EDUCATION IN CONTEMPORARY INDIAN SOCIETY

Unit- I: Overview of Indian Education

Historical overview of the system of education in India

In the modern era the progress and development of a nation depends upon the quality and
quantity of education received by its people. Education performs the duty of transmitting the
heritage and cultural values of the past to future generation with its accumulated wisdom and
preparing the new generation for the present and future emergent needs of the society. Each
country has its own educational system having unique features. Since independence, many
efforts have been made in India to reorganize and reform the system of education. The present
system of education in India is the responsibility of both the Union Government and the State
governments. According to Indian constitution, education is considered as a fundamental right
of all people. India’s improved educational system is considered as one of the main contributors
to the economic rise of India.

Education System in Ancient India

Vedic Education :
The education system which was evolved first in ancient India is known as the Vedic system of
education. In other words, the ancient system of education were based on the Vedas and
therefore it was given the name of Vedic Educational System. Vedas occupy a very important
place in the Indian life. The basis of Indian culture lies in the Vedas which are four in number –
Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda, and Atharavaveda.  Some scholars have sub divided Vedic
Educational period into RigVeda period, Brahmani period, Upanishada period, Sutra (Hymn)
period, Smriti period etc but all these period, due to predominance of the Vedas, there was no
change in the aims and ideals of educations. That is why, the education of these periods, is
studied under Vedic period.“Swadesh Pujyate Raja, Vidwan Sarvatra Pujyate”This verse widely
quoted in India illustrates the significance of education in India. The education system of Vedic
period has unique characteristics and qualities which were not found in the ancient education
system of any other country of the world.
The education system that prevailed during the Vedic times had some unique characteristics.
Education was confined to the upper castes, and to those who were BRAHMACHARIS. In Indian
tradition, a person’s life cycle is divided into four stages of which BRAHMACHARI is the second
phase. This is the time set aside for learning and acquiring skills. During Vedic period, most of
the upper castes, which were either Brahmins or Kshatriyas had their education in a unique
system called GURUKULAM. Students had their education by living with their preceptors in
forests far removed from cities, towns or villages. The life of students who were called SHISYAS
was very rigorous and demanding. Those who failed to live up to these high standards would
simply fall by the wayside. There were legendary acharyas like Sanandeepani and Dronacharya
who taught epic heroes like Krishna and Arjuna martial skills, but what makes the Vedic period
unique is the existence of sages like Gautama and Jaimini who were founder of different schools
of Indian philosophy likeNyaya and Purva Mimamsa. This was a period of intense intellectual
activity and speculation, which we hardly find even now. While Nyaya and Vaisheshika were
theistic philosophies, Sankhya was atheistic.

Saient Features of Vedic Education in Ancient India

1. Infusion of Spiritual & Religious Values:
The primary aim of ancient education was instilling into the minds, of pupils a spirit
of being pious and religious for glory of God and good of man. The pursuit of
knowledge was a pursuit of religious values. Education without religions instructions
was not education at all. It was believed that a keener appreciation of spiritual values
could be fostered only through a strict observance if religious rites.
2. Character Formation and Personality Development:
In no period of the History of India, was so much stress laid on character building as
in the Vedic period. Wisdom consisted in the practice of moral values. Control of
senses and practice of virtues made one a man of character. Moral excellence could
come only through practising moral values. The teacher and the taught were ideals
of morality, for both practiced it all through their lives.  The Guru in the ancient times
realized that the development of personality is the sole aim of education. The
qualities of self-esteem, self confidence, self restraint and self respect were the
personality traits that the educator tried to inoculate in his pupils through example.
3. Development of Civic Responsibilities and Social Values:
The inculcation of civic virtues and social values was an equally important objective
of education in India. The Brahmachari after his education in the Gurukulas went
back to the society to serve the rich and the poor, to relieve the diseased and the
distressed. He was required to be hospitable to the guests and charitable to the
needy. After a certain period of studies he was required to become a householder
and to perpetuate his race and transmit his culture to his own off springs.

4. Knowledge: Education is knowledge. It is mans third eye. This aphorism means that
knowledge opens mans inner eye, flooding him with spiritual and divine light, which
forms the provision for man‘s journey through life.
5. Aims of Education: The ultimate aim of education in ancient Indian was not
knowledge as preparation for life in this world or for life beyond, but for complete
realization of self for liberation of the soul from the chains of life both present and
future.
6. Methods of Instruction :It was a pupil centered education. No single method of
instruction was adopted, though recitation by the pupil followed by explanation by
the teacher was generally followed. Besides question – Answer, Debate and
Discussion, Storytelling was also adopted according to need. There was no classroom
teaching. However monitorial system was prevalent and senior pupils were
 appointed to teach Juniors. Travel was regarded as necessary to give finishing touch
to education so the methods of teaching generally practiced during vedic period
were mainly Maukhik (oral and other method was based on Chintan (thinking or
reflection) In the oral method the students were to memorize the mantras (Vedic
Hyms) and Richayas (Verses of Rigveda) in order that there might not be changed
wrongly and they might remain preserved in their original forms.
7. Medium of Instruction:
As these educational institutions were managed and organized by Brahmans and all
the books written in Sanskrit, therefore the medium of instruction was Sanskrit.
8. The ‘Upnayana’ Ritual:The word ‗upnayana ‗means to take close to, or to being in
touch with. A ceremony called the upnayana ceremony was performed before the
child was taken to his teacher. This ceremony was performed at the ages of 8,11 and
12 for the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, respectively. The ceremony signaled
the childs transition from infancy to childhood and his initiation into educational life.
In this context, the term ‗upanayana‘ means putting the students in touch with his
teacher.ROLE OF TEACHER AND STUDENTSIn Bhartiya Darshan ‘Guru‘has significant
place. It consists of two words, Gu-ru. The word ‘Gu’ indicated darkness and ‘ru’
means controller. It means to avoid darkness or ignorance. In Vedas the term
achariya is used for guru. Guru is considered greatest treasure of knowledge. In
educative process teacher and students are the two components; a teacher provides
physical, materialistic and spiritual knowledge to his students. The educative process
is teacher centred. Guru satisfies the curiosity and needs of his students. Guru was
the spiritual father of his pupils. Gurus were taking care of their pupil in same
manner as a father takes care of his son.
When a student was to become a pupil of any Guru, the recognized way of making
application to him was to approach him with fuel in his hands as a sign that he
wished to serve him and help to maintain his sacred fire. In Vedic era education had
the prominent place in society. It was considered as pious and important for society.
Education was must for everybody for becoming cultured. Relationship between
 Guru and pupils were very cordial during vedic and post- vedic period. By means of
education efforts were being made to infuse ―Satyam Shivam and Sundaram‖ inside
the students. A great importance was attached to veda in education system, self
study Swadhyaya was considered more important during that period. The vedic
period favored women education.The ancient Indian education system was
successful in preserving end spreading its culture and literature even without the
help of art of writing. It was only because of the destruction of temples and
monasteries by invaders that the literature was lost. The cultural unity that exists
even today in the vast sub-continent is due to successful preservation & spread of
culture. The education system infused a sense of responsibilities and social values.
The ancient education system achieved its aims to the fullest extent.
Islamic Education.

Islamic Education System:

The Mohammedan invasion of India in the eleventh century marked the commencement of
great changes not only in the social and political life of the country, but also in the sphere of
education and learning. The alien rules took the initiative for the promotion of Islamic learning.
Therefore, the system of education prevalent in the country deprived of the encouragement
and support of the state and depended mostly on the charities of the public. During medieval
period education was not considered a social duty or a state function It was merely a personal
or family affair. The ambition of a scholar was to visit Mecca and return with a Mecca degree
which was held in high esteem in India for procuring high offices. The higher Muslim education
was imparted through the medium of Arabic and Persian. Persian language continued to hold
the honoured place as it was the court language.

The demand for education was primarily confined to that minority of population which
embraced the religion of Islam. As Persian was the court language, the demand for education in
that language considerably increased. But the demand for Hindi learning decreased
substantially on account of the attitude of the rulers and change in state religion and language.
Objectives of Education:
The aims and objectives of Islamic education were multifarious and were closely connected with
religion. It was considered a religious duty to receive and impart instruction. The objectives of
education differed with different rulers. Akbar and Aurangzeb had quite different aims than that
of other rulers concerning education. While Akbar aimed at organizing the nation through the
implementation of a new system of education, on the contrary the sole objective of Aurangzeb
was to spread Islamic education and culture by destroying Hindu culture and education.

Acquisition of Knowledge: The chief aim of Islamic education was to spread the light of
knowledge. According to the Prophet “seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave” and
“acquire knowledge even if it be in China”. “Knowledge is nectar and salvation is impossible
without it.” He attached supreme importance to the acquisition of knowledge. Prophet
Mohammed preached to the people that distinction between essential duty and wrong action,
religion and irreligion could be accomplished only though knowledge and as such remarked,
“acquisition of knowledge is incumbent upon all the faithful men as well as women”.

Hence Muslims have always held learning and education at high honour and veneration, and
shown respect to their scholars and learned men. However, the objectives of education by the
Muslims were almost entirely intellectual. It was gaining of knowledge and training of mind.

Education System Buddhism:

Buddhism came into existence in about 600 B.C. Buddhism and Jainism were offshoots of
Hinduism. As there was little change in their ideals of life, the concept of education also
suffered only a shift of emphasis.

There was no water tight compartment in the realm of thought separating Brahmanism,
Buddhism and Jainism. They all contributed harmoniously to the development of culture as a
whole and their contributions to education were inextricably mixed up. The creative vein of the
age was reflected in the field of education and culture.
As frontiers of knowledge became wide, pursuit of knowledge also assumed a more systematic
and organised method. The practice of Buddhist Education probably varied very much in
different countries and at different times. We get a valuable picture of Buddhist education as it
existed in India from the records left by certain Chinese Buddhist scholars, who visited India in
the fifth and seventh centuries of this era.

They had undertaken long, toilsome and dangerous journeys, only because the fame of the
Buddhist monasteries in India as places of learning had crossed the territorial jurisdiction of
India. Fahien, who was in India between A.D. 339 and A.D. 414, makes frequent references to
monasteries as seats of learning. Huen Tsiang who came to India during A.D. 629 to A. 645
referred to the popularity of Buddhism which was in a flourishing state. I-Tsing another Chinese
scholar who came to India and was in the country from A.D. 673 to 687 also highlighted some of
the brighter aspects of the prevalent system of education.

The main educational centers of Buddhism were Monasteries and Viharas. A network of such
centers of education was started during the period. The entire educational system was
controlled and supervised by the monks. There was provision for both religions as well as
secular types of education. Therefore, emphasis was laid on personal conduct rather than
external rites and ceremonies as in the Brahmanic system. Thus the aim of education was to
prepare for a good life, a moral life.

The whole discipline (Siksha) had three important aspects viz, morality contemplation and
wisdom. In Buddhist morality, there was infusion of practical needs with theoretical knowledge
and stress on ascetic life against worldly life. With the advent of Buddhisim the demand for
education among the people considerably increased. The relaxation of barriers of caste in the
sphere of religion and learning helped for the expansion of education.

But it was confined to the upper classes of the society and did not make any headway among
masses. As Buddhism became popular and attracted people, the demand for education
considerably increased. Be it as it may, Buddhisim broke the monopoly of any particular section
of the society pertaining to teaching and learning.
Aims of Education:
It is evident that during this period, the aims of education were similar to those of Vedic age.
Instead of emphasizing spiritual elevation, the stress was laid on the development of personality
which included physical, moral, mental and intellectual development; formation of moral
character, which included among other things, right conduct, integrity, morality, piety, humility
and good virtues.

Besides, religious education was given top priority and efforts were made to achieve Salvation
or Nirvana through religious education. There was also provision for imparting worldly and
practical knowledge along with religious education.

Educational Organisation:
During this period education was institutionalized and the doors of education were open to all.
In different parts of the country monasteries sprung up for diffusing education-religious,
academic and practical. In consideration of their accessibility the sites of the monasteries were
selected as centers of learning.

The arrangement of boarding and lodging being excellent in the monasteries, many persons
from wealthy, cultured and respectable families, were attracted towards education. The
demand for education considerably developed in the upper class of the society. But it had no
significant impact the masses.

Besides the monasteries, there were the Vedic schools and Secular schools. The rules of
administering both the Vedic and Buddhist institutions were of a similar nature. In the Vedic
age, the educational institutions were isolated and independent. The education depended upon
the system of individual schools and a succession of ideal teachers and disciples. But during the
period under review there was a confederation of such schools in large monastic institutions
comprising a number of teachers and students.

The Buddhist educational system got further stability as a result of elaborate residential and
other arrangements. Mr. F.E. Keay remarked, “The Brahmanical solitude of hermitages in the
woods as an aid to the spiritual life came to be substituted by the social atmosphere of the
Sangha humming with activities of several hundreds of monks in residences near busy haunts of
men. Serenity, joy and energetic striving were the characteristics of this atmosphere.

But the Hindu residential system at the house of the preceptor was free from the artificialities
of a boarding school or residential university and in this respect it was superior to Buddhist
residential system in the monasteries. It was this artificiality of the system that ultimately led to
the decline of the Buddhist monasteries.

Admission:
The conditions of admission to the Sangha, or Community of Bhikhus were very simple. Like the
Vedic educational system, the ceremony of initiation formed an essential part of Buddhist
education. The first act of admission was called the ‘Pabbajja’ or the preparatory ordination for
education. After this ordination, at the age of eight the boy would enter the monastery as a
‘Shramana’.

Before admission to the order, the boy had to take oath of ‘Three Refuges’. Buddham Sharanam
Gachchhami, (I take refuge with the Buddha), Dhararam Sharanam Gachchhami (I take refuge
with the religion) and Sangham Sharanam Gachhami (I take refuge with the order). As far as
possible caste distinction was not coming in the way of admission. According to Buddha, the
different castes became one after being admitted to the order, just like the rivers by merging
into the ocean became one with it.

Education in colonial period

The colonial era startyed with the entrenchment of east india company as a mercantile interest
in the sub-continent. The christian missionaries , whoi were brought by the company as an
obligation, started their proselytizing activities and opened schools for the converted lower
castes. The missionary activity in education became another structural elaboration of the
indigeneous system.
The company began conquering more territories and ruling over them with the protection of
the british empire. The hindu upper castesresisted the missionary activities. The company
didnot want to interfere in the educational spheres. The politico-economic compulsions of the
period compelled the rulers to adopt to a pro-native educational system policy. In 1781, the
calcutta Madrasa was started to reconciliate the influential Muslims and Hindus. This was
followed bythe starting of the Benaras Sanskrit College in 1791. Right from 1797, Charles Grant,
an influential statesman , was advocating that english education be introduced in India. The
famous Macaulays Minutes’ forcefully supported the cause of english education in the Indian
territories, to prepare the people who could occupy the subordinate positions in the colonial
government and help in administering the natives. English became the official language in 1837.
Demand for English education was created by throwing open the subordinate positions for the
natives in 1844. In 1854 Charles Grant, while supporting the educational policy of education
through English Language, put forward the case for education through native languages. No
action was taken due to political reasons.

Till now we have seen the change of education system with minimum control from the rulers,
being the privilege of some, meant only for learning the skills of the trade from the artisans, to
gradually becoming the pulse of the ruling power. It slowly takes up the active role of ushering
change as desired by the governing body.

In 1857, Indian territories came under direct rule of the british Crown. During the same year
the government of india started universitites at calcutta,Madras and Bombay. Primary education
suffered neglect till 1882, when the Indian Education Commission recommended providing of
funds. Thus, the management of primary education came under local self-government. This
period also saw the creation of Indian Education Services in 1896. There was a rapid growth of
private schools and colleges while indigenous schools decayed and disappeared.

Under Lord Curzon (1902-1921), the policy shifted towards the improvement of quality of
education. More finances were available for education. Government assumed a more active
role in the field of education. There was a large scale unprecedented expansion of government
–supported and government-recognised institutions of education at all levels. But the literacy
rates and enrolment were far from satisfactory.

Under Diarchy (1921-1937), the governance of education was under the legislature but the
financial arrangements were with the government. Though there were conflicts, this period was
marked by considerable progress. There was a widespread growth of institutions and enrolment
. one important development of the period was the use of indian languages as the medium of
education at the secondary level.

The last decade of the colonial rule saw the abolishment of the Diarchy, slackening of secondary
education and the expansion of higher education. The expansion of primary education was also
halted.

During 1937-39, far reaching decisions were taken by the elected Provincial governments in the
field of education. The new system of education proposed by Gandhiji was worked out in detail
by the educationist, under the leadership of Dr. Zakir Hussain. Unfortunately for the common
people of India. The full-scale implementation was not on the cards, as the ELECTED
PROVINCIAL governments had to resign because of the political differences with the British in
the context of the outbreak of the Second World War.

The Sargeant plan: the plan had the clearcut objective of achieving educational development in
40 years which would be comparable to the level of educational develoment prevailing in
Britain at that time. It addressed universal compulsory education,high school, training of
teachers, creation of employment bureau and education of physically and mentally
handicapped. It definitely shows the earnestness with which the government tried to improve
quality of education comprehensively, though it was criticised for many reasons.

New Economic Reforms and its Impact on Education

Economic development naturally makes growing demands on human resources and in a
democratic set up it falls for values and attitudes in the building of which the quality of
education is an important element. For economic development to make its full contribution to
the well being of the mass of the people, programmes of education should be ahead of
economic plan. Modern economic development calls for a wide diffusion of the scientific
temper of mind a sense of dignity of labour and discipline in service and a readiness to adopt
new techniques and new knowledge to the needs of the people. These values and attitudes will
be realized in everyday life in the measure in which they are express through educational ideas
and practices.

• The first five years plan 1951-1956: the first five year plan made a provision for
educational development. The provision was no debt in adequate. The following areas of
education were selected for development during the plan period.

Preschool education, primary education, secondary education, university education

social education, professional education, women education and other educational
programme.

• Second Five year Plan (1956-1961): The progress achieved in different branches of
education was reviewed by the central and state government, with a view to formulating
programmes for the second five year plan. The second plan laid emphasis on linking education
with economic development.

• Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966): the third five year plan proposes to continue the work
started under the first and second plans. It refers to education as the most important single
factor governing the economic and technological growth of the country. It also considers
education as effective instrument for creating a social order based on the values of freedom,
social justice and equal opportunities and promoting national integration. There will be special
concentration on the education of girls and the existing disparities in levels of development in
education between boys and girls will be substantially reduced.
• Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-1974):the fourth plan adopted three different approaches ,
they are as follows:

1. The continuation of the approaches adopted in the first three five year plan, i.e.
comprehensive approach, with an emphasis on quantity and comparative neglect of quality.

2. The Fourth plan was a plan for consideration is an approach for consideration does not
imply a total elimination expansion which is neither possible nor desirable.

3. The third approach was the selected sector approach i.e. vital sectors where selected on
priority basis. To follow up the three approaches the further measures were taken:

• Intensive efforts to raise additional sources both in the public and private sector.

• Evaluation of a new concept of the centrally sponsored sector.

• More emphasis was laid on the human factors, educational administrators the teachers,
students, the parents and the social leaders.

Priorities: During the fourth plan priority was given to the following aspects of education.

1. Expansion of elementary education.

2. Provision of facilities for backward areas and communities and girls.

3. Improvement of teacher education.

4. Expansion and improvement of science education.

5. Raising standard of post graduate education and research.

6. Development of Indian languages and book production especially text-books.

7. Consolidation of technical educational including re-organization of polytechnic

education.

8. Development of youth service.

9. Increased use of educational technologies, part-time education and correspondence
courses.

10. Improvement of curricula and text books.

11. In service education of teachers and research in methods of teaching.

Education progress in the fourth plan were related to social and economic objectives of
the country it was a perspective plan based on man-power needs, social demand and
availability of financial, material and human resources.

Fifth five year plan (1974-1979): Plan outlays for education during the first three years of the
plan have been somewhat modest because of the economic situation but the growth in the
total governmental expenditure on education, both plan and non-plan must be considered
substantial.

Elementary Education: Very high priority has been given to this programme. Adequate provision
has been made for additional enrolment in terms of teaching personnel and construction of
class-rooms, especially in backward areas. In addition to the expansion of educational facilities,
provision has been made for curricular reorientation, work experience and strengthening of
educational institutions for teachers.

Secondary Education: The existing trend in the increase of enrolment has been kept in view.
After detailed preparatory work, vocationalisation at the secondary stage will be initiated in
selected areas during the next two years so that well-conceived and fully thought-out
programmes are implemented.

University Education: The main emphasis in university education is on consolidation and

improvement. Provision is, however, being made to provide additional educational facilities to
weaker sections of society and in the backward areas. Facilities through evening colleges,
correspondence courses and private study will be expanded. Post-graduate education and
research will continue to be strengthened through the development of centers of advanced
study, science service centers, common computer facilities and regional instrumentation
workshops. Programmes of faculty development, like summer institutes, seminars and
orientation courses will be stepped up.

Sixth five year plan (1980-1985): Education, broadly perceived as a seamless continuum
of lifelong learning, is essential for human resource development at every age level. In a pack-ay
of developmental inputs available to the community, education should form an effective means
to improve the status and character of living patterns of the people, help intellectual, social and
emotional development of the individuals and to enable 'them to meet their basic needs of
daily life. The long range goal of educational planning is then to make available diverse
net-works of facilities and programmes for education, combining formal and non-formal modes
of learning. It should enable all citizens to acquire literacy, numeracy, computational skills, basic
understanding of the surrounding world and functional skills of relevance to daily life and to
local environment. The emphasis in our planning efforts would thus shift from provision of
inputs and expansion of facilities in general terms to results to be achieved and tasks to be
performed with specific reference to target groups of population, particularly the socially
disadvantaged.

Programmes of human resource development have a four-fold perspective; (i) to

prepare individuals for assuming their role as responsible citizens; (ii) to develop in them
scientific outlook, awareness of their rights and responsibilities as well as a consciousness of the
processes of development, (iii) to sensitize them to ethical, social and cultural values which go
to make an enlightened nation; and (iv) to impart to them knowledge, skills and attitudes which
would enable them to contribute to the productive programmes in the national development.
In the realization of this, educational system and programmes have to be directed towards a set
of goals and tasks. Among these would be the following:

• to guarantee to all equality of opportunity for education for improving the quality of life
and their participation in the tasks of promoting the general well-being of the society;
• to afford to all young people and adults, irrespective of age, the means for ample
self-fulfillment within the framework of harmonious development which reflects the needs of
the community to which they belong;

• to provide for a continuous process of lifelong education for physical, intellectual and
cultural development of people and for inculcating in them capabilities to cope with and
influence social change;

• to establish dynamic and beneficial linkages between education, employment and

development with due regard for the economic and social aims of the community;

• to promote respect for, and belief in values of national integration, secularism,

democracy and dignity of labour;

• to sensitize academic communities to the problems of poverty, illiteracy and

environmental degradation through extension services and organized participation in poverty
reduction and environment improvement programmes;

• to facilitate development, mobilization, organization and utilization of the youth to

involve and participate in the process of national development; and

• To support the growth of arts, music, poetry, dance, and drama, including folk art, as
instruments of culture, education and national integration.

Seventh five year plan (1985-1990): The Seventh Plan provides for reorientation of the
education system so as to prepare the country to meet the challenges of the next century. The
main thrust areas in the Seventh Plan would be:

(i) Achievement of universal elementary education,

(ii) Eradication of illiteracy in the age-group 15-35 years;

(iii) Vocationalisation and skill-training programmes at different levels of education;

(iv) Up gradation of standards and modernization at all stages of education with effective
links with the world of work and with special emphasis on science and environment and on
value orientation;

(v) Provision of facilities for education of high quality and excellence in every district of the
country; and

(vi) Removal of obsolescence and modernization of technical education.

The major strategies for achieving these objectives would include effective decentralized
planning and organizational reforms, promotion of non-formal and open learning systems,
adoption of low cost alternatives and optimum use of resources, forging of beneficial linkages
with industry and development agencies, and mobilization of community resources and societal
involvement.

Elementary Education: Overriding priority will be given to realizing universalisation of

elementary education for children in the age-group 6-14 years by 1990; this will continue to be
part of the Minimum Needs Programme. The emphasis will shift from mere enrolment to
retention of pupils in schools and to the attainment by them of basic elements of learning. The
objective is sought to be achieved through a combination of formal and non-formal methods,
focusing sharply on the needs of girls and of children belonging to the economically and socially
weaker sections.

The enrolment at the elementary stage is estimated to have reached nearly 112 million
by the end of the Sixth Plan period. For achieving the goal of universalisation by the end of the
Seventh Plan, over 50 million children will have to be additionally enrolled. A projection of
enrolment in full-time elementary schools is given in Table 10.1. Increasing enrolment in
full-time schools beyond this level of 137 million in classes I to VIII might not be feasible due to
socio-economic reasons and other factors. Even to achieve this level effectively, sustained
efforts will have to be made to reduce the number of dropouts.

Non-formal education would be the other important programme for the achievement of
universalisation of elementary education as this can be useful to those who are not able or
willing to attend full-time schools. The number of children to be covered by the non-formal
programme is reckoned to be of the order of 25 million. Non-formal education in the Seventh
Plan will, therefore, have to be expanded at a fast pace and made acceptable with a variety of
forms to suit the varying needs of the target groups. Non-formal system should be made flexible
and appropriately linked to the formal system. Adequate textual material with area-specific
background and supplementary reading material would be developed and made available to
students. Adequate teacher-training arrangements will be made for teachers participating in the
non-formal system. For optimum use of resources, the schools, the non-formal education
centers and adult education centers should develop linkages and be educationally integrated
with development programmes.

Teacher Education: In 1987-88, a Centrally-Sponsored Scheme (CSS) for restructuring

and reorganization of teacher education was started, which included Mass Orientation of School
Teachers (MOST), strengthening of Secondary Teacher Education Institutions. State Councils of
Educational Research and Training (SCERT), setting up of District Institutes of Education and
Training (DIETs) and establishment and strengthening of Institutes of Advanced Studies in
Education (IASE) in Universities.

Eight five year plan (1992-1997): As part of NPE, new CSSs for vocation of higher
secondary stage, improvement of science education and environmental orientation to school
education were started. The new Central schemes of Navodaya Vidyalayas (NVs) and National
Open School (NOS) were also initiated. The existing schemes of Integrated Education,
Educational Technology and Computer Literacy Studies (CLASS) Project were strengthened.

The Open School affiliated to Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) was
converted into autonomous NOS in 1989. Under the CLASS Project, 2,598 schools were
equipped with computers, with 60 institutes providing resource support to these schools. As
many as 275 NVs designed to provide good quality school education to talented rural children
have been established in 29 States/Union Territories. As on March 31, 1991, there were 64,517
students in the NVs and the pass percentage of the first batch, which took Class X examination
was 95.77. The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) brought out the
National Curriculum Framework for all stages of education and undertook a massive revision of
text books for classes I-XII on the basis of the revised syllabi designed as per the framework.

Ninth five year plan (1997-2002): The strategy of educational development during the
next decade of planning takes into account various emerging factors like

(i) The national goal of providing primary education as a universal basic service,

(ii) The Supreme Court judgment declaring education to be a fundamental right for children
up to 14 years of age,

(iii) The need to operationalise programmes through Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs),

(iv) The legal embargo on child-labour,

(v) The provisions of the Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995, and

(vi) Heightened awareness of human rights violations in respect of women, children and
persons from disadvantaged sections of society. It is also realized that a large number of out-of-
school children, who figure neither in school enrolments nor in the calculations of identifiable
child-labour, are to be provided access to schooling.

It is equally necessary that the problem of universal elementary education and literacy
is tackled through a strong social movement with clearly perceived goals and involving the State
and Central Governments, Panchayati Raj Institutions, Urban Local Bodies, voluntary agencies,
social action groups, the media and every supportive element in society.

Adult Education: Adult literacy and further education of the literates, being as vital an
area of concern as universal elementary education, more intensive efforts will be made to
spread literacy in the rural and tribal areas which are lagging behind, with special attention to
women and such marginalized groups as small and marginal farmers, landless labourers and
educationally neglected tribal groups. For this purpose, a disaggregated and decentralized mode
of planning and implementation will be adopted. Interlink age of the adult education
programme with income generation, better health and nutrition, women's empowerment and
overall rural development will be focused upon. At the grass-roots level, people's participation
will be ensured in planning and implementation of local programmes.

Secondary Education: In spite of increased enrolment in secondary and higher secondary

schools, the age-cohort percentage continues to be low. More importantly, there are disparities
in educational access as between the urban, rural and tribal areas. Gender disparities also exist.
Secondary education curricula continue to be liberal and oriented to the first degree courses, in
spite of the strong advocacy in favour of vocationalisation and investments made to divert
students to vocational courses.

The Ninth Plan will lay emphasis on the revision of curricula so as to relate these to work
opportunities. Girls and members of disadvantaged groups will be provided with scholarships,
hostels and other incentives, for facilitating their participation in secondary education.
Compensatory education will be provided, where necessary, for meeting the equity criteria.

University and Higher Education: The excellence of our university products and professionals is
well acknowledged both at home and aid. The competitive advantage of the country can be
maintained and improved only if the university and higher education sectors perform well. Their
contribution to improving our capability to interact effectively with the fast expanding global
techno-economic systems has been significant and their potential needs to be harnessed to the
full.

A critical overview of higher education in India has brought out a number of issues. Chief
among them are the deterioration in quality, the resource crunch leading to poor infrastructure
and the serious problems of governance brought about by the influence of factors and forces
extraneous to educational objectives. The priority for the Ninth Plan will be the expansion of
education mainly in the un served areas and with a focus on improving the coverage of women
and the disadvantaged groups, using financial assistance as a leverage to secure better
performance of the system, updating of syllabi to enhance their relevance, improvement in
internal resource generation and implementation of a model code of governance to reduce
non- academic influence in the higher education system.
 Tenth five year plan (2002-2007): Education is the base for economic growth as well as
social transformation for any country. Among all the key indicators of socio-economic
development like economy's growth rate, literacy rate, birth rate, death rate and infant
mortality rate (IMR), the literacy rate of the country is one of the most vital one as the rise and
fall of others largely depend upon country's literacy rate. In India, high literacy rate leads to low
birth rate as well as low IMR and it also increases life expectancy rate. So, the importance of
education industry in India can be understood.

The education system in India is much more improved these days and is one of the
leading ones in the world. It is also one of the biggest contributors to the economic growth of
the nation. Besides various government initiatives, the role of the private institutions in the
development of education industry in India cannot be denied. However, there are also some
glooming statistics as well. Despite such rising investment in education industry, 40% of
country's population is still illiterate. Only 15% of the students can go to next level to reach high
school.

The Higher Education: India has world's third largest higher secondary education system
with a number of institutions. More and more students are going for higher education these
days. The result gets reflected on the number of students enrolling for higher education. The
number of institutions is also increasing day by day.

Eleventh five year plan (2007-2012): The Eleventh Five Year Plan would focus on education,
particularly vocational and science education, with a five-fold increase in the spending on this
sector compared to the Tenth Plan.

"The Eleventh Five Year Plan is in fact a National Education Plan. The Plan allocation for
education has been stepped up from 7.7% of gross budgetary support for the Plan, in the Tenth
Plan, to over 19% in the Eleventh Plan. In nominal terms, there is going to be a five-fold increase
in spending on education in the Eleventh plan. This is an unprecedented increase in financial
support for education in India," he pointed out.

The Prime Minister said the Central government would launch a Mission on Vocational
Education and Skill Development through which 1,600 new Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs)
and Polytechnics, 10,000 new vocational schools and 50,000 new Skill Development Centres
would be opened across the country.

"Our strategy for the promotion of science education in the Eleventh Plan will aim at
expanding and strengthening the Science & Technology base in our Universities and promoting
excellence through competitively secured funding at centers for advanced research. In addition,
discipline-specific education programmes will be launched in strategic sectors like nuclear
sciences and space sciences to capture talent at the "plus-two" stage itself," he added.

The Prime Minister said this would mark a quantum leap in the infrastructure available
for good quality teaching and research. He reiterated the Central Government's commitment to
increase the annual expenditure on science and technology from less than 1% of the GDP to 2%
of GDP in the next five years.

"We must make science a preferred discipline of study for our students. We must attract
the best and the brightest young people to a career in science. We need both a qualitative
improvement and a quantitative expansion in the pool of science students in India. This means
we will also need more teachers. We will need an army of teachers, especially in the basic
sciences and in the field of mathematics. Shortage of good teachers is an immediate challenge,"
he told the delegates attending the five-day Science Congress.

He urged the academic community to come forward with innovative ideas to help
overcome and meet this challenge effectively. "Tried and tested methods will not suffice. We
need fresh creative thinking. Out-of-the-box solutions. The academic community too must be
willing to think creatively," he observed.
 Twelfth five year plan (2012-2017): This report attempts to look at the Twelfth Five Year
Plan’s recommendations on higher education from a private sector perspective and suggests
strategies for quality improvement in higher education.

With the objectives and proposals of the Plan as the basis, the report mentions that the
private sector has played an instrumental role in the growth of the sector. Private institutions
now account for 64% of the total number of institutions and 59% of enrolment in the country,
as compared to 43% and 33%, respectively, a decade ago.

The Government has also given the required thrust to the sector in its Five Year Plans.
During the Eleventh Plan period (2007–2012), India achieved a Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of
17.9%, up from 12.3% at the beginning of the Plan period.

India’s higher education system faces challenges on three fronts:

Expansion: India’s GER of16% was much below the world average of 27%, as well as that of
other emerging countries such as China (26%) and Brazil (36%) in 2010.

Excellence: Faculty shortage - there is 40% and 35% shortage of faculty in state and central
universities, respectively.

Accredited institutions - 62% of universities and 90% of colleges were average or below average
in 2010, on the basis of their NAAC accreditation.

Low citation impact - India’s relative citation impact is half the world average.

Equity - There is wide disparity in the GER of higher education across states and the Gross
Attendance Ratio (GAR) in urban and rural areas, and gender- and community-wise

“India has one of the largest higher education systems in the world, with 25.9 million
students enrolled in more than 45,000 degree and diploma institutions in the country. It has
witnessed particularly high growth in the last decade.

Moreover, the Government intends to achieve enrolment of 35.9 million students in

higher education institutions, with a GER of 25.2%, by the end of the Twelfth Five Year Plan
period through the co-existence of multiple types of institutions including research-centric,
teaching. The private sector can be expected to play an instrumental role in the achievement of
these outcomes through the creation of knowledge networks, research and innovation centres,
corporate-backed institutions, and support for faculty development”.

Liberalization and its impact on education(Indian perspective)

Liberalization refers to relaxing certain reforms and policies in India. These reforms can be
termed as relaxation of previous government's restrictions usually in areas of social or economic
policy. Usually the term is used in reference to Economic Liberalization. Though India is
Economically Liberal, the Education System is not Liberal. There are many reasons, one of them
is that the national education industry does not want competitiveness and Government does
not want to give away its control. The higher education system in India suffers from lack of
autonomy and burden of affiliation. It is characterized by extreme rigidity and lack of flexibility.
The real weakness of the higher education is in the structure itself, and there is a need for
introspection and reflection. Also the public mind-set is for short cut and easy going. Our policy
in terms of education is focused more on only expanding the system with no focus on for quality
education. One of the basic problems today is the inability of the university system to provide
higher education to all who aspire for it.

According to the Article 25 of the Companies Registration Act educational institutes in

India can be set up only by trusts, societies and charitable companies, but the profits cannot be
taken out of the institution and have to be reinvested. However the government does not
define and clarify rules for foreign universities to set up campuses in India. Interested parties
have been hesitant about moving forward until they are clear about the degree of regulation,
funding, and other issues. Though foreign educational institutions are not permitted to offer
degree certifications in India, the education department has allowed nearly 150 foreign
institutes to offer courses with Indian varsities under an arrangement that, a part of the course
will be done in India and the rest will be done abroad.

