drilled at
the intersection of the feed zones at a certain depth
intervals. Here are the options Axelsson (2012)
offered by the possible for reinjection:
(1) Inside the main production reservoir, i.e. in-
between production wells. Often production/
reinjection doublets.
(2) Peripheral to the main production reservoir, i.e.
on its peripheries but still in direct hydrological
connection.
(3) Above the main reservoir, i.e. at shallower levels.
(4) Below the main reservoir, i.e. at deeper levels.
(5) Outside the main production field, either in the
production depth range or at shallower or deeper
levels. In this case direct hydrological connection
to the production reservoir may not exist.
Sarmineto in the early time gives the injection
philosophies for strategic reinjections as follows:
(1) Dispersal of reinjection fluids
a) To avoid concentration of reinjection fluids and
their possible returns into a particular
production sector.
b) To extend the area of contact between the
reinjection fluids and the rock for reheating the
fluids before returning into the production
sector.
(2) Deep reinjection
a) To improve thermal recovery where the
temperatures are higher
b) To minimize the return of the cooler fluids at a
shallow depth in the reservoir.
(3) Peripheral injection
a) To be as far away as possible from the
production sector (2-3 km).
(4) Gravity Reinjection/Injection Pumping
a) To bring down the capital and operating cost of
the production facilities.
(5) Cold Injection
a) To minimize the cost of fluid handling and pipe
work especially if the brine flow is minimal.
b) To minimize the problem on silica deposition
in the line and the reinjection wells.
c) To utilize wells that are not hooked up to the
system because of their long proximity.
d) To be able to adapt to the lower brine
temperature of the binary plant.
The best injection strategies for geothermal field
depends on the field itself (Mannington, W.I., et.al.
2004). That are three system of the geothermal field
base on the reservoir fluids, follows: vapour-
dominated, two phase liquid-dominated and hot water.
In deciding upon the best reinjection strategy for each
type of system it is important to recognize the
dominant depletion mechanisms. For the three cases
these are:
(1) Vapour-dominated systems run out of water while
heat still remains in the rock matrix. Thus it is
useful to reinjection water directly into the
borefield.
(2) Two-phase, liquid-dominated systems run out of
heat rather than mass and the pressure and
temperature decline together. Thus extra water is
not required in the reservoir and pressure support
from reinjection is not effective. We claim it is best
in this case to reinjection or dispose of the water
far from the production borefield.
(3) In hot-water systems the failure mechanism is
pressure decline, to the point where wells can no
longer produce. The ideal reinjection strategy
requires the reinjection wells to be close enough to
the production wells to provide pressure support
but far enough away to prevent premature flooding
by cold water. The design of such system depends
on details of the structure of the field and the
practicalities of well location.
The concept of the change of water level in the
wellbore or reservoir shown in Figure 4. The
production cause water level become lower and
thickening the steam cap meanwhile the injection of
brine and steam condensate into the reservoir cause
water level become higher and sunk the steam cap.
With the excessive production, water level become
vanish and higher pressure decline.
The important purpose of reinjection is to refill the
reservoir rock pores with water form separator (brine
water) and condensate from cooling tower. However,
Page 4 of 8
the process of filling the pores with water is not as fast
as its return. In other words, the process of formation
of steam cap is not as fast as the production/
exploitation of steam in stream cap.
Figure 4. The change of water level under production
and injection.
4. CASE STUDIES
4.1 Wairakei – New Zeleand
The Wairakei geothermal field was the first high-
temperature liquid-dominated field to be exploited.
The success of developed Wairakei geothermal field
influence other liquid-dominated geothermal field in
the world to utilize as power generation.
Wairakei Power Station commissioning in 1958 with
2x6.5 MWe high pressure. In 1963, installed capacity
become 193 MWe with implication of subsurface
pressure and flow production decline. The highest
power output at 173 MWe occurred in 1965 with
production geothermal fluid maximum 9200 ton/hour,
but since 1982 has remained between 5000 – 6000
ton/hour.