Positive Impact:

• Liberalization will bring a constant stream of funding which will also facilitate a
research-based career and make it a viable option for the future of Indian teachers and
students.

• It will expand the supply which is in shortage and the competition among educational
institutions will ensure that they do not charge excessive premium for education. Increase in the
supply of education will automatically result in the fall education expenditure.

• The Indian economy which is majorly fuelled by the service industry will get a boost with
education sector becoming a large chunk of economic source.

• Increased in educated population implies rapid developments in technology and

communications. It also implies the shift of society from industrialization based towards
information based society.

• Liberalization offers students an option of studying close to home with the added
benefit of a degree which will be valid worldwide.

Negative Impact:
• The international higher education is largely an unregulated market. While no doubt that
there are prestigious universities hoping to build links overseas, recruit top students to their
home campuses and strengthen their brand abroad.

• A foreign label in degree is tempting enough to make drop their wisdom. There are also
fake institutes which are looking to stuff their pockets whenever the opportunity arises.

• There may be unforeseen outcomes which come to light only after the outcome occurs
local institutions which have limited capital will not be able to survive, rendering many jobless.

• Even the reputed ones will face competition as their national certificates will be less
valued as compared to the world recognized certificates.

Possible Solution:

• A possible solution to this policy is that the government should be kept out of the
education business, partially if not fully. Its role should be restricted to regulating the sector.
Just like in other markets, the educational market might have its share of market failure.

• An effective educational regulator in India like SEBI, the RBI or TRAI is also needed which
will regulate the capital market, the banking sector and the telecom sector respectively.

• Certain independent rating agencies like ICRA or CARE are also required to rate the
institute and these ratings need to be made public as well.
Unit II

Constitution of India and Development of Education System

Constitutional Vision on Education; Providing Stress upon Article 45 and further Development:

Constitution of India and Democracy

As a nation we have been able to sustain a robust democratic polity. The vision of democracy
articulated by the Secondary Education Commission (1952) is worth recalling: Citizenship in a
democracy involves many intellectual, social and moral qualities…a democratic citizen should
have the understanding and the intellectual integrity to sift truth from falsehood, facts from
propaganda and to reject the dangerous appeal of fanaticism and prejudice … should neither
reject the old because it is old nor accept the new because it is new, but dispassionately examine
both and courageously reject what arrests the forces of justice and progress…..

For us to foster democracy as a way of life rather than only a system of governance, the values
enshrined in the Constitution assume paramount significance.

● The Constitution of India guarantees equality of status and opportunity to all

citizens. Continued exclusion of vast numbers of children from education and the
disparities caused through private and public school systems challenge the efforts
towards achieving equality. Education should function as an instrument of social
transformation and an egalitarian social order.
● `Justice—social, economic and political—to all citizens is integral to strengthening
democracy.
● Liberty of thought and action is a fundamental value embedded in our Constitution.
Democracy requires as well as creates a kind of citizen who pursues her own
autonomously chosen ends and respects others’ right to do so as well.
 ● A citizen needs to internalise the principles of equality, justice and liberty to promote
fraternity among all.
● India is a secular democratic state, which means that all faiths are respected, but at
the same time the Indian state has no preference for any particu lar faith. The felt
need, today, is to inculcate among children a respect for all people regardless of their
religious beliefs.

India is a multicultural society made up of numerous regional and local cultures. People’s
religious beliefs, ways of life and their understanding of social relationships are quite distinct
from one another. All the groups have equal rights to co-exist and flourish, and the education
system needs to respond to the cultural pluralism inherent in our society. To strengthen our
cultural heritage and national identity, the curriculum should enable the younger generation to
reinterpret and re-evaluate the past with reference to new priorities and emerging outlooks of a
changing societal context. Understanding human evolution should make it clear that the
existence of distinctness in our country is a tribute to the special spirit of our country, which
allowed it to flourish. The cultural diversity of this land should continue to be treasured as our
special attribute. This should not be considered a result of mere tolerance. Creation of a
citizenry conscious of their rights and duties, and commitment to the principles embodied in
our Constitution is a prerequisite in this context.

Constitutional provisions in India for education

The Constitution of India has provided a large number of clauses and articles which have a
direct and indirect bearing on education.The four ideals of Justice,Liberty, Equality and
Fraternity has been incorporated for the elimination of the social inequalities, economic
disparities and political priveleges. The ideals of justice, equality, liberty and fraternity cannot
be realised unless through educationa and understanding among the people is created about
their significance. They are the guiding principles and the base on which future kaws and
regulations are framed. These are :
● Article 45: under the directive prionciple of the state policy provides that ‘state shall
endeavour to provide within a period of 10 yeears from the commencement of this
constitution for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the
age of 14 years’
● Article 351, article 29, article 350A-B are all related to the duty of the state with respect
ot language. While article 351 is concerned with the peomotion of hindi language,
Article 29 gives right to citizens to conserve and protect their language. Article 350A
states their right to provide facilities to linguistic minority groups for instruction in the
mother tongue during primary stage.
● Article 30 gives the right to minorities to establish the educational institution of their
choice and further says that the state shall not disciminate amongst any educational
institution on any ground. Article 28 declares that no religious instruction shall be
provided in an educational institution aided by the state.

The Constitution provides justice in economic social and ploitical spheres. Article 15 has
banned all discimination against citizens on grounds of religion, race, caste and sex.
Article 29 has provisions to eliminate discrimination on the basis of caste, creed and
colour in any government aided schools. Article 16 is devoted to special resesrvations
regarding educational facilities for scheduled castes.

The Constitution of India gave education a very prominent role in the development of
modern India. The education system was expected to build the values embedded in the
constitution, promote the educational interest of the weaker sections of educationally
and socially backward classes and provide resources for education to make primary
education compulsory. The education system being a subordinate system was given a
greater responsibility in turn the Constitution.
These Constitutional Provisions mentioned here has shown the efforts the State has
taken to guarantee facilitiesfor education to all, to eliminate discrimination and
exploitation of weaker sections of society and ensure the democratic provisions for
 everyone’s right to express themselves, so as to achieve the ideals enshrined in the
Constitution.

“The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009” is a historic legislation for
India. There are many reasons for calling it ‘historic’. It is the first and only Central Legislation on
school education- and as such it is applicable all over India. All school related laws prior to this
Act had been made by the respective states and such Acts were applicable to that State alone.

This Act gives education the status of a ‘justifiable’ fundamental right. Before this amendment,
free and compulsory education had been the subject of Article 45 of the list of ‘Directive
Principles of State Policy’ in the Constitution of India.

Article 45 states that “The state shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten years from the
commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education of all children until they
complete the age of fourteen years”.

However, States did not succeed in education even after 60 years of Independence. The
government could not be taken to court for its failure to provide universal free and compulsory
education, because Article 45 was not in the list of “fundamental” rights and therefore not
‘justifiable’. The RTE Act 2009 gives people the power to hold the government accountable in a
court of law for any lapse in relation to the provision of free and compulsory education for
children between the ages of six to fourteen years.

The third historic significance lies in the fact that this is the first time that a fundamental right
has over been added to the Constitution of India. “ The Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education Act 2009 made possible for the government to ‘notify’ or in other words,
declare the ‘coming into effect’ of the new fundamental right to education articulated in Article
21 A, which had been added to the Constitution of India in 2002.

The fourth historic significance of this Act is that it brought into the Constitution of India, its first
‘positive’ right. A ‘positive right’ may be understood as a right, for the implementation of which,
the government has to take special steps to make the right come into being. In order to ensure
that every child receives free education, the state ‘must do’ a number of positive actions to
make the right a reality.

The 1st draft of Bill was prepared in 2005 but it receive much criticism done to its mandatory
provision to provide 25% seats reservation for disadvantages children in Private School.

Bill was approved by Cabinet on 2ndJuly 2009, bill was passed by RajaSabah on 20thJuly 2009
and by Lok Sabha- 4th Aug. 2009 and Bill received assent from President of India on 26th
Aug.2009. Notified as law on 3rd September 2009 as “Children’s Right to Free and Compulsory
education act”. Law came to whole of India except Jammu and Kashmir on 1st April 2010.

Provisions of the Act

Rights of Children:

To free and compulsory admission, attendance and completion of Elementary Education in a

neighborhood school is the right of every child in the age group of 6 to 14.

(Free means removal by the state of any financial barrier that prevents a child from completing
eight years of schooling; and compulsory means it ensures the State that no child has left to get
elementary education. It is also parental duty to send children to school).

 Not enrolled or dropout children be admitted to an age appropriate class after a period
of Special Training.

 No child shall be failed or expelled from school up to class VIII (corresponds to the age
group 6-14).
Protecting the Right of the child in the School and the Classroom:

 The onus is on teachers and school heads.

 Preparing them to embrace a new culture through appropriate programmers is huge

challenge.

 Banning corporal punishment, no detention policy, continuous and comprehensive

evaluation, making schools and classrooms truly inclusive and so on.

 Protect the rights of the children to learn as per the curriculum through quality
education.

Schools:

 Norms and standards specified – applicable to all schools.

 Minimum infrastructure.

 Teacher-Pupil Ratio of 1:30 (class I-V) and 1:35 (class VI-VIII).

 School days (200 to 220 days) and total instructional hours (800 to 1000 hours) for class
I-V and VI-VIII accordingly.

 Working days for teachers- weekly 45 working hours of work for teachers to be applied
in every school.

Teachers:

 Qualification for appointment of teachers laid down at national level.

 Academic responsibility of the teachers specified.

 No private tuition by fulltime school teachers.

Bringing Community and Schools Closer:

 Community participation ensured through School Management Committee (SMC)

comprising parents, teachers and elected representatives in which.

 Three forth members from among parents of children in the school.

 Proportionate representation to weaker and deprived sections.

 Allocates major responsibility to the Local Authority-Panchayati Raj system.

 To proactively monitor the delivery of rights and entitlements of children.

Protection of the Right:

Independent monitoring of the implementation of the Act is assigned to the National

Council of Protection of Child Right (NCPCR), the main responsibilities are:

 Examine and review safeguards for right under this Act, and recommend measures for
effective implementation;

 Inquire into complaints relating to child’s right to free and compulsory education; and

 Conduct periodic social audit of the status of implementation and review.

Major Provisions:

1. The right of children to free and compulsory education till completion of elementary
education in a neighborhood school.

2. It clarifies that ‘compulsory education’ means obligation of the appropriate government

to provide free and completion of elementary education to every child in the six to fourteen age
group. ‘Free’ means that no child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses
which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education.

3. It makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age appropriate class.

4. It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments, local authority

and parents in providing free and compulsory education and sharing of financial and other
responsibilities between the Central and State Governments.

5. It lays down the norms and standards relating to inter alia, Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs)
buildings and infrastructure, school working days, teacher working hours.

6. It provides for rational deployment of teachers by ensuring that the specified pupil
teacher ratio is maintained for each school, rather than just as an average for the State or
District or Block, thus ensuring that there is practically no urban-rural imbalance in teacher
postings. It also prohibits deployment of teachers for non-educational work, other than
decennial census, elections to local authority, state legislatures, parliament, and disaster relief.

7. It provides for appointment of appropriately trained teachers, i.e. teachers with the
requisite training and academic qualifications.

8. For children in 6-14 age group it prohibits:

 Physical punishment and mental harassment,

 Screening procedures for admission,

 Capitation fees,

 Private tuition by teachers, and

 Running of schools without recognition.

9. It provides for following penalties:

 For charging capitation fee: fine up to 10 times the capitation fee charged.
 For resorting to screening during admission: Rs.25,000 for first contravention Rs.
50,000for each subsequent contravention; and

 For running a school without recognition: fine upto Rs.one lakh and in case of continuing
contravention Rs. 10,000 for each day during which the contravention continues.

10. It provides for development of curriculum in consonance with the values enshrined in
the Constitution and which would ensure the all-rounddevelopment of the child, building on
the child’s knowledge, potentiality and talent and making the child free from fear, trauma and
anxiety through a system of child friendly and child centered learning.

11. It provides for protection and monitoring of the child’s right to free and compulsory
education and redressal of grievances by the National and State Commissions for Protection of
Child Rights, which shall have the power of a civil court.

12. All private schools have to admit 25% children from disadvantaged groups from their
neighborhoods for free education, which can be extended if the number is not filled up with the
customary one km radius-every year in the class in which they induct new children.

In addition to the provision above, the Act also guarantees the following quality norms:

• Pupil Teacher Ratio of 30:1; for primary class (I-V) and 35:1for elementary class (V-VIII)
with minimum instructional hours of 4/ day and minimum working days of 200/annum;

• Building (all-weather, barrier-free access, boundary wall; one classroom for every
teacher; separate room for Head teacher; separate toilets; for boys and girls; safe drinking
water, kitchen for mid-day meal; playground);

• Teaching learning materials;

• Library; and

• Play and sports equipment.

Role of the Stakeholders

Central Government:

The Central government shall constitute a National Advisory Council of 15 members in the field
of elementary education and child development. The role of the Council is to advise the
government on the implementation of the Bill with respect to:

 Developing a National Curriculum Framework with the help of an appointed Academic

Authority

 Developing and enforcing standards of teacher qualification and training

 Providing technical and financial support and resources to the State governments for
innovation, research, planning and capacity building

 Amend the schedule by notification; and conduct of Central Teacher Eligibility Test
(CTET) for improving quality in elementary education.

State Government:

 Provide free and compulsory elementary education to all children.

 Ensure availability of a neighborhood school with requisite infrastructure, teachers

learning equipment as specified in the Act.

 Ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of elementary education for

every child.

 Prevent discrimination against any child on any ground.

 Provide infrastructure including staff, equipment, teacher training facilities, special

student training facilities and school building.

 Appoint an academic authority to see the development and better implementation of

RTE Act.
Local Authority:

 Maintain records of all children up to the age of 14 years residing in its jurisdiction.

 Ensure admission of all children, including children of migrant families.

 Ensure that no child is discriminated against any provision.

 Decide the academic calendar.

 Monitor functioning of schools in its jurisdiction.

Teachers:

 Maintain regularity and punctuality in school.

 Complete teaching of entire curriculum in specified time.

 Assess the learning ability of each child and provide supplementary additional
instruction if required.

 Hold regular meeting with parents and apprise them of regularity in attendance,
learning abilities, progress and other issues concerning the child.

School Management Committee (SMC):

All government, government aided and special category schools shall have to constitute
School Management Committee (SMC) as per Section 21 of the Act. Private schools are not
covered by Section 21 as they are already mandated to have management committees on the
basis of their trust/ society registrations. SMC’s shall comprise local authority officials, parents,
guardians and teachers.

SMC’s shall:

 Monitor the working of the school;

 Prepare and recommend the school development plan;

 Monitor the utilization of government grants; and

 Perform other functions as may be prescribed.

RTE Implementation: Issues and Challenges:

The major issues and challenges in implementation of Right to Education Act 2009, are as
follows:

 Every school needs to be equipped with certain minimum infrastructure.

 Ensuring teacher supply at the ratio of 1:30.

 Teacher-Pupil ratio to be monitored every year.

 More than million teachers have to be appointed immediately.

 Banning corporal punishment, no detention policy, continuous and comprehensive

evaluation, making schools and classrooms truly inclusive need to be done urgently.

 BRC and CRC need to be strengthened.

 CTET needs to be made mandatory for appointing the teachers and State level Teacher
Eligibility Test should be conducted soon.

 Every school should have a School Management Committee and community needs to
come closer to the school system.

 Capacity building programmes at school level should be organized.

 Private school managements need to come forward to accept the challenge.

 Teacher education institutes need to be empowered with suitable curriculum to train
the teacher trainees on the light of Right to Education.

 State SCERTs, CTE, DITEs, BRC, and CRC should organize and conduct short term
programme to develop awareness among the teachers about the right implementation of Right
to Education Act.

 At the school level, teachers and school management need to come forward to make the
community members and parents aware about the Right to Education Act.

CONCLUSION:

The enactment of the Right to Education Act (2009) is the culmination of a commitment
made in the Directive Principles of the Constitution. From being a non-enforceable direction, to
becoming a fundamental right, the journey has been long and arduous. The implementatoin of
right to education will not be successful unless acess to education is translated in completion of
education and meaningful learning experience for all children.for education to be a meaningful
right it must be available accessible, acceptable and adaptable.
 Source : Katarina Tomasevski: education and 4 As

The Current Constitutional Provision and Quality Perspective

Universalisation of Elementary Education:

UEE has been accepted as a national goal. The 10thfive year plans envisage UEE to mean
universal access, universal retention and universal achievement. Universalisation of elementary
education has got following three steps:

1. Universalisation of Provision

2. Universalisation of Enrolment

3. Universalisation of Retention

Universalisation of Provision: It means that school facilities be provided to all the children
between the age group 6-14 in the country and that the school should be within the walking
distance from the home of a child. SSA has made this possible in a fairly large extend and we
had succeeded in this direction.
Universalisation of Enrolment: It means that all children between the age group 6-14 years be
enrolled by the primary school. Firstly, try to find out why children do not enroll in the school?

The causes for non-enrolment are:

a) Ignorance of parent

b) Importance of education not known to parent and isolation of school and community.

c) Financial problem

How can we promote enrolment?

a) Let us educate the parents through adult education.

b) There should be intensive survey of the area where enrolment is less.

c) Enrolment drives should be launched and teacher/SMC who enrolls the maximum
should be given some prizes- there should be a scheme of incentives for teachers.

Universalisation of Retention: It means that once a child joins the school, he should remain
there till the completion of his elementary school course. If a child leaves the primary school
without the completion of his course, the ideal of UEE stands defeated. Not only the admitting a
child in a school is important, but his retention in the school is supreme important.

Problems in achieving the Universalisation of Elementary Education:

There are various problems because of which the UEE has not been a success. Let u examine
some of these problems in details:

1. Apathy of Parent: a majority of parents in India do not bother about the education of
their children. They think that modern education is useless since nobody bothered about their
education, why should they bother about the education of their children.
2. Lack of Purpose in Education: this may be the universal argument at all levels of Indian
education today. The lack of purpose is more felt at the elementary level. It is better to go
illiterate than to learn useless things or things which are of no use later in life when one grows
up.

3. Large Birth Rate: All efforts to make primary education compulsory and free, so as to
bring every one under the roof of the school up to elementary level are being frustrated by the
tremendous increase in population.

4. Hold of Religion and Tradition: The education of girls is another reason because of which
the efforts to provide cent per cent mass elementary education have failed. Some parents in far
flung areas simply do not want their daughters to be educated.

5. Poverty of Parents: One of the major causes which have not fulfil the constitutional
directive of providing free and compulsory education to all children in the required age group is
because of the poverty of parents. The moment child attains the age of five to six; he can help a
lot in earning money for the family. He is a great help in looking after the animals or carrying
food to the parents working in the fields in the villages. Many of the parents cannot afford to
meet the day to day expenses of the child incurred by him at school in connection with his
education. He is withdrawn from the classes and made to earn either at home or outside may
be employed as a domestic servant.

6. Lack of Teachers Especially Women Teachers: In many villages and far flung areas many
people does not like that their daughter should go to male teachers for even their elementary
education. Thus, because of the lack of women teachers, many girls between the age group of
6-11 remain uneducated.

7. Failure to Check Wastage: We have failed to check the wastage at this level. Many
children drop out after 3rd class or the primary school. Only 40% of all those who took
admission in 1st class reach the fifth primary level. This leaves many illiterates on our hands.

8. Gap between the school management and community members.

9. Poor Education of backward section and classes: we have large number of tribes who are
backward. They never bother about the education of their off springs. They have different
values of life. Tribes like Sansis who keep on migrating and it is very difficult to catch them, to
settle them and to provide education to them.

There are continuous efforts being made by the Government of India, to improve the quality of
education and to achieve the goal of Universalisation of Elementary Education.

1. RTE- 2009

2. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)

3. Mid-Day Meal Scheme(MDM)

4. Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV)

5. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)

Right to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE Act) 2009: For details please refer to
constitutional vision on education: providing stress upon article 45 and further development (at
beginning of this Unit II).

 Sharva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA):SSA has been operational since 2000-2001 to provide for a
variety of intervention for universal access and retention, bridging of gender and social category
gaps in elementary education and improving the quality of learning. It is a programme for
achievement of Universalisation of Elementary Education in a time-bound manner, as mandated
by 86th Amendment to the Constitution of Indian making free and compulsory education to all
children of 6-14 age groups as a fundamental right.

SSA focuses on institutional reforms, sustainable financing, community ownership,

institutional capacity building improving main stream educational administration, community
based monitoring with full transparency, accountability to community, priority to girls’
education and focus on the inclusion and participation of children from SC/ST minority groups,
urban deprived children of other disadvantaged groups and children with special needs.
 SSA aims to improve enrolment, retention and quality of education to enable
children to achieve grade appropriate levels of learning.In September 2009, the
Government set up Committee under the chairpersonship of Shri Anil Bordia, former Union
Education Secretary, to suggest follow up action on SSA vis-à-vis the RTE Act. The
Committee had a series of interactions with State Education Secretaries, educationists,
representatives of teachers’ unions, voluntary organisations and civil society organisations. The
committee’s report, entitled “Implementation of RTE Act and Resultant Revamp of
SSA”. Submitted in April 2010.

It is a time bound integrated approach in partnership with state.

 All children of 6-14 years to complete 5yrs primary education by 2007.

 All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.

 All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010.

 Focus on bridge all gender and social category gaps at Primary stage by 2007 and at
Elementary Education level by 2010.

 Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for

life.

Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDM):MDM Scheme grew out of the National Programme of
Nutritional Support to Primary Education. It was launched on 15th August 1995. The main
objectives of MDM was to:

 Improve child health, enrolment and attendance rate.

 Improve their ability to concentrate and also incentivize parents to send their children to
school.
 It covers children from all the blocks of the country who are studying in government
schools class I-IV.

 It supports the goal of UEE by providing cooked meal to children in Elementary level
which encourage enrollment, attendance and retention.

Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV):The scheme was introduced by the

Government of India in August 2004, then integrated in the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan Programme,
to provide educational facilities for girls belonging to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes,
other Backward Classes, minority communities and families below the poverty line in
Educational Backward Blocks.

Objectives of KGBV:

 Looking at enrollment trends, there remain significant gaps in the enrollment of girls at
the elementary level as compared to boys, especially at the upper primary levels.

 To ensure quality education is feasible and accessible to the girls of disadvantaged

groups of society by setting up residential schools with boarding facilities at elementary level.

 Concentration of tribal population with low female literacy/a large number of girls out of
school, SC,OBC, girls out of school etc.

Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA):

The project was initiated byMHRD Government of India on March 2009. It is committed
to make secondary education of good quality available, accessible and affordable, to all children
in the age group 14-18 years. It also focus on the removal of gender, socio-economic and
disability barriers and providing schools within a reasonable walkable distance of every
habitation.

Objectives of RMSA:

It aim to achieve an education by conforming to prescribed norms, removing gender,

socio-economic and disability barriers providing universal access to secondary level education
by 2017, i.e. by the end of the 12th five years plan and achieving universal retention by 2020.

 Additional enrolment of more than 32 lakh students by 2011-2012.

 Strengthening of 44,000 existing secondary schools,

 Opening of around 11,000 new secondary schools,

 Appointment of additional teachers to improve pupil teacher ratio,

 Construction of more than 80,000 additional classrooms,

Scheme for setting up 6000 model schools at block level in which at least one good
quality secondary school in every block including the provision of innovative curriculum
pedagogy practices and model infrastructure, evaluation and school governance.

District Primary education Programme (DPEP):

The Centrally Sponsored Scheme of District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was launched
in 1994 as a major initiative to revitalize the primary education system and to achieve the
objectives of Universalization of Primary education.

DPEP adopts a holistic approach to universalize access, retention and improve learning
achievement and to reduce disparities among social groups.

Adopting an “area specific approach” with district as the unit, of planning, the key strategies of
the programme have been to retain the sensitivity to local conditions and ensuring full
participation of the community. It also seeks to strengthen the capacity of national, state and
district institutions and organization, for planning, management and professional support in the
field of primary education.

DPEP is based on the principle of “additionally” and is structured to fill in the existing gaps by
provisions made under central and state sector schemes for primary education. The state
governments are required to at least maintain expenditure in real terms at base year level.

The basic objectives of DPEP are:

 To provide all children access to primary education through either the formal or
non-formal stream.

 To reduce differences in enrolment, drop-out rates and learning achievement among

gender and weaker section groups to less than five percent.

 To reduce overall primary dropout rates for all children to less than 10%.

 Construction of classrooms and new schools

 Opening of Non-Formal alternative Schools

 The various programmes under DPEP was conducted by the following bodies/centers-
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT), District Institute of Education and
Training (DIET), Block Resource Centre (BRC) etc.

 To provide Teaching Learning Material (TLM)

 Model School Scheme- NPE 1986 recommended setting up of Model Schools one in each
district of the Country. It is for rural children to provide good education in each district of the
country.

Main Aims:
 To provide good quality modern education free of charge to talented children especially
from rural areas.

 75% seat to Rural Children.

 15% seat to ST Girls Children

 National Literacy Mission (NLM): NLM was launched in 1998 with objectives of imparting
functional literacy to 80 million adult of 15-35 age group by 1990-95.

By February 1994, 258 districts across country had been covered by total literacy
campaign.

Such adult education programme have both direct and indirect influence in making
the UEE programme successful story.

 National Programme for Education of girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL): Government of

India is committed to achieving UEE by 2010. This entails a special thrust on girls’ education as
well as greater rigour in Planning, targeting and actual implementing the interventions
designed.NPEGEL has been formulated for providing additional support for education of
underprivileged/disadvantaged girls at elementary level NPEGEL is a part of SSA and will be
implemented under its umbrella but as a distinct and separate gender component plan of SSA.

 Scheme for Infrastructure Development in Minority Institute (IDMI): IDMI has been
operationalized to augment Infrastructure in Private Aided/Unaided minority
schools/institutions in order to enhance quality of education to minority children.

The salient features of IDMI Scheme are:

 The scheme would facilitate education of minorities by augmenting and
strengthening school infrastructure in minority Institutions in order to expand facilities for
formal education to children of minority communities.

 The scheme will encourage educational facilities for girls, children with special needs
and those who are most deprived educationally amongst minorities.

 Rs. 50 lakhs per institution for strengthening of educational infrastructure and physical
facilities in the existing school including additional classrooms, science/computer lab rooms,
library rooms, toilets, drinking water facilities and hostel buildings for children especially for
girls.

The Historical Stages of Development following Kothari Commission and National Policy on
Education, 1986

The Indian Education Commission or Kothari Commission 1964-66:

The education Commission (1964-66) popularly known as Kothari Commission. On 14th

July 1964 the government of India appointed an Education Commission under the Chairmanship
of Dr. D.S. Kothari. The Commission began its work on October2, 1964 and submitted its report
on June 26, 1966. The main objectives was to advice government on the national pattern of
education and on the general Principles and policies for the development of education at all
stages and in all aspects.

Main Objectives:-

 To advice the government on the national pattern of education.

 On the general policies for the development of education at all stages-ranging from the
primary to post-graduate stage and in all its aspects.

 Examining a host of educational problems in their social and economic context.

Major recommendations of Kothari Commission:

1. Science Education:It must become an integral part of school education.

2. Work-Experience:Work experience should be introduced as an integral part of all

education- general/vocational. We define work-experience as participation in productive work
in school, in home, in workshop, on farm, in factory or in other productive situation.

Revolutionary experiment was launched by Mahatma Gandhi in the form of “basic education”.

3. Vocationalisation: Another programme which can bring into closer relationship with
productivity to give a strong vocational bias to secondary education and to increase the
technological education at University stage.

4. Common School System: To bring different social classes and group together and
promote the emergence of an egalitarian and integrated society.

5. Social and National Service: Making social and national services as integral part of
education at all stages. Promoting national consciousness.

6. Pattern:10+2+3 General Education 10 years i.e.

4 years of lower Primary- I-IV

3 years of Higher Primary- V-VII

3 years of Lower Sec. - VIII-X

 Higher Sec of 2 years- XI,XII

 Degree Course of 3yrs and Post-Graduation should be of 2yrs.

7. Specialization in classes:Class XI and XII should provide for specialized studies in different
subjects at the higher secondary stage.
8. Instructional days in School: The number of instructional days in a year should be
increased to about 234 (or 39 weeks) for schools and 216 (or 36 weeks) for colleges and
pre-primary schools.

9. Maximum Utilization of School Facilities:The libraries, laboratories, workshops, craft

sheds etc. should be open all the year round and should be utilized for at least eight hours a day.

10. College to be related to a Number of Schools: Each college can be functionally related to
a number of secondary schools in the neighborhood and enabled to provide to them to improve
their standards.

11. Book Banks in schools:A programme of book banks should be introduced in secondary
schools and in institutions of higher education.

12. Adequate no. of scholarships: The top 10% of the students in educational institutions
should be given small grants annually for the purchase of books which need not necessary be
textbooks.

And top 15% of the children in the age groups do get transferred to secondary schools and their
further education is not prevented by poverty.

13. Identification of Gifted students: steps should be taken immediately to device suitable
techniques for identifying talent at this stage. Each state should organize a testing service at the
end of the primary stage and also at the end of the secondary stage.

14. Holidays to be Minimized:There is no need to close an educational institution on a

religious holiday. Nor is it necessary for instance to close it on birth days / death anniversaries of
great Indians, the time could be better utilized in working hard for national development.

Three language formula:

Curriculum:

 Lower primary stage (I-V): One language formula i.e. regional language, mathematics,
science, social studies, work experience, social service and health education.
 Higher primary stage (V-VIII)- Two language formula

a) Mother tongue / Regional language

b) Hindi/English

c) Mathematics, science, social studies, art work experience, physical education, education
in moral and spiritual values.

 Lower secondary stages (VIII-X) - three language formula, mathematics,science, history,

geography, civic, art, work experience and social services, physical education and education in
moral and spiritual values.

 Higher secondary stage (XI-XII) - two language formula i.e. Modern Indian Language and
Modern Foreign languages. Any three from the following:- History, geography, economic,
psychology, sociology, art, chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, physical education, craft
education, education on moral and spiritual values etc.

15. Provision of mid-day meals

16. Free text-books at Primary stage

17. Residential facilities in School: One good secondary schools with adequate residential
facilities should be developed in each community development block and 10% of urban schools
should also be similarly covered.

18. Provision of Day Study Centre:For students who do not have adequate facilities for study
at home, it is necessary to provide a large number of day study centers at the secondary and
university stage. Some institutions have tried to provide this facility by adopting an unorthodox
approach i.e. by using classrooms for residential and study purpose before and after school
hours at night.

19. Education of the Backward Classes: The education of the backward classes and of the
tribal backward classes in general people in particular is a major programme of equalization and
of social and national integration. No expenditure is too great for the purpose.
20. Developmental Plan for Each District:A developmental Plan for secondary education
should be prepared separately for each district after taking into consideration the existing and
perspective needs of expansion.

21. Moral and Religious Education:Conscious and organized attempts be made for imparting
education in social, moral and spiritual values with the help wherever possible of the ethical
teaching of great religious.

22. Guidance and Counselling: Guidance and counselling should be regarded as an integral
part of education, meant for all students and aimed at assisting the individual to make decisions
and adjustments from time to time.

23. Evaluation: Evaluation is a continuous process, it exercise a great influence on the pupil’s
study habits and the teacher’s methods of instruction and this helps not only to measure
educational achievement but also to improve it.

24. Establishment of School Complexes: The school complex should be established. Each
higher primary schools should be integrally related to ten lower primary schools that exist in its
neighbourhood so that they form one complex of educational facilities. There would be
committee under the chairmanship of the headmaster of the secondary school (all headmaster
of the higher and lower primary schools in the area being members) which will plan the work
and give guidance to all the schools in the area.

25. The Neighborhood School: NeighborhoodSchool should be adopted at the lower primary
stage under which all children in the neighborhood will be required to attend the school in the
locality.

26. State and National Boards of Education; In order to secure continuous improvement in
standards, an adequate machinery should be set up at the state and national levels.

National Policy of Education (1986):

 Prime Minister Mr. Rajiv Gandhi on 5th Jan 1985 for first time broadcast addressed to
the nation indicating a new and dynamic educational policy for India. This lead to the
emergence of NPE 1986.

The National Policy on Education was adopted by the Lok Sabha on May 8, 1986 and the
Rajya Sabha on May 13, 1986. This lead to the emergence of NPE 1986.

Major Recommendations are:

Three Language Formula: NPE suggest 3 language formula at secondary stage. It also suggested
for 10+2+3 pattern of education. There should be only one language in Primary level. Two
language in lower secondary. Three languages in secondary and two language in +2 stage.

1. Universalization of Elementary Education:Elementary Education should be universal to

all the children of school going age.

2. Language Policy in Education: Medium of instruction should be mother tongue from

earlier stage of education to university stage.

3. Secondary Education: secondary Education is the linked between Elementary and higher
Education. The role of secondary education in national development is immense.

4. Vocationalisation of Education: Vocational, technical and scientific education should be

emphasized for the economic development of the country.

5. Teacher Education: The quality of education depends on the quality of Teachers.

6. Establishment of Model School: Model Schools for educationally talented students

should be encouraged.

7. Open University: For one who is deprived of Education due to poverty and other
reasons. Open schools, Open University. The main objectives of such experiment is to “bring
higher education to every doorstep”.
8. Open Education for Girls: Equal educational opportunity should be given to women with
that of men. State like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal etc. offers free education for girls.

9. Adult Education: There should be arrangement for Adult education in schools for mass
literacy programme.

10. Delinking of degree from jobs: One of the important policies of National Education Policy
is delinking from jobs.

11. Development of Technical Education: The need of technical education in a country like
India is immense. Technically trained persons have already been a source of strength for
scientific and industrial development. India will need high quality manpower in the field of
science and technology to keep it abreast with the emerging pattern of production.

12. National Integration and Education: System should be able to foster National Integration
among the students through Unity and Diversity.

13. International Understanding: NPE encourages for peace in the country and to have
healthy relation with other country. Our policy is to lessen international tension through mutual
understanding and co-operation. Promoting the establishment of a network of technical and
professional institutions of high quality through mutual co-operation in the developing
countries exchange of scholars, students and artists.

14. Privatization of Education:Involvement of voluntary Education is another features

suggested by NPE for upgrading the quality of education. To find financial support from the
private sector to complement government funds.

15. Value Oriented Education: Education system should be based on values or should be
value oriented. Inculcation of values in the hearts of younger generations is a major objective of
education particularly in these days of crisis of character and progressive erosion of values in
every walk of life.

16. Examination: It is the system of examination/evaluation which determines the

educational achievements of an individual or of the nation. Quality of education has
deteriorated to a great extent due to the present system of examinations. These examinations
are very often associated with numerous unethical practices like leakage of question paper,
mass copying, tampering of tabulated result etc. continuous internal assessment of attainments
of students in schools and colleges has to be followed.

17. Setting up Navodaya Vidyalayas: Setting up Navodaya Vidalaya was another landmark in
the history of education in general and elementary education in particular. The objective is
excellence coupled with equity and social justice and another objective is to demonstrate the
effectiveness of good instruction and good curriculum.

In the proposed school the most gifted and talented students would be provided with
maximum opportunity and facilities to develop their intrinsic abilities. It give equality and social
justice in the sense that children of socially and economically weaker sections of the society
would be given opportunity through reservation of seats to develop their talent to the
maximum.

Secular Nature of Different Schooling System in Sikkim

Sikkim has long history of traditional education. The religious, cultural and unorganized
system of education influences the ancient society of the Sikkim. Schooling having secular
nature was prevalent in the past in Sikkim. These schooling system made a significant role in the
religious and traditional education in the state. The education imparted by these schooling
system were based on morality, justice, ethics, free thinking and service to the mankind. The
following are the different schooling system based on secular nature.

Monastic Schools:

Sikkim is basically a land of the Nyingma School of Buddhism which incidentally is the
oldest of the four offshoots of the Mahayana system of Buddhism originating in ancient India.
Just as the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism came to take roots in Sikkim some 300 years
ago, having travelled a long way from India via Tibet, the Monastic system of education too
flourished in Sikkim more or less on the lines of the Tibetan and Indian Gurukul systems. But all
things, subject to change as they are, pass through various stages of transformation. This system
of education too that I am going to talk about has naturally weathered winds of change and is
here for all of us to see in its present form.To be precise, monastic education has, from time
immemorial, been a very effective mode of education. In fact, it would not be stretching things
too far to say that modern residential schools and colleges are nothing but modern derivations
of this system.

Sikkim is basically a land of monasteries established in the middle of the 17th century by the
great masters who were renowned followers of Guru Padmasambhava. The land is historically
known as Beyul Demojong and it was personally blessed by Guru Rinpoche. Ever since the time
His Holiness Guru Rinpoche set his holy feet on this land, monastries have constantly been
constructed one after another basically as places of worship. In the monasteries of Sikkim there
are very few well organized monastic schools. Earlier in the monasteries, there was a system of
apprenticeship for the new entrant Young monks got their education from the elders who
looked after and taught the traditional ritualistic prayers, religious tenets, the use of religious
musical instrument during rites, mask dances and many other things and practices.

Monastic education is one of the oldest form of learning. It can be traced back the ancient
Indian educational system. The Gurukuls of the Ramayana and Mahabharata periods and then
Nalanda and Vikramashila Universities were nothing but well developed monastic schools
where Hindus and Buddhist scholars could acquire high knowledge in general, as well as in
respect of their individual faith.

In Sikkim the monastic system of education plays a significant role in the early days of religious
education or traditional education which build the platform for the modern institutionalized
system of education of the present days. The history of Sikkim starts from 1642 AD with the
person called Phuntsog Namgyal became the first Chogyal (Maharaja) of the Sikkim, from that
period the modern history of Sikkim begun with the formation of Namgyal Dynasty. The
installation of Chogyal in small kingdom by three Lamas or the holy men of Buddhist
community, named Latsum Chembo, Sempa Chembo and Rinzing Chembo led a state in the new
religion called Buddhism . Buddhism became the state religion in the early days of kingship. This
kind of development increased the in-migration in the kingdom from outside, basically the
Tibetan, because of the similar religion and the common pattern of geographical structure. The
society of Sikkim made of up by three different habitations with three different religions
Lepchas the nature worship (Later on they are converted to Buddhist), Bhutias from Buddhist
religion and the last one is Nepalese from Hindu. As mention above the monastic education
plays an important role in the field of religious education but the facility of the learning was in
the limited form. The establishment of monastic school as in the institutional form provides
education on the basis of religion where the medium of instruction was Tibetan. The people
from Buddhist religion are allowed to take admission on it, rest of the habitation are neglected
on the basis of religion. To spread the Buddhism in kingdom, rulers of Sikkim construct number
of monasteries within the kingdom. So for the betterment of Hindu people the elder person of
the society became the formal teachers who teach the Hinduism, the natural life cycle,
alphabets and the basic need for the development of society. It was like the Gurukul system of
education in the ancient India. They also teach them the behavior, responsibility, tradition and
the culture of the society. The formation of institutionalized education system by different
Chogyals (Maharaja) through monastic schools inSikkim fails to give a mass education. The
diameter of the system was reducing instead of expansion. The communal disorder continued
till the appointment of J. C White in Sikkim as a political officer from the British side in 1888.
The structural behavior of the education system in Sikkim was modified by J. C. White for the
mass education. While the residential and monastic school was in the good shape for the
religious and traditional education.

Most of the monasteries are running monastic schools in Sikkim, the funding is part from public
as well as government. At present (2015-16) there are 79 monastic schools in the state and one
Sheda (Buddhist Institute of Higher Learning) to cater the need of Buddhist education in the
state of Sikkim.

Missionary Schools in Sikkim:

 If we see the history of formal system of education in Sikkim, historical evidences
pointed that there was no school at all in existence for name sake until 1880. It is believed that
in 1883 one school in Gangtok was opened at the supervision Rev. Macfarlane a Scottish
missionaries. but same was not allowed to exist there. Scottish mission opened another school
in 1886. Another one school in Temi was opened and its exact date was not known. It is said
that an Englishman, Mackerland also opens a school in Vok in South Sikkim in and around 1890
and Pakyong school was opened around 1900. All these schools are opened by missionaries
with the dual purpose of preaching of religion and to provide the education to poor illiterates.

Missionary schools in Sikkim has great contribution in educational upliftment of

Sikkimese masses since early days. A sizable good numbers missionary schools are providing
value based and quality education to children in Sikkim. Most of schools are self- funded. State
government also provides financial assistance to these schools.

Sanskrit Schools/Pathsalas:

In Sikkim, Sanskrit Pathsalas also play an important role in the expansion of Sanskrit
education in the state. These Pathsalas/Schools were opened basicallyto impart religious
education to the selective Hindu masses in the beginning. Historical evidences revealed that the
advent of Sanskrit education has been started in informal and unorganized way, basically at
residential places of priests and gurus. In the form of institutional learning these Sanskrit
schools providing Sanskrit education to Brahmins in the beginning and open to all at present
irrespective of caste and gender. In the institutional form Sanskrit education was started in
Sikkim at Ligmoo and Samdong (East) in 1935.

The objective and purpose of these schools is conserve and propagate Hindu
culture(sanskriti) curriculum incudes vyakrana, mimamsa, karma kand, Vedanta nyaya, dharma
Shastra, Shastra padhati, jyotisha and sahitya (literature). This system of education gives more
importance to moral education, spiritual, ethics etc.
 Expect few, majority of Sanskrit pathsalas are running under government funding. Along
with Sanskrit, Nepali English and Hindi is also taught in these schools. Classes are divided into
two categories- Purva Madhyama (Secondary) and Uttar Madhyama (Senior Secondary).

There are 13 Sanskrit pathsalas in Sikkim which are wholly funded by the government.
There is one Sanskrit college in Sikkim to cater the need of Sanskrit higher education. Initially it
was established at Geyzing, but later it was shifted to Samdong, East Sikkim.

Islamic Education in Sikkim:

Madrasas are the institutes for Islamic education. if we trace the history of Islamic
education in Sikkim no formal institute of learnig on Islam is established so far in the state. But
for propagation, preaching and teaching of Quran, the Jama masjid at Gangtok which was
established in 1943 has the significant importance in regards to Islamic teaching and education
in the state. This mosque is managed by Anjuman-E-Islam, a registered body. As Islamic teaching
classes were conducted to only to Muslim children in the Jama Masjid at Gangtok in evening
from 5-7 PM. It is wholly managed by the committee. Quran is the main subject of teaching.

In a nutshell, these schooling system are the foundation and backbone of the modern system of
education in the state. All these schooling system have great impact in the social, religious,
political sphere of the people of Sikkim. It has the direct bearing on the life of people of Sikkim.

Unit III

Major Issues and Concerns in Contemporary Indian Society

Nationalism: The most important issue in front of the governance of any nation is to preserve
and maintain its sovereignty. No progress or development of any kind is possible as long as the
geographical borders of a country from external aggression are not safe. It is also essential that
the peace and tranquillity of a society are not disturbed by internal strife. India is a multilingual,
multiethnic, multi-religious, federal system and thus is a confluence of a diversity of different
cultures and life styles. For the survival and betterment of such a society, it is imperative that its
members are bound together by a group consciousness i.e. membership or attachment to a
nation as an integrated whole. This can be termed as feeling of nationalism that works as
cementing bond between the various cultures.

India has been an exemplar society to the world in this regard where a system is
maintained by certain common goals and collective co-operation in the overall interest of the
wider community. Indian has shown to the world that with the help of democratic and
nationalistic principles, people speaking different languages, having different castes and
religions, following different patterns of life can co-exist and sustain themselves. But presently,
India is being troubled by the phenomenon of disintegration. In the national context, this
disintegration is an unfortunate phase because it is a serious pointer to the un-welding of links
which solidify the essential components of a cohesive group. Disintegration is a gradual process
with number of symptoms. They can be seen quite evidently in contemporary Indian and are
summarised as follows:

1. Lack of National Consciousness- The feeling of nationalism is restricted to the “education

elite” of this country. The common man on the street is hardly aware of the holistic feeling of
nationalism. He is too busy seeking out a living for himself.

2. Growing Regional Chauvinism and Linguistic provincialism- People living in a particular

state speak a particular language, have distinct life style in terms of norms, rituals, etc. This
creates small groups or communities integrated amongst them but separated from the rest of
the Indian mass.

3. Casteism and Communalism- These are perhaps, the biggest road blocks to the growth
of nationalism. Caste, creed, race, religion, etc. are institution for social harmony but they can
also encourage the development of orthodox groups opposed to each other’s ideologies and
ways of life.
4. Lack of Good Leadership- This is a malady modern India is continuously suffering from
rampant political corruption leads to an aversion to progressive social change and failure of all
developmental plans. The result is a disgruntled and disillusioned populace which becomes
fertile field for the mushrooming growth of divisive and disruptive forces. The various political
forces lack ideological commitment to nationalism. Thus, their control mechanisms are
ineffective, where alienation of certain groups and subsequent inter-group tensions are
concerned.

Today, the Indian society has to aspire for the growth of the nationalistic spirit. This is
the only way India can hope to survive the threat to its territorial integrity as well as to its social
fabric. It is essential to continuously strive to integrate multi-complex heterogeneous
sub-groups into the mainstream of a cohesive national life.

ROLE OF EDUCATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONALISM

The only way India can resist the forces of disintegration and anarchy is good leadership
and relevant education. The content of education should be such that it reflects the
harmonization of the various groups into socially constructive relationships. This will lead to the
development of the national psyche and morale which is an essential goal of education for
nationalism. The National Policy on Education (1986) revised in (1992) states that “education
has an acculturating role. It refines the sensitivities and perceptions that contribute to national
cohesion, a scientific temper and independence of mind and spirit, thus furthering the goals of
socialism, secularism and democracy enshrined in our Constitution.”

For the development of nationalism through education, a National System of education

is essential which has to be based on a national curricular framework. This framework should
contain a common core along with other components that are flexible. The common core can
include the history of India’s freedom movement, the constitutional obligations, and India’s
common cultural heritage, secularism and other contents essential to nurture national identity.
Also, it is essential to implement the 10+2+3 scheme of school education in every nook and
corner of the country. This will be helpful in minimising regional disparities and in increasing the
horizontal mobility of all Indians for access to higher, technical and professional education.
 This certainly does not mean that the education system should be rigidly uniform and
regimental. Steps have to be taken to foster among students, an understanding of the diverse
cultural and social systems of the people living in different parts of the country. Article 350A of
the Constitution mandates that ‘the state and local authorities should provide adequate
facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary stage, particularly to children
belonging to linguistic minority other than English, programmes should be launched for
translation of books from one language to another and to published multilingual dictionaries
and glossaries.

Communalism:

There are many aspects to our identity- as a girl or a boy, as belonging to a certain village, city,
district or state and speak certain languages. We are Indians but we are also world citizens.
Income levels differ from family to family, hence all of us belong to some social class or the
other. Most of us have a religion, and caste which may play an important role in our lives. In
other words, our identities have numerous features, they are complex. There are times,
however, when people attach greater significance to certain chosen aspects of their identity
such as religion. This in itself cannot be described as communal.

Communalism refers to a politics that seeks to unify around a religious identity in hostile
opposition to another community. It seeks to define this community identity as fundamental
and fixed. It attempts to consolidate this identity and present it as natural – as if people were
born into the identity, as if the identities do not evolve through history over time. In order to
unify the community, communalism suppresses distinctions within the community and
emphasises the essential unity of the community against other communities. One could say
communalism nurtures a politics of hatred for an identified “other”– “Hindus” in the case of
Muslim communalism, and “Muslims” in the case of Hindu communalism. This hatred feeds a
politics of violence
Abdul Ahmed says, “Communalism is a social phenomenon characterized by the religion of two
communities, often leading to acrimony, tension and even rioting between them”.

Prabha Dixit writes, “Communalism is a political doctrine which makes use of religious and
cultural differences to achieve political ends.

Communalism started in India in the later part of the 19th century when the British used the
‘divide and rule’ policy to create conflict amongst different communities in India (mostly hindus
against muslims) for their own political and economic benefits.
Multiple factors can lead to communal hatred such as social, political, economic.

According Ali engineer ‘ THERE are social, political, economic, cultural and religious factors
which ac-count for the genesis of communalism and communal violence.The primary factor
involved in the promotion of communalism is often religious or religio-cultural. Each religious
group or community has certain prejudices against another religious group or community.
Similarly, followers of one sect of a religious community entertain as strong prejudices against
followers of another sect as against followers of another religion. But, the existence of religious
prejudices is not, by itself, a sufficient condition for the emergence of communal violence.
Communalism, however, pro-vides a strong medium for communal violence.
With the evolution of new economic and political situations new factors emerge which provoke
or exacerbate communal tensions leading to communal outburst. There were, for instance, no
periodical outburst of communal frenzy during the medieval ages. But a shift in the economic
and political situation with the introduc-tion of the British Raj led not only to the strengthening
of communal prejudices but also to periodical outbursts of communal violence which assumed a
certain pattern over a period of time and culminated in the partition of the country.’ (Genesis of
Communal Violence , EPW, February 1992)

.
Characteristics of Communalism:

i. Communalism is an ideological concept,

ii. It is a complex process,

iii. It has a broader base which encompasses social, economic and political aspects for its
manifestation.

iv. It causes rivalry, violence and tension among masses,

v. It is used by the higher class people and elites as an instrument for division and
exploitation of the communal identities of the poorer sections of their co-religionists.

vi. Communalism is simply engineered by opportunistic political and economic interest of

contending groups and factions within a political party or by political parties.

vii. It strikes at the roots of democracy, secularism and national integration.

viii. Its effects are disastrous.

Suggestions for the Eradication of Communalism:

The following measures may be taken for the eradication of communalism.

1. Abolition of Communal Parties:

All the political parties which thrive on religious loyalties should be banned or abolished
by the government. Even non-political cultural organizations should always be kept under
constant vigil so that they cannot preach communalism.
2. Transmission of the Past Heritage:

Feelings of nationalism should be inculcated in the minds of people by reminding them

about the glorious moments of history in Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs were combined to
safeguard the interest of the country.

3. Public Opinion:

Efforts should be made through mass media for changing the attitude of people towards
other communities. People must be aware of the evils of the communalism.

4. Inter-religious Marriage:

Youth organizations and other types of associations should be formed in every locality to
give opportunity to people of different communities to come closer and know each other. This
may help them to practice inter-religious marriages which will lessen the social distance among
the members of different religious groups.

Both the Government and people should make efforts for eradication of communal
tension and conflict.

Regionalism: To understand regionalism, we need to know various dimensions of the region.

Region as a geographical unit, is delimited form each other. Region as a social system, reflects
the relation between different human beings and groups. Regions are an organised cooperation
in cultural, economic, political or military fields. Region acts as a subject with distinct identity,
language, culture and tradition.

Regionalism is an ideology and political movement that seeks to advance the causes of
regions. As a process it plays role within the nation as well as outside the nation i.e. at
international level. Both types of regionalism have different meaning and have positive as well
as negative impact on society, polity, diplomacy, economy, security, culture, development,
negotiations, etc.
At the international level, regionalism refers to transnational cooperation to meet a common
goal or to resolve a shared problem or it refers to a group of countries such as-Western Europe,
or Southeast Asia, linked by geography, history or economic features. Used in this sense,
regionalism refers to attempts to reinforce the links between these countries economic
features.

The second meaning of the term is regionalism at national level refers to a process in
which sub-state actors become increasingly powerful; power devolves from central level to
regional governments. These are the regions within country, distinguished in culture, language
and other socio-cultural factors.

Now, we will discuss in detail about regionalism within nation with ref. to. INDIA only
and then next we will discuss about regionalism at international level.

Regionalism within nation

If the interest of one region or a state is asserted against the country as a whole or
against another region/state in a hostile way, and if a conflict is promoted by such alleged
interests, then it can be called as regionalism.

If someone is aspiring to or make special efforts to develop one’s state or region or to

remove poverty & make social justice there, then that cannot be called as regionalism.
Regionalism doesn’t means defending the federal features of the constitution. Any demand for
separate state, autonomous region or for devolution of power below the state level is also,
sometimes confused as regionalism.

Regionalism in INDIA

Roots of regionalism is in India’s manifold diversity of languages, cultures, ethnic groups,

communities, religions and so on, and encouraged by the regional concentration of those
identity markers, and fuelled by a sense of regional deprivation. For many centuries, India
remained the land of many lands, regions, cultures and traditions.
 For instance, southern India (the home of Dravidian cultures), which is itself a region of
many regions, is evidently different from the north, the west, the central and the north-east.
Even the east of India is different from the North-East of India comprising today seven
constituent units of Indian federation with the largest concentration of tribal people.

Regionalism has remained perhaps the most potent force in Indian politics ever since
independence (1947), if not before. It has remained the main basis of many regional political
parties which have governed many states since the late 1960s. Three clear patterns can be
identified in the post-independence phases of accommodation of regional identity through
statehood.

First, in the 1950s and 1960s, intense (ethnic) mass mobilisation, often taking on a
violent character, was the main force behind the state’s response with an institutional package
for statehood. Andhra Pradesh in India’s south showed the way. The fast unto death in 1952 of
the legendary (Telugu) leader Potti Sriramulu for a state for the Telegu-speakers out of the
composite Madras Presidency moved an otherwise reluctant Jawaharlal Nehru, a top nationalist
leader and it was followed by State reorganisation commission under Fazal Ali paving way for
State Reorganization Act, 1956.

Second, in the 1970s and 1980s, the main focus of reorganization was India’s North-east.
The basis of reorganization was tribal insurgency for separation and statehood. The main
institutional response of the Union government was the North-eastern States Reorganisation
Act, 1971 which upgraded the Union Territories of Manipur and Tripura, and the Sub-State of
Meghalaya to full statehood, and Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh (then Tribal Districts) to
Union Territories. The latter became states in 1986. Goa (based on Konkani language (8th
Schedule)), which became a state in 1987, was the sole exception.

Third, the movements for the three new states (created in 2000)—Chhattisgarh out of
Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand out of Bihar and Uttaranchal out of Uttar Pradesh— were
long-drawn but became vigorous in the 1990s. And the most recent one, we can see with the
division of Andhra Pradesh, giving a separate Telangana, which started in 1950s.
Potential cause for regionalism: Regionalism could have flourished in India, if any state/region
had felt that it was being culturally dominated or discriminated against.

Regional economic inequality is a potent time bomb directed against national unity and
political stability. But, this potential cause did not take shape of regionalism, because of
government steps, which focussed on the balanced regional development and fulfilled the
aspiration of states.

Few of them are – Industrial Policy, 1956, National Integration council, 1961. Transfer of
financial resources to poorer states on the recommendation of Finance commission.

Planning became an important tool through Planning commission and Five year plans.
But the new government is planning to devolve the planning power to the respective states, so
that they can do planning with real-time approach of their respective needs and requirements.

The central government has categorized states on the basis of backwardness and
accordingly gives grants and loans. In September 2013, Raghuram Rajan, recommended a new
index of backwardness to determine- which state need special help from central government. It
is composed of 10 equally weighted indicators. According to that, Orissa and Bihar are the most
backward states.

Regular public investment by central government through centrally sponsored schemes

have focussed on development of necessary infrastructure and poverty eradication, integrated
rural development, education, health, family planning, etc. For example- Prdhan Mantri Gram
sadka yojana, Mid-Day Meal, MGNREGA, etc.

Government at centre and states give incentives to private players to develop in

backward states through subsidies, taxation, etc. Nationalisation of banks, granting new banking
licences, making mandatory for banks to open rural branches are few other steps for inclusive
development and balanced regional development.

There are certain discrepancies at the implementation part of these schemes. Few areas
have been neglected like irrigation, which has created agricultural disparity. Rain fed and dry
land agriculture also have been neglected, which became cause for suicide of farmers in various
states (Coverage of P. Sainath, gives us more insights on such issues.)In reality, the interstate
industrial disparity, agricultural disparity, number of BPL, etc. are decreasing. But, more actions
are needed to completely eradicate the disparities

Why regional disparity still persists?

Low rate of economic growth: The economic growth of India has been fluctuating since
independence. But with respect to High population growth, the economic growth has been not
enough to catch the development with full speed. In the last decade, the economic growths
were progressive, but now they are reeling under the influence of world economic crisis and
other bottlenecks at domestic level.

Socio-economic and political organisation of states: The states have been unable to do the
adequate land reforms and the feudal mentality still persists. Bhoodan and Gramdaan
movements, after independence, were not enthusiastically carried and even lands under land
Banks were not efficiently distributed. The political activities in the backward states were
limited to vote bank politics and scams.

Lower level of infrastructural facilities in backward states: The level of infrastructural

development, such as- power distribution, irrigation facilities, roads, modern markets for
agricultural produce has been at back stage. All these are state list subjects.

Low level of social expenditure by states on education, health and sanitation: These subjects are
core for human resource development. The states which have invested heavily on these
subjects fall under the developed and advanced states, for example Tamil Nadu, where health
care services in Primary health centre is bench mark for other states.

Political and administration failure: This is source of tension and gives birth to sub regional
movements for separate, Chattisgarh, Uttrakhand and states. Jarkhand recently Telangana are
result of these failures only. Many such demands are in pipeline such as- Vidarbha, Saurashtra,
Darjeeling and Bodoland, etc. These failures also weakens the confidence of private players and
do not attract investors in the states.
“Son of the soil” doctrine explains a form of regionalism, which is in discussion since 1950.
According to it, a state specifically belongs to the main linguistic group inhabiting it or that the
state constitutes the exclusive homeland of its main language speakers, who are the sons of the
soil or local residents.

Why son of the soil?

• There remains a competition for job between migrant and local educated middle class
youth.

• This theory works mostly in cities, because here outsiders also, get opportunity for
education, etc.

• In such theories, major involvement of people is due to rising aspiration.

• Economy’s failure to create enough employment opportunity.

Clashes in India having colours of regionalism

Linguistic Reorganization of States

It was the demand of Potti Sriramulu, a freedom fighter and a devoted follower of
Mahatma Gandhi, that led to the creation of Andhra Pradesh state and linguistic recognition of
the states in India. To achieve this end, he died in 1952 after not eating for 52 days in support of
a Telugu-speaking state. Sriramulu’s death forced Jawahar Lal Nehru to agree to the various
demands from other parts of the country with similar demands. Consequently, in 1954, a States
Reorganisation Committee was formed with Fazal Ali as its head, which recommended the
formation of 16 new states and 3 Union Territories based on the language.

Demand for Dravida Nadu

Going back to the journey of Regionalism in India, it is well noticeable that it emerged
with Dravidian Movement, which started in Tamil Nadu in 1925. This movement, also known as
‘Self-Respect Movement’ initially focused on empowering Dalits, non-Brahmins, and poor
people. Later it stood against imposition of Hindi as sole official language on non-Hindi speaking
areas. But it was the demand of carving out their own Dravidastan or Dravida Nadu, which
made it a secessionist movement. As early as 1960s the DMK and the Nan Tamil organized a
joint campaign throughout Madras state demanding its secession from India and making it an
independent sovereign state of Tamil land. DMK proposed that the states of Madras, Andhra
Pradesh, Kerala and Mysore should secede from the Indian union and form an independent
“Republic of Dravida Nadu”

TELANGANA MOVEMENT

In the years after the formation of Andhra Pradesh state, people of Telangana expressed
dissatisfaction over how the agreements and guarantees were implemented. Discontent with
the 1956 Gentleman’s agreement intensified in January 1969, when the guarantees that had
been agreed on were supposed to lapse. Student agitation for the continuation of the
agreement began at Osmania University in Hyderabad and spread to other parts of the region.
Government employees and opposition members of the state legislative assembly threatened
“direct action” in support of the students. This movement since then finally resulted last year
one separate state of Telangana.

It should be noted that roots of disparity in two regions was in colonial rule. Andhra was
under direct rule of crown while Telangana was ruled by Nizam of Hyderabad, who was not so
efficient ruler. So over time Andhra got more developed in comparison to Telangana.

Shiv Sena against Kannadigas

In 1966, Shiv Sena, in Maharashtra, launched its agitation against Kannadigas in the
name of Marathi pride. The first targets of its agitation were South Indians who were the
workers of Udupi hotels in Mumbai. This agitation was labelled to be a retaliation of the
lathi-charge on Marathi speaking people in the border areas.

Bodoland Demand within Assam

 The Bodo agitation is led by the Assam Bodo Students Union which is demanding a
separate state and has resorted to wide scale violence and series of crippling bandhs to pursue
their demand. One of the basic reason Assam agitations is because of the expansion of
education, particularly higher education, but not industrialization and other job creating
institutions is increasing the army of educated youths in the backward regions. These frustrated
young men are allured by the movements against the inflow of people from other countries and
states. On the other hand these unemployed youths are also attracted by the caste, communal
and other sectional agitations fighting for the protection of rights on sectarian lines.

Khalistan Movement

It was during the era of 1980s that Khalistan movement with its aim to create a Sikh
homeland, often called Khalistan, cropped up in the Punjab region of India and Pakistan. In fact
this demand has also the colours of communalism, as there demand is only for Sikhs.

Attacks on Bihar Labourers by the ULFA

ULFA continues to attempt ambushes and sporadic attacks on government security

forces. In 2003, the ULFA was accused of killing labourers from Bihar in response to molestation
and raping of many Assamese girls in a train in Bihar. This incident sparked off anti-Bihar
sentiment in Assam, which withered away after some months though. On August 15, 2004, an
explosion occurred in Assam in which 10-15 people died, including some school children. This
explosion was reportedly carried out by ULFA. The ULFA has obliquely accepted responsibility
for the blast. This appears to be the first instance of ULFA admitting to public killings with an
incendiary device. In January 2007, the ULFA once again struck in Assam killing approximately
62 Hindi speaking migrant workers mostly from Bihar. On March 15, 2007, ULFA triggered a blast
in Guwahati, injuring six persons as it celebrated its ‘army day’.

The MNS Targeting North Indians

It was in 2008 that Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) workers began their violent
agitation against North Indians. Bhojpuri films were not allowed to run on theatres in
Maharashtra. The targets were vendors and shopkeepers from North India in various parts of
Maharashtra.

Inter-State Disputes

Another form of regionalism in India has found expression in the form of interstate
disputes. There are disputes boundary disputes for example between Karnataka and
Maharashtra on Belgaum where Marathi speaking population is surrounded by Kannada
speaking people, between Kerala and Karnataka on Kasargod, between Assam and Nagaland on
Rengma reserved forests. There is a dispute over Chandigarh in Punjab and Haryana.

The first important dispute regarding the use of water source was over the use of water
resources of three rivers mainly Narmada, Krishna and Cauvery in which states of Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra were involved. Disputes also arose between use
of Cauvery waters among the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. Another dispute arose
among the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh over the use and distribution
of waters of the Krishna River. Disputes between the states of Punjab, Rajasthan and Himachal
Pradesh over the use of waters from Ravi River. The Electricity sharing issue between Punjab
and Delhi is another example of this.

Creation of new States in 2000

In 2000, the Government of India, pursuant to legislation passed by Parliament during

the summer, created three new states, Chhattisgarh, Uttaranchal, and Jharkhand reconstituting
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, respectively. Both the ruling BJP and the opposition
Congress party supported the formation of the states. The basis for creating the new states is
socio-political and not linguistic.

Impact of Regionalism in India

Positive

Scholars believe that regionalism plays important role in building of the nation, if the
demands of the regions are accommodated by the political system of the country.
 Regional recognition in terms of state hood or state autonomy gives self-determination
to the people of that particular region and they feel empowered and happy. Internal
self-determination of community, whether linguistic, tribal, religious, regional, or their
combinations, has remained the predominant form in which regionalism in India has sought to
express itself, historically as well as at present time.

Regional identities in India have not always defined themselves in opposition to and at
the expense of, the national identity, noticed a democratic effect of such process in that India’s
representative democracy has moved closed to the people who feel more involved and show
greater concern for institutions of local and regional governance.

For example- Tripura Tribal Autonomous District Council (TTADC), formed in 1985, has
served to protect an otherwise endangered tribal identity in the state by providing a democratic
platform for former separatists to become a party of governance, and thereby reduced
significantly the bases of political extremism in the state.

In such political setup, there always remains a scope of balanced regional development.
The socio-cultural diversity is given due respect and it helps the regional people to practise their
own culture too.

Negative

Regionalism is often seen as a serious threat to the development, progress and unity of the
nation. It gives internal security challenges by the insurgent groups, who propagate the feelings
of regionalism against the mainstream politico-administrative setup of the country.

Regionalism definitely impacts politics as days of collation government and alliances are taking
place. Regional demands become national demands, policies are launched to satisfy regional
demands and generally those are extended to all pockets of country, hence national policies are
now dominated by regional demands. E.g. MSP given to sugarcane, it was helpful for farmers in
Maharashtra but it was implemented across all states resulting agitations of farmers belonging
to UP, Punjab and Haryana. Meanwhile it sowed seed of defection among ministers and
targeting to corresponding minister.
 Some regional leaders play politics of vote bank based on language, culture, this is
certainly against healthy democratic procedures. This always leads to demand for separate state
and it has observed that after creating small states only few political leaders could run efficient
government else alliances run government which ultimately makes administration machinery
ineffective.

Developmental plans are implemented unevenly focusing on regions to which heavy weight
leaders belongs are benefitted, hence unrest is generated among rest regions. Law and order is
disturbed, agitations with massive violence take place ultimately government is compelled to
take harsh steps; hence wrong signals are emitted about government authorities.

Regionalism, also becomes hurdle in the international diplomacy, as in 2013 we saw how
Tamil Nadu regional parties were against the Prime Minister of India, attending the
Commonwealth heads meeting(CHOGM) in Sri Lanka. These actions have their direct
implication on the relation of India with Sri Lanka or other countries of the forums or in case of
Mamata Banerjee not agreeing to Land Boundary agreement and Teesta River Water sharing,
when the leaders at centre level were ready to do it.

The regionalism induced violence disturbs the whole society, people are killed, students
cannot attend the schools & colleges, tourism cannot be promoted, etc. This impacts the
development of human resource, governments need to deploy extra forces to control the
situation and it has direct implication on the economy of the nation. Impacted societies remain
aloof from the mainstream development and then the regional variations and backwardness is
clearly reflected.

On the broader front, it harms India’s status in global arena and becomes hurdle in
becoming global power or world leader.

Other than the evolution of regionalism in India and its impact, it is also associated a
discussed with the Nationalism and federalism. These two aspects are discussed below.

Nationalism and Regionalism

 Historians of modern India have highlighted how the growth in Indian nationalism
against British colonialism since the nineteenth century also gave birth to intense awakening
among various region-based linguistic nationalities for identity and self-determination, often in
opposition to the pan-Indian nationalism.

To mobilise people from all over India, leaders of mainstream nationalism has to
recognise and mobilise the local leaders, they had to reach out to the people in local languages.
The mass mobilisation was only possible, when people became aware about their regional
needs and its importance.

The mainstream Indian nationalism had continuously to grapple with regional

nationalism. Under the heavy weight of regional identities of the people of India, the Indian
National Congress (INC) could have hardly remained immune from it. It gradually became, in
fact, an inter-regional coalition of forces. And for that reason only and to further strengthen the
feeling of nationalism, INC used to have their annual meetings in different regions of India,
raising the consciousness of people against the colonial exploitation.

Federalism and Regionalism

The role played by Indian federalism in ensuring India’s unity, stability and survival as a
polity in the face of persistent regionalism, often verging on separation, rooted in manifold and
complex social and cultural diversity, and mass poverty, illiteracy, extreme regional unevenness
in development, and widespread inequality. The question has assumed special significance in
the aftermath of the disintegration of the multi-ethnic and multinational Soviet Union, and the
split up of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The need for federalism is enhanced in countries with ethnically distinct regions where
the territorial accommodation of distinct groups of people is of paramount importance. For
those countries, a combination of shared rule (for general purposes of unity) and some kind of
self-rule (for regional/local purposes of diversity) is a must if unity and integrity are to be
maintained.
 Indian federalism is seen as a method of accommodation of regionalism in India.
Federalism is seen here as a political equilibrium, which results from the appropriate balance
between shared rule and self-rule. In the post Second World War period, many post-colonial
countries adopted federalism as a method of governance in multi-ethnic contexts.

India’s rich diversity sometimes looks like an obstacle to unity. But the latest election has
proved that a commitment to resolving differences peacefully and democratically can transform
diversity into a source of strength.

India’s federal reconciliation of regional identity with autonomy has a democratic aspect.
Democracy rather than ethnicity is thus the legitimacy basis of such political institutions.

The federalism has been given strong push by devolving powers at local level to states and their
local bodies through 73rd and 74th Amendment act. And according to Indian judiciary
federalism is basic structure of Indian constitution.

The regions declared under fifth and sixth schedule enjoy certain autonomy which gives
them scope to maintain their own culture and develop according to their own need. This makes
federal structure stronger. Other than this any policy for such area is different than the mainland
policy as in case of THE PROVISIONS OF THE PANCHAYATS (EXTENSION TO THE SCHEDULED
AREAS) ACT, 1996, popularly known as PESA

Why diversity of India is supreme guarantee of democracy?

Diversity is undoubtedly strength of our democracy. Indians have so much to differ and
divide themselves, but thread of democracy is common among different regions, communities,
religions, and cultures. India has seen many secessionist movements since Independence, but
none of them was too big to challenge a common resource pool huge democracy. If a particular
community rise up against our democracy it has to be big enough to challenge the whole
nation. But no community is that big in India. For e.g. Culture, language, social practices etc.
change every few miles in India. And that micro culture is comprised of people from various
sects and religion. So it is not possible that a huge part of India find a common ground to fight
against Democratic government.
Regionalism in international arena

In the introduction we saw, what does regionalism means in international sense. The use
of common cultural identities to define regions grew out of the process of decolonization, which
was observed to lead to the construction of ”culture blocs”.

Regionalism in International sense can be with respect to –Physical regions, refer to territorial,
military, and economic spaces controlled primarily by states, and functional region, which are
defined by non-territorial factors such as culture and the market that are often the purview of
non-state actors.

During the Cold War, most regions were either political or mercantile clusters of
neighbouring countries that had a place in the larger international system. End of the Cold War
has reduced the effects of the global system on regional security dynamics and national
decisions. Thus, “an end to the bipolar cleavage has led to a restoration of regional sovereignty”
and to the establishment of several regional powers dominating their geographical areas”.
Changes in the international structure and new security challenges were expected to push the
development of regionalism.

In the post-Cold War international system, even though there has been an increasing
demand for external intervention and crisis management for humanitarian and other political
reasons, neither the United States nor any other major power has shown a willingness to
shoulder the full responsibility for managing these regional crises. As a solution to this dilemma,
countries go for the establishment of a regional block to replace global hegemony.

Currently, Economists take regions as institutionally granted, for example, the European
Union (EU), North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), ASEAN, proposed Trans-Atlantic
Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP), etc. to study changes in the shares of intra- and
interregional trade.

In the economic sphere, however, the situation is quite different. The process of
globalization, although partial and variable in nature, is creating an increasingly autonomous
economic reality that interacts directly with both national and regional economies. The
formation of regions takes place at the interface between global economic and technological
forces and national realities. National actors may, in fact, perceive regionalism as a defence
mechanism against the competitive pressures arising from the globalization.

With respect to the world, regionalism is often talked in two senses i.e. – OLD
Regionalism and NEW Regionalism. Both have different meaning, which we will see further.

OLD Regionalism

Old regionalism was formed in context of a bipolar Cold War. That time various regions
of the world, made an association with the two major power blocks of the world i.e. USA and
USSR. This regionalism was done on the basis of their security and economic concerns. This old
pattern of hegemonic regionalism was of course most evident in Europe before 1989, but at the
height of the Cold War discernible in all world regions.

Old regionalism was created “from above” (often through superpower intervention). It
was inward oriented and protectionist in economic terms. It was also specific with regard to its
objectives (some organizations being security oriented, others economically oriented). The old
regionalism was concerned only with relations between nation states.

NEW Regionalism

The New regionalism is taking shape in a multi-polar world order. The new regionalism
and multi-polarity are, in fact, two sides of the same coin. The new is a more spontaneous
process from within the regions, where the constituent states now experience the need for
cooperation in order to tackle new global challenges. Regionalism is thus one way of coping
with global transformation, since most states lack the capacity and the means to manage such a
task on the “national” level.

The new is often described as “open”, and thus compatible with an interdependent
world economy. It is a more comprehensive, multidimensional process. This process includes
not only trade and economic development, but also environment, social policy and security, just
to mention some imperatives pushing countries and communities towards cooperation within
new types of regionalist frameworks.

The New regionalism forms part of a global structural transformation in which non-state
actors (many different types of institutions, organizations and movements) are also active and
operating at several levels of the global system.

In sum, the new regionalism includes economic, political, social and cultural aspects, and
goes far beyond free trade. Rather, the political ambition of establishing regional coherence and
regional identity seems to be of primary importance. The new regionalism is linked to
globalization, as it is seen as reaction to the selectiveness nature of the globalization. So, in
future, new regionalism could be basis for multilateralism.

Casteism: Casteism is one of the social problems, which is very peculiar to the Indian society.
Indian society is a country of various religions. Each religion is sub-divided into different castes
and these castes again into sub-castes. The culture of each caste varies though they all belong
to one religion. Among these castes, certain are given a high status and other’s a low status,
depending upon their caste occupation.

• In such a society, there is every possibility for caste conflicts to occur. These conflicts
have their origin in Casteism, which refers to the hatred of one caste by the other, or the
attempts made by the members of one caste to gain personal advantages to the detriment of
interests of the other caste members. In brief, Casteism refers to one-sided loyalty in favour of a
particular caste.

• Casteism leads the members of one caste to exploit the members of other caste for their
own vested interest in the name of superiority or inferiority. According to R. N. Sharma,
‘Casteism is a blind group loyalty towards one’s own caste or sub-caste, which does not care for
the interests of other castes, and seeks to realize the social, eco¬nomic, political and other
interests of its own group’.

• According to D. N. Prasad, Casteism is loyalty to caste translated into politics. It is an

overriding blind and supreme group loyalty that ignores the healthy social standards of justice,
their play, equality and universal brotherhood’.

• Casteism is considered as a social problem as it disturbs the sound governmental politics

and democracy and paves the way for mutual group conflicts. Casteism is manifested in the
form of clashes between various castes for higher share in the socio-eco¬nomic privileges and
power.

CAUSES OF CASTEISM: There are many causes of Casteism. Some of them are as follows:

i. Casteism increases, when a particular group tends to improve the status of its own
caste. In order to achieve such status, the members even adopt the most improper methods to
enhance the prestige of their caste.

ii. Marital rules such as endogamy, i.e., marriage within the group is another factor. Under
the caste system, which allows Casteism to perpetuate, such restrictions placed on marriage
forces an individual to marry within his own caste group, which brings about cohesion within
the group, thereby increasing Casteism.

iii. Communication between rural and urban areas became easy through urbani¬zation. The
feelings of caste were easily carried through the members from rural areas to urban areas
through migration. The members of the caste have to face various problems and as a result, a
need to provide security on com¬munal basis was felt. This factor of need for security also
encourages Casteism.

iv. Easy access to the means of transport and communication is another factor, which
contributes to the growth of Casteism. Members of the same caste, who were previously not
much in touch with each other, are now able to establish intimate relationships. The spread of
the feeling of Casteism became easy through mass media, such as newspapers, magazines, etc.

v. The impact of Casteism on society is severe. Right from the individual to the whole
nation, it affects the society as a whole.

SOME OF THE ILL-EFFECTS OF CASTEISM ARE AS FOLLOWS:

I. Casteism perpetuates the practice of untouchability and becomes an obstacle in

providing social equality and justice.

II. Casteism proves to be a threat to social order, stability, peace and harmony, in the
society.

III. Prevalence of Casteism shows that the people are tradition-bound, conserv¬ative and
orthodox in thinking. It may cause a hurdle to the upliftment of women because of lack of
encouragement from caste-conscious groups.

IV. Casteism divides society into different segments and results in conflicts and tensions in
and between these segments. These continuous conflicts and ten-sions between various
segments hinder the development of the nation and growth of nationalism.
V. Casteism results in political disunity and affects the smooth and successful functioning of
multi-party democracy like India.

VI. Casteism, indirectly, can be the cause of corruption. Members of a caste try to give all
facilities to the persons, who are from their own caste and in doing so, they do not hesitate to
involve in the most corrupt activities.

VII. Casteism has become an instrument in the hands of political leaders. Many political
leaders, during elections, try to procure votes on communal and caste basis, rather than their
own capacities and capabilities. This results in election of under-serving candidates, who do not
hesitate to promote their own caste interest at the cost of common good. Thus, Casteism
proves to be a hindrance to democracy.

VIII. Merit and efficiency may not be given importance, if appointments to various positions
both in the public and private sectors are based on caste considera-tions. This results in
hindering the technology and industrial efficiency.

IX. It also becomes an obstacle in achieving social mobility.

X. Casteism sometimes leads to religious conversions, especially among the low caste
groups, who are not financially sound. Another cause for such conver-sions is that certain
unbearable exploited conditions arise out of dominance of certain caste groups over other caste
groups.

SOME OF THE SOLUTIONS FOR THE PROBLEMS ARISING OUT OF CASTEISM ARE AS FOLLOWS:

i. Providing value-based education to children from childhood can solve the problem of
Casteism to some extent.

ii. Various social agencies like family, school, and Mass media must be given the
responsibility to develop a proper, broad outlook among children, which will negate the feelings
of Casteism, for example, creating awareness about the ill-effects of perpetuating the traditional
caste system.

iii. Literary programmes must be taken up in rural areas as the caste feelings, which further
perpetuate Casteism, are more in rural areas. These feelings of Casteism can be minimized by
the provision of social education among rural population.

iv. By encouraging inter-caste marriages, the feelings arising out of Casteism can be
minimized as these marriages bring two families of different castes closer to each other.

v. Provision of cultural and economic equality among different sections of the society
reduces the chances of jealousy and competition. Thus, economic and cultural equality is
important in eliminating Casteism.

Reservation Policy in India

The system of reservation in India is a form of positive discrimination. It follows from the concep
of equality of opportunity as enshrined in the Constitution of India. Reservation is the result of
laws, guidelines, and administrative action by the different levels of governments in India, and
includes reserved or exclusive access to seats in the different legislatures, to government jobs,
and to enrolment in higher educational institutions. There are some differences between how it
is enabled by the central Union Government and by individual States and Union Territories.

The basis of reservation is the perceived existence of some sort of historical or contemporary
social and educational disadvantage. The target groups are identified based on criteria such as
gender, caste, tribe, and linguistic minority status. It is the process of facilitating a person in
education, scholarship, jobs, and in promotion who has category certificates. Reservation is a
form of quota-based affirmative action. Reservation is governed by constitutional laws,
statutory laws, and local rules and regulations. Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST) and
Other Backward Classes (OBC), and in some states Backward Classes among Muslims under a
category called BC(M), are the primary beneficiaries of the reservation policies under the
Constitution – with the object of ensuring a level playing field.

Before independence

Quota systems favouring certain castes and other communities existed before
independence in several areas of British India. Demands for various forms of positive
discrimination had been made, for example, in 1882 and 1891. Shahu, the Maharaja of the
princely state of Kolhapur, introduced reservation in favour of non-Brahmin and backward
classes, much of which came into force in 1902. He provided free education to everyone and
opened several hostels to make it easier for them to receive it. He also tried to ensure that
people thus educated were suitably employed, and he appealed both for a class-free India and
the abolition of untouchability. His 1902 measures created 50 percent reservation for backward
communities.

The British Raj introduced elements of reservation in the Government of India Act of
1909 and there were many other measures put in place prior to independence. A significant one
emerged from the Round Table Conference of June 1932, when the Prime Minister of Britain,
Ramsay Macdonald, proposed the Communal Award, according to which separate
representation was to be provided for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and
Europeans. The depressed classes were assigned a number of seats to be filled by election from
constituencies in which only they could vote, although they could also vote in other seats. The
proposal was controversial: Mahatma Gandhi fasted in protest against it but many among the
depressed classes, including their leader, B. R. Ambedkar, favoured it. After negotiations, Gandhi
reached an agreement with Ambedkar to have a single Hindu electorate, with Dalits having
seats reserved within it. Electorates for other religions, such as Islam and Sikhism, remained
separate. This became known as the Poona Pact.

After independence:

After the independence of India in 1947 there were some major changes in favour of the
Scheduled Tribes (ST), Scheduled Castes (SC) and Other Backward Classes (OBC).

A common form of caste discrimination in India has been the practice of untouchability.
SCs were the primary targets of the practice, which was outlawed by the new Constitution of
India.

In 1954, the Ministry of Education suggested that 20 per cent of places should be
reserved for the SCs and STs in educational institutions with a provision to relax minimum
qualifying marks for admission by 5 per cent wherever required. In 1982, it was specified that
15 per cent and 7.5 per cent of vacancies in public sector and government-aided educational
institutes should be reserved for the SC and ST candidates, respectively.

A significant change began in 1978 when the Mandal Commission was established to
assess the situation of the socially- and educationally-backward classes. The commission did not
have exact population figures for the OBCs and so used data from the 1931 census, thus
estimating the group's population at 52 per cent. In 1980 the commission's report
recommended that a reserved quota for OBCs of 27 per cent should apply in respect of services
and public sector bodies operated by the Union Government. It called for a similar change to
admissions to institutes of higher education, except where states already had more generous
requirements. It was not until the 1990s that the recommendations were implemented in Union
Government jobs.

The Constitution of India states in article 16(4): "Nothing in [article 16] or in clause (2) of
article 29 shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the advancement of any
socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes." Article 46 of the Constitution states that "The State shall promote with
special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and,
in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from
social injustice and all forms of exploitation.

The Supreme Court of India ruled in 1992 that reservations could not exceed 50 percent,
anything above which it judged would violate equal access as guaranteed by the Constitution. It
thus put a cap on reservations. However, there are states laws that exceed this 50 per cent limit
and these are under litigation in the Supreme Court. For example, in the State of Tamil Nadu the
caste-based reservation stands at 69 per cent and applies to about 87 per cent of the
population.

Reservations in elected bodies

In parliament, caste and tribe based reservations are provided to make it more
representative.. Today, out of 543 seats in India's parliament, 84 (15.47%) are reserved for
SC/Dalits and 47 (8.66%) for ST/Tribes. Allocation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Tribes in the
Lok Sabha are made on the basis of proportion of Scheduled Castes and Tribes in the State
concerned to that of the total population.

A similar percentage of exclusive seats have been provided for members of designated
castes and tribes in each state legislature. Local self-governments have caste, tribe and gender
based reservation system in place.

Reservations in employment

A fixed percentage of India's government and public sector jobs are made exclusive for
categories of people largely based on their caste or tribe.

The 1992 Supreme Court ruling in the Indra Sawhney case said that reservations in job
promotions are "unconstitutional" but allowed its continuation for five years. In 1995, the 77th
amendment to the Constitution was made to amend Article 16 before the five-year period
expired to continue with reservations for SC/STs in promotions. It was further modified through
the 85th amendment to give the benefit of consequential seniority to SC/ST candidates
promoted by reservation.

The 81st amendment was made to the Constitution to permit the government to treat
the backlog of reserved vacancies as a separate and distinct group, to which the ceiling of 50
per cent did not apply. The 82nd amendment inserted a provision in Article 335 to enable states
to give concessions to SC/ST candidates in promotion.

The validity of all the above four amendments was challenged in the Supreme Court
through various petitions clubbed together in M. Nagaraj & Others vs. Union of India & Others,
mainly on the ground that these altered the Basic Structure of the Constitution. In 2006, the
Supreme Court upheld the amendments but stipulated that the concerned state will have to
show, in each case, the existence of "compelling reasons" - which include "backwardness",
"inadequacy of representation" and overall "administrative efficiency - before making provisions
for reservation. The court further held that these provisions are merely enabling provisions. If a
state government wishes to make provisions for reservation to SC/STs in promotion, the state
has to collect quantifiable data showing backwardness of the class and inadequacy of
representation of that class.

In 2007, the Government of Uttar Pradesh introduced reservation in job promotions.

However, citing the Supreme Court decision, the policy was ruled to be unconstitutional by the
Allahabad High Court in 2011. The decision was challenged in the Supreme Court, which upheld
it in 2012 by rejecting the government's argument because it failed to furnish sufficient valid
data to justify the move to promote employees on a caste basis.

Reservations in education

In India most of the scholarships or student aid is available only to—SCs, STs, BCs, OBCs,
women, Muslims, and other minorities. Only about 0.7% of scholarships or student aid in India
is based on merit.
 The University Grants Commission (UGC) provides financial assistance to universities for
the establishment of Special Cells for SC/STs. The cells help universities implement the
reservation policy in student admission and staff recruitment processes for teaching and
non-teaching jobs. They also help the SC/ST categories integrate with the university community
and help remove the difficulties SC/ST individuals may have experienced.

New rules implementations of UPA Government do not provide scholarship scheme and
reservation quota of students and employees of colleges under central University and State
University approved by the UGC.

Beneficiary groups of the reservation system

The quota system sets aside a proportion of all possible positions for members of a
specific group. Those not belonging to the designated communities can compete only for the
remaining positions, while members of the designated communities can compete for either
reserved or open position.

Seats are reserved for people under the following criteria:

Caste:

In central-government funded higher education institutions, 22.5% of available seats are

reserved for Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) students (7.5% for STs, 15% for SCs).
This reservation percentage has been raised to 49.5% by including an additional 27%
reservation for OBCs. This ratio is followed even in Parliament and all elections where a few
constituencies are earmarked for those from certain communities (which will next rotate in
2026 per the Delimitation Commission.

The exact percentages vary from state to state:

• In Tamil Nadu, the reservation is 18% for SCs and 1% for STs, based on local
demographics.
• In Northeast India, especially in Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Mizoram,
reservation for ST in State Govt. jobs is 80% with only 20% unreserved. In the Central
Universities of NEHU (Shillong) and Rajiv Gandhi University, 60% of seats are reserved for ST
students.

• In Andhra Pradesh, 25% of educational institutes and government jobs are reserved for
OBCs, 15% for SCs, 6% for STs and 4% for Muslims.

• In West Bengal, 35% of educational institute seats and government jobs are reserved for
SC, ST, and OBC (22% SC, 6% ST, 7% for OBC A & B)in West Bengal there is no reservation on
religious basis but some economically and educationally backward Muslim castes (basis
surnames pertaining to different profession e.g. cobbler, weaver etc.) have been included along
with their Hindu counterparts in OBC list namely OBC A and OBC B, in both lists caste from both
communities are there. But in higher educational institute, till now there is no reservation for
the OBC community but there is reservation in regard to admission in primary, secondary and
higher secondary studies.

UNIT- IV

ISSUES AND CONCERNS OF EDUCATION IN SIKKIM

Educational perspective during monarchy in Sikkim and thereafter.

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM DURING MONARCHY

Traditional education of Sikkim was very life-centred, practical and experience based.
Growing children, till attainment of adolescence, obtained hands-on knowledge of things,
ceremonies and functions. The family was the focal point of nearly all educational endeavours
with a key role being played by women.

Apart from the reading of Buddhist religious literature at home, education in Sikkim for
most of the nineteenth century was of the monastic type. The monastic schools imparted
religious education for the preparation of monks to priesthood. Schools in Tashiding, Tulung,
Pemayongtse and Sangnachaling monastries were famous as centres of monastic education in
those days.

Monasteries and temples have made a significant contribution to education in Sikkim.

Buddhist literature, especially the Mahayana and Tantric texts ,were available in Tibetan, which
has been the medium of instruction.

The fundamental Buddhist teaching and chanting of some important prayers included in
religious books, formed the curriculum of monastic education. The curriculum also included the
study of diversified subjects such as painting, sculpture, astrology, mathematics, medicine,
philosophy, literature, tantra and so on. The SHEDAS (Monastic Collages for Higher Studies in
Buddhist Literature) at Deorali and Rumtek are primarily aimed at reviving the formal
educational role of the monasteries.

Christian Missionary Education in Sikkim began in the late nineteenth century with some
support from the landlords/kazis, some of whose schools had been handed over to Scottish
Missionaries. On the whole Christian missionary activity was not favoured by the Maharaja. The
missionaries were not allowed to live in Gangtok.

In 1924, Mary Scott was allowed to open a school for girls in Gangtok. The first
matriculation class passed the examination (four candidates) in 1945 and the school continued
to row, becoming a recognized higher secondary school in 1961. A striking features of the
Christian Missionary schools for girls was ‘industrial’ teaching mainly sewing and knitting.
‘Vocational training’ was also a part of the curriculum.

The Bhutia Boarding School (1906) was the first government school in Sikkim. The
second government school, Nepali Boarding School was started in 1907 in today’s Lal Bazaar
area. In 1924, the government amalgamated the Bhutia and Nepali Boarding Schools into what
has grown today to become the Sir Tashi Namgyal Academy.

By the 1920, Sikkim had 21 schools (6 government schools, 13 mission schools and 2
schools under landlords). This number continued to increase over the years. In 1961, at the end
of the First Plan period, the number of schools in Sikkim was in fact 182, registering an increase
of 107 per cent as against in 1954, when there were only 88 schools.

EDUCATION IN THE POST-MERGER PERIOD

Following the merger of Sikkim in the Indian Union in 1975, the state got tremendous
momentum in its educational status in terms of the total number of schools, number of
teachers and quality of education. As on 31.03.05 the total number of government schools in
the state including lower primary, primary, junior high school, secondary and senior secondary
school was 782. In every government school ranging from lower primary to senior secondary
school, pre-primary section is attached. Hence, taking private school (312) into account, total
number of schools in the state is 1094. The state has attained over 70 per cent literacy rate.

EFFECTIVE LITERACY RATE

The state of Sikkim has seen a marked improvement in its effective literacy rates in the
past few decades particularly after the merger with India. The total literacy went up from a
mere 17 percent in 1971 to 81.40 percent. Male and female literacy rates are 86.55 percent and
75.61 percent respectively. However, females are still lagging appreciably behind their male
counterparts in the race of educational advancement in the state.

EDUCATIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE

Although the distribution and density of the population is considered to be vital

indicator of equitable distribution of the infrastructure base across the space for sustainable
regional planning exercises in a hill state like Sikkim, physiographic including terrain morphology
is equally critical factors. Out of the total 1094 schools in the state in 2005, the government runs
over 71 percent and the remaining are under the control of private agencies and the central
government. Among the districts, the east and the north with the highest and lowest shares of
population also have the largest and the smallest number of schools respectively in all
categories.
 Interestingly, Sikkim has also successfully promoted traditional educational institutes like
Sanskrit Pathsalas, monastic schools and madrasas spread across the state.

With the massive expansion of facilities at lower levels, the numbers of those qualifying
in the higher secondary examination are rising steadily. Though there has been considerable
popular enthusiasm and a growing need for expanding the higher educational institutions, the
state has not been able to do much on this. The quota of seats that are available to the
Sikkimese in various institutions in some parts of the country has, to a large extent, covered
these gaps. An overwhelming majority of medical doctors, engineers and lawyers in Sikkim have
studied against the quota seats.

The state government has taken positive steps in higher education by establishing
Degree Colleges i.e. Tadong Govt. College, Namchi, Govt. College, Gyalsing, Govt. College,
Burtuk Govt. College and Rhenock Govt. College.

In the promotion of ‘scientific spirit & temper’ as being critical for sustainability of the
Sikkimese economy and environment, the government has established Chakung Science
College in Soreng, West Sikkim in 2016.

However, with the credit line extended by the World Bank under the Third Technician
Project, two polytechnics have established at Bardang in east and at Chisopani in south
district.Of late, a number of independent IT institutes including NIIT, Aptech and TULEC have set
up their centres in the urban areas of east and south districts. Furthermore, since 2003,
vocational stream has been introduced in 40 Government Senior Secondary Schools. These are
funded by central assistance and include horticulture, IT, Tourism and travel management, etc.

Recently, some private sector ventures have also been set up including Harka Maya
Collage of Education at Tadong, Loyla College of Education at Namchi and Carmel Teacher
Training Institute at Pakyong.

PRIVATIZATION OF EDUCATION AND ISSUE OF CONCERN: A COMPARATIVE STORY

 In India, education like many other services was earlier largely controlled by the
government but of late privately owned educational institutions have been growing in numbers.
However, privatization in the field of education has been different from that in other fields. As
you know, several public sector undertakings underwent disinvestment following liberalization
of the economy and the ownership was transferred from the public sector to the private sector
thus leading to privatization. But in the field of education, ‘privatization’ as a trend was not the
consequence of disinvestment. Rather, this trend owes its growth to the amazing growth of
private organizations in the field of education.

Following Independence, education became an area of priority for the nation and
initiatives were taken by the government to provide education to the masses. Areas catering to
the masses like elementary education are still mainly under the government. Regarding private
institutions, there has been a feeling that they take care of the quality aspect in a better way
but are meant mainly for the elites. But now at the school level, the demand for private
educational institutions is on the rise, cutting across classes. This is mainly because limitations
of the government in providing quality education to the masses are surfacing. Private
institutions offering higher and professional education are also getting popular due to the
limitations of the public sector in fulfilling the needs in this area.

PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION: TYPES OF OWNERSHIPS

You may be knowing that participation of the private sector in the field of education is
not a new phenomenon and there have been different types of ownerships of such institutions.
Some of these are discussed below:

1. Individual Owners and Trusts- It was common for the wealthy people of the society to
patronize educational institutions. Even today there are many educational institutions that are
run by such individual(s). Some educational organizations are owned and controlled by trusts
that have been created for educational purposes by individual(s), corporate houses, etc.

2. NGOs (Non-governmental Organization)-These organizations are active in providing

education. Many of them are playing a special role in providing education to the marginalized
sectors like women, those differently abled rural people, tribal belts, etc. The Azim Premji
Foundation, Akshara, Pratham are some NGOs active in the field education.

3. Religious Bodies-Since historical times religious organizations have been active in promoting
the cause of education. Buddhist monasteries, Madrasas, Vidyapiths as centres of education
used to flourished in the past. The Christian missionaries have been in the field of education
since a long time. The Khalsa group, Arya Samaj, Ram Krishna mission, and many other such
organizations are also contributing greatly towards the cause of education.

4. Corporate Houses- Many corporate houses are actively involved in providing education.
Renowned industrialist like the Tatas, Birlas, the reliance group, and many other such business
houses have made forays into the field of education.

People in their individual capacities as well as organizations, societies, communities have been
promoting the cause of education. The presence of the private sector in the field of education is
thus not new. It existed in the past and does so now.But earlier it was mainly active in providing
education at the school level.Later its presence started to be felt even in the field of higher
education. But since the last decade there has been a boom in the participation of the private
sector in education. There has been a phenomenal growth in the number of schools, deemed
universities and institutions offering professional education. Southern India took the lead and a
number of institutions offering professional education were established within a short period of
time and now this trend is perceptible at the national level. This indicates an astonishing scale
of de-facto privatization of elementary as well as higher education.

NEED FOR PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT (ADVANTAGES)

Some of the needs are the following:

The government on its own has not been able to shoulder the responsibility of providing
quality education to the masses. The Constitutional provisions make the government
responsible for providing elementary education and hence it is felt that the government should
allow the private sector to handle higher and professional education. This had been voiced even
during the British period. In 1882, Hunter’s Commission recommended that there should be a
careful withdrawal of the government from the field of higher education, which should be taken
over by the private enterprises while the state paid more attention to primary education. The
government has to concentrate its efforts in developing educational areas such as elementary
education, vocational education, non-formal education, etc. so as to build the basic foundation
of the educational system. While vertical growth upon an expanded foundation thus build may
be through the private sector.

In the field of higher and professional education there are many private institutions that offer
quality education. Recently concern has been expressed by a body of surgeons as to the
deteriorating quality of surgical education in the government medical colleges in comparison to
the private ones. Therefore, private professional institutions that can afford better
infrastructure try out innovations in curriculum, provide research facilities are needed for
quality education. Many corporate houses are maintaining good standards in their educational
institutions as there is a strong linkage between their professional educational institutions and
the industry. At the school level it has been accepted that private schools take care of the
quality aspect in a better way.

FACTORS LEADING TO THE GROWTH IN PRIVATE PARTICIPATION

There has been a sudden spurt in the number of private institutions. What could be the
reasons?

1.Liberalization: In the last decade with liberalization policies being implemented, the field of
education too witnessed the entry of private sector on a large scale and in order to support the
initiatives of the private sector in the field of education, many educational institutions under
private management are aided by the government. Thus private participation in education has
been encouraged.

2. Changing Social Needs: We know that our economy presently demands educated and skilled
manpower. The numbers graduating from government institutes is nowhere near the number
required. Also with globalization, economics of the world are getting interlinked and hence,
people with professional education are in demand abroad too. Such growing need of manpower
could not be met by the public sector alone and this led to the need for private participation.

3. Quality of Education: In spite of the government pouring in resources for the cause of
universalization of elementary education, it is a well known fact that the quality of education or
the perception of it, offered by government schools does not match that of private schools.
Hence, the craze for private school and the consequent increase in their number. It is indeed an
ironical situation as huge financial investment is being made in government schools through the
SSA programme while parents prefer to pay for private schooling where the learning has been
found to be of better quality. In several states a sizeable portion of urban children are now in
private schools. As per Pratham and certain other source, private elementary schools ensure
greater proficiency in the basic skills.

4. Investment in Education Leading to High Returns: From a healthy growth of private

institutions, mushrooming of certain types of private institutions is being witnessed. Earlier the
motive to provide education was only philanthropic but now it is linked to profiting. It is well
known that investments made in educational institutions are rewarded with high returns. This is
true not only in India, but all over the world and business in education involves trillions of
dollars. For instance, it is a common knowledge that teacher-training institutions are being
established in huge numbers by private players. Private schools are being opened by the rich
and affluent to multiply their income. The sizeable student population in a population of over a
billion people makes the market for education very big and lucrative. This is leading to a steady
inflow of entrepreneurs providing educational services even from across jurisdictional
boundaries.

CONCERNS REGARDING PRIVATIZATION

We have been discussing so far the need for the participation of the private sector in the
field of education. There are however, certain concerns regarding the rapid growth of
educational institutions under private management, which in some cases are witnessing a
mushroom growth. Recently numerous teacher education collages, some of which operated
even from single room premises, some state were shut down following judicial interventions.
This is just one incident that reflects the sordid state of affairs in some areas. Let us now discuss
some of the major concerns.

1.Under Representation of the weaker Sections: Expansion of educational facilities has to be

holistic and should cover wider segments of the population. There are allegations that growing
educational opportunities through the private sector are not quite inclusive. The marginalized
sections still struggle for an entry into these institutions. Women’s participation is still below
fifty per cent at all stages of education and in institutions offering professional opportunities
through private participation. When private institutions exclude the meritorious but poor,
education once again becomes a privilege enjoyed by the elites.

2.Quality of Education: Although the private sector is often credited for ensuring quality,
allegations abound as to the quality of education provided by many of them. While, it is
generally held that private schools offer quality education, this cannot be taken as a general
rule.

3. Commercialization of Education: It is well known fact that rich farmers, contractors and other
moneyed people today prefer to visit in the field of professional education because of the
promises of heavy returns. In many of these institutions teachers are compensated
inadequately, hired and fired at will, those without proper qualifications are recruited and
money is extorted from the students on various pretexts. Education is thus old and the students
become the costumers. In the recent past, provision for providing teacher education through
the correspondence mode was especially misused and the process was akin to selling degrees.
These malpractices take a heavy toll on the quality. There is presently a ban on the charging
capitation fees by private institutions and profiteering of any sort is also unacceptable. The
generation of surplus funds by these institutions is allowed but on the condition that it would b
rolled back i.e. applied for the upgradation and development of the organization.

Many private educational institutions charge hefty fees while students do not get the full
value for their money. This is because they compromise on infrastructure and faculty and may
devise commercially profitable procedures such as mass admission without ensuring the
requisite facilities or services for imparting sound education. Such educational institutions are
thus mainly for minting money.

The private institutions today outnumber the government institutions in many areas. Therefore
lowering of standards by these institutions will adversely affect the concerned area. The biggest
challenge for the private sector and the biggest reason for it to enter the field of education are
not merely to deal with the huge number of aspirants but mainly to provide quality education.
It is quite natural that the expectation from the private sector is more.

PROGRAMME AND INITIATIVE ENHANCING QUALITY EDUCATION IN REGARD TO THE CENTRAL

AND STATE SCHEME

OPERATION BLACKBOARD

It was a centrally sponsored programme which was started in 1987 to supply bare
minimum crucial facilities to all primary schools in the country. The objectives of the scheme
was providing students studying in primary setting with the necessary institutional equipment
and instructional materials to facilitate their education. There was a provision to provide salary
for an additional teacher to those primary schools that have an enrolment of more than 100
students or for a consecutive period of two years. In the IXth five year plan the scheme was
extended to all upper primary schools as well.

In an attempt to improve the implementation of this scheme a few additional provision

were added, which are as follows:

1. All teachers will be trained in using the materials provided by the scheme under a particularly
designed teacher preparation programme.

2. The state will provide for the replacement of broken or non-functioning materials. Flexibility
for purchasing additional items and teaching aids will be provided at the local level. School
building will be designed according to local needs. The central government provides funds for
school equipment and the buildings; the state government also raises funds through the
Jawahar Rojgar Yojna scheme.
3. At least fifty percent of the teachers will be women, which in turn will affect the female
child’s enrolment in school.

2. DISTRICT PRIMARY EDUCATION PROGRAMME (DPEP)

It was started in the year 1994 with major objective i.e. revitalize the primary education
system and to achieve the objective of universalisation of primary education.

The main objectives of DPEP programme are as follows:

1.Emphasising local area planning with district plans being formulated in their own right instead
of being derived from a state plan project document.

2. Infusing greater rigor and professional inputs in planning and appraisal.

3. more focused targeting in educationally backward districts and districts where total literacy
campaigns have been successful.

4. More focused coverage would initially focus on primary stage (classes I-V) with emphasis on
girls and for socially disadvantaged groups, and

5. Emphasizing capacity building and networking of districts, states and national level institutes
in the resource support for the programme.

3. SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN (SSA)

*** For details please refer to the Current constitutional Provisions and quality prospective at
the beginning of unit 2***

4.RASHTRIYA MADHYAMIK SHIKSHA ABHIYAN (RMSA)

*** For details please refer to the Current constitutional Provisions and quality prospective at
the beginning of unit 2***

4.RASHTRIYA UCHCHATAT SHIKSHA ABHIYAN (RUSA)

Overview

Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS),

launched in 2013 aims at providing strategic funding to eligible state higher educational
institutions. The central funding (in the ratio of 60:40 for general category States, 90:10 for
special category states and 100% for union territories) would be norm based and outcome
dependent. The funding would flow from the central ministry through the state
governments/union territories to the State Higher Education Councils before reaching the
identified institutions. The funding to states would be made on the basis of critical appraisal of
State Higher Education Plans, which would describe each state’s strategy to address issues of
equity, access and excellence in higher education.

Objectives

The salient objectives of RUSA are to:

• Improve the overall quality of state institutions by ensuring conformity to prescribed

norms and standards and adopt accreditation as a mandatory quality assurance framework.

• Usher transformative reforms in the state higher education system by creating a

facilitating institutional structure for planning and monitoring at the state level, promoting
autonomy in State Universities and improving governance in institutions.

• Ensure reforms in the affiliation, academic and examination systems.

• Ensure adequate availability of quality faculty in all higher educational institutions and
ensure capacity building at all levels of employment.

• Create an enabling atmosphere in the higher educational institutions to devote

themselves to research and innovations.

• Expand the institutional base by creating additional capacity in existing institutions and
establishing new institutions, in order to achieve enrolment targets.
• Correct regional imbalances in access to higher education by setting up institutions in
unserved & underserved areas.

• Improve equity in higher education by providing adequate opportunities of higher

education to SC/STs and socially and educationally backward classes; promote inclusion of
women, minorities, and differently abled persons.

Components

RUSA would create new universities through upgradation of existing autonomous

colleges and conversion of colleges in a cluster. It would create new model degree colleges, new
professional colleges and provide infrastructural support to universities and colleges. Faculty
recruitment support, faculty improvements programmes and leadership development of
educational administrators are also an important part of the scheme. In order to enhance skill
development the existing central scheme of Polytechnics has been subsumed within RUSA. A
separate component to synergise vocational education with higher education has also been
included in RUSA. Besides these, RUSA also supports reforming, restructuring and building
capacity of institutions in participating state.

The following are the primary components of RUSA that capture the key action and funding
areas that must be pursued for the fulfilment of the targets:

• Up gradation of existing autonomous colleges to Universities

• Conversion of colleges to Cluster Universities

• Infrastructure grants to Universities

• New Model Colleges (General)

• Upgradation of existing degree colleges to model colleges

• New Colleges (Professional)

• Infrastructure grants to colleges

• Research, innovation and quality improvement

• Equity initiatives

• Faculty Recruitment Support

• Faculty improvements

• Vocationalisation of Higher Education

• Leadership Development of Educational Administrators

• Institutional restructuring & reforms

• Capacity building & preparation, data collection & planning

5.VOCATIONALISATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION AT +12 LEVEL

This scheme was launched in order to enhance individual employability, reduce the
mismatch between demand and supply of skilled manpower. It was implemented since 1988.
The revised scheme is in operation since 1992-93.The scheme provides financial assistance to
the states to set up administrative structures, area vocational surveys, preparation of
curriculum, textbooks, work book curriculum guides, training manual, teacher training
programme, strengthening technical support system for research and development, training
and evaluation. It also provides financial assistance to NGOs and voluntary organization towards
the implementation of specific innovative projects for conducting short-term courses. The
scheme has, so far, created infrastructure in 21000 sections in 9619 schools and build capacity
of about 10 lakh students at +12 level.

6. THE RIGHT OF CHILDREN TO FREE AND COMPULSARY EDUCATION ACT, 2009

This Act received the assent of the President on 26th August 2009 which provides
free and compulsory education to all the children of the age of six to fourteen years. So, this Act
may be called the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. It shall extend
to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir

PROVISIONS UNDER RIGHT TO FREE AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION

 1. Every child of the age of six to fourteen years shall have a right to free and compulsory
education in a neighbourhood school till completion of elementary education.

 2. No child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may
prevent him or her from pursuing and completing the elementary education.

 3. Provided that a child suffering from disability shall have the right to pursue free and
compulsory elementary education.

 4. Where a child above six years of age has not been admitted in any school or though
admitted, could not complete his or her elementary education, then, he or she shall be
admitted in a class appropriate to his or her age. Provided that where a child is directly
admitted in a class appropriate to his or her age, then, he or she shall in order to be at par with
others, have to receive special training, in such manner and within such time limits. Further that
a child so admitted to elementary education shall be entitled to free education till completion
of elementary education even after fourteen years.

 5. Where in a school, there is no provision for completion of elementary education or

any reason whatsoever a child shall have a right to seek transfer to any other school. For
seeking admission in such other school, the