During the first decade of operating, formed
drawdown pressure up to 20 bar and spread uniformly
throughout entire reservoir, although fluid extraction
is focused in the area of 1 km2 close to reservoir
boundaries of the fluid in the northeast. This pressure
drop results in the expansion of the boiling zone and
the formation of a separate steam-cap at the top of the
reservoir along with entry of the cooler fluids to the
northeast that through natural outflow.
The peak production rate was reached in 1963, the
pressure decline for deep liquid zone had increased to
a maximum rate of 3 bar/year (0.3 MPa/year). By 1967
that rate had dropped to less than 1 bar/year and after
1975 pressures showed little change until 1998 when
pressures began to increase as a result of in-field
injection. The maximum change of 25 bar below
original initial pressure reached in 1985. From 1975-
1997 pressure in the deep liquid reservoir stabilized at
23-25 bar below natural pressure, with the little change
up to the time when injection started in 1998. After
1998, around 30% from geothermal fluid that
extracted was injected to the reservoir and reservoir
pressure have increased by 3-4 bars. (Bixley, P.F and
Clotworthy, A.W., 2009).
Over 50 years of operation, temperature in the main
production area have decline from 250 0C to 220 0C
while deeper production zone towards the western
boundary of the reservoir have remained at about
2500C. Makeup Wells to maintain future production
have been drilled in the high-temperature recharge
area.
4.2 Tongonan – Filipina
Tongonan has been known as liquid-dominated
hydrothermal system. The first generating unit
operating since 1993 at 112.5 MWe. Until 1997 there
was an increase capacity to 480 MWe with distribution
of the production sector decreased water phase in
reservoir as a results drawdown pressure. The
observed phenomenon of the impact is the change in
single-phase (water) to two-phase and vapor-
dominated at well discharge.
Figure 5. Mass production fluid and injection per
month with time. (Dacillo, D.B. et.al.,
2010)
Large capacity additions in 1997 directly impact on
the amount of fluid that is exploited and injected
(Figure 5). Exploitation of fluid in the period 1983-
1996 range from 1 million tons per month to generate
112.5 MWe Tongonan-1 Power Plant with 50% of the
total production is injected in the form of brine and
condensate. Exploitation increased significantly
starting in 1996-1997 to 5 million tons per month to
generate 480 MWe with 40% of the mass is reinjected.
Page 5 of 8
Increased exploitation and decreased mass injection of
fluid since 1997, is a form of changes in the
geothermal reservoir. This is due to commission of
additional 480 MWe power generation in other sectors
(Dacillo, D.B. et.al., 2010).
The phenomenon of expansion of the upper steam-cap
from upflow to outflow could be explained by the
lowering water level across the field. This led to the
shift of phase separation around 1.000 m depth to
deeper level. In Tongonan, increasing temperature
with increasing depths, higher boiling temperature
means deeper level of boiling.
4.3 Awibenkok – Indonesia
The Awibengkok geothermal reservoir is liquid-
dominated, naturally fractured and have temperature
around 235 – 3100C. At natural state, the reservoir had
a liquid pressure profile up to highest point of the
reservoir approximately 560 masl. The discovery well
suggested that a very thin steam cap was present at the
top of the eastern reservoir (UGI, 1985).
The first 110 MWe generated in 1994 and reservoir
pressure and enthalpy monitoring has confirmed that
the steam cap has steadily expanded with time. Staring
in 1994 the steam-water interface dropped 560 msal to
0 msal. The dropping of water level become severe
because increasing capacity by 330 MWe in 1998.
As the steam cap expanded to include shallow feed
zone of wells that ware initially producing liquid
become produce steam and steam cap expanded. The
amount of brine produced peaked at more than 3000
kg/s during start-up of the 330 MWe in 1998 and has
decline around 2000 kg/s with time, even power
generation increased to 377 MWe. The peak brine
injection load was accommodated by establishing a
number of new injection sites on the periphery of the
field. Since that time a steady reduction of injection
requirements has occurred due to growth of shallow
steam cap. This, along with improvement in the
capacity of some injection wells due to thermal effects,
has caused that many injection wells are not used
anymore.
Current effort are focused on the long term
development plan of relocating injection to deeper or
more distal location along the field margins, in other
to expand the current commercial production area and
stimulate steam cap expansion. This strategies has
been determined to be the most economic means of
maintaining the current generation capacity it will be
expand the available area for production, lead to
growth of steam cap and lower overall steam cap
capacity decline rates. Challenges remain in
identifying alternative injection locations, anticipating
changes in the production that cause the major changes
in the injection configuration, and modifying the
current field at an acceptable cost (Acuna, J.A., et.al.,
2008).
4.4 Wayang Windu – Indonesia
The Wayang Windu geothermal filed is liquid-
dominated system at deeper depth and vapor-
dominated system at shallow depth. The commercial
production of Unit-1 started in June 2000 with a 110
MWe single condensing turbine. A second unit was
fully installed in March 2009 thus increasing the total
installed capacity of field to 227 MWe. The two units
required steam rate at 450 kg/s that produced around
110 kg/s steam condensate at 420C and the liquid
separated of around 50 kg/s with an enthalpy of 710
kJ/kg is injected into wells located in southern field.
This is also close to the reservoir boundary.
Mass extraction in the early stage of operation comes
from two-phase zone and deep liquid reservoir in the
north and central field. The main production was from
the two-phase zone. A strong initial decline in the
pressure from two-phase zone occurred, as expected
for a steam producing reservoir. However, the deep
liquid zone also showed a strong decline in production
even after the pressure stabilization of the two-phase
zone, reflecting overall of low permeability at depth.
The further decline pressure in that area occurred with
Unit-2 coming on line, but is currently in the process
of stabilizing (Mulyadi and Ashat, A., 2011).
5. SUSTAINABILITES
Sustainable geothermal utilization involves energy
production at a rate, which may be maintained for a
very long time. This requires efficient management in
order to exploitation, which mostly occur because of
lack of knowledge and poor understanding.
The comprehensive efficient management is an
important part of any successful geothermal
utilization. The management involves the decision
making during operation of the reservoir in other to
change the operational conditions and strategies. This
can’t be execute without the proper knowledge and
information from the geothermal reservoir. The four
most important elements from reservoir management
are (Grant, M.A., et.al, 1998, 2011):
(1) Control and monitoring of the energy explotation
from the reservoir so as to avoid overexploitation
of the resource.
(2) Careful monitoring of the actual response of the
reservoir for long-term production.
(3) Modelling of the reservoir and its response history
for making predictions of the future reservoir
response for different production scenarios
Page 6 of 8
(4) Deciding course of action in the exploitation of the
resource.
The concept of sustainable development is fairly new.
Brundtland (1987) gives a definitions of sustainable
development, is as development that meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of the
future generations to meet their own needs. The
concept of sustainable development in general is a
development or a process that spans a long time
compared to economical time constant in project
developments.
Axelsson et.al. (2001) suggest 100-300 years to be
reasonable time constant for sustainable geothermal
development compared to the 20-50 years amortized
life span of geothermal power plant and other
constructions. They proposed the following
definitions which has been adopted by the geothermal
community in Iceland:
For each geothermal system, and for each mode of
production, there exists a certain level of maximum
energy production, E0, below which it will be
possible to maintain constant energy production
from the system for a very long time (100-300
years). If the production rate is greater than E0 it
cannot be maintained for this length of time.
Geothermal energy production below, or equal to
E0, is termed sustainable production while
production greater than E0 is termed excessive
production.
Figure 6. Illustrated of schematic between sustainable
and renewable production. (Axelsson,
2012)
The simple explanation of this definition shown in
Figure 11. The level of production, E1, depend on the
nature of geothermal systems and how the field
operated. This definitions doesn’t calculate the
economical and environmental aspect that can be
might be change during the life of development. It is
be clear that the sustainable geothermal resource must
be renewable. To clarify this Axelsson et.al. (2001)
proposed the following definition of renewable energy
resource. The energy extracted from a renewable
energy source is always replaced in a natural way by
an additional amount of energy and the replacement
takes place on a similar time scale as that of the
extraction.
The concept of sustainable should contributed by
proper production-injection strategies. Figure 7 shown
the effect of the amount geothermal fluid both
production and injection to both of reservoir pressure
and mass flow. Excessive production of geothermal
fluid will increase pressure decline and lowering the
mass flow. The sustainable development of
geothermal field obtained by the amount of production
is lower or equal with injection. This concept is
supported with proper production-injection that
described as previous chapter.
Figure 7. The effect of production-injection to
pressure and mass flow in reservoir.
6. CONCLUSIONS
In the initial state of liquid-dominated there is a near-
hydrostatic pressure profile. With production, the
pressure in the reservoir decline and the pressure is
less than the hydrostatic pressure. Due to the pressure
drop, the boiling occur or increased so that the aqueous
phase turns into vapor phase. The aqueous phase will
move down while the vapor phase will move up from
the reservoir. With increasing time and their good
vertical permeability layer, two phases will separated.
The separation resulted in the formation of vapor in
Page 7 of 8
 the upper zone (steam cap) and the bottom of the
reservoir water is present in the compressed state.
Direct changes caused by lowered reservoir pressure,
such as: decreasing well discharge, increasing boiling
in high enthalpy wells, lowered water level, changes
in surface activity. Indirect change caused by
increasing recharge to reservoir, such as: changes in
chemical composition of the reservoir fluid, changes
in the reservoir temperature, changes in temperature
and enthalpy of reservoir fluids. All of the changes
above occurred in Wairakei, Tongonan, Awibengkok
and Wayang Windu geothermal fields.
Production strategies included spacing between well,
casing and liner configuration in a well, pressure well
flowing. The best injection strategies for geothermal
field depends on the field itself. In deciding upon the
best reinjection strategy for each type of system it is
important to recognize the dominant depletion
mechanisms. Two-phase, liquid-dominated systems
run out of heat rather than mass and the pressure and
temperature decline together. Meanwhile In hot-water
systems the failure mechanism is pressure decline, to
the point where wells can no longer produce.
Productions and injections should needed in
geothermal reservoir management and should plane
well in exploited liquid-dominated reservoir. The
production would be form a steam cap. The formation
of steam cap is not as fast as the production of steam
in that area. Therefore, the comprehensive an efficient
management is an important part of any successful
geothermal utilization to achieve a sustainable
geothermal development.
REFERENCES
Acuna, J.A., Stimac, J., Azwar, L.S., Pasiki, R. (2008):
Reservoir Management at Awibengkok
Geothermal Field, West Java, Indonesia,
Geothermics, Vol 37, 332 – 346.
Axelsson, Gudni (2012): Role and Management of
Geothermal Reinjection, Geothermal Training
Programme, Santa Tecla, El Savador, UNU-
GTP-SC-14-29.
Bixley, P.F. and Clotworthy, A.W. (2009): Evolution
of the Wairakei geothermal reservoir during 50
years of production, Geothermics, Vol 38,
145 – 154.
Dacillo, D.B., Colo, M.H., Andrino, R.P., Alcober,
E.H., (2010): Tongonan Geothermal Field:
Conquering the Challenges of 25 Years of
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Bali, Indonesia.
Goff, F., and Janik, C.J. (2000): Geothermal Systems,
Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, Academic Press,
Chapter-49, pp. 817 – 834.
Grant, M.A., Donaldson I.G., Bixley P.F (1 st edition
1982, 2nd edition 2011): Geothermal Reservoir
Engineering, Academic Press, Oxford.
Hochstein, M.P., and Browne, P.R.L., (2000): Surface
Manifestations of Geothermal Systems with
Volcanic Heat Sources, Encyclopedia of
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835-855.
Mannington, W.I., O’Sullivian, M.J., Bullivant, D.P.,
Clotworthy, A.W. (2004): Reinjection at
Wairakei-Tauhara : A Modelling Case Study,
Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering
29th, Stanford University, Stanford, California,
SGP-TR-175.
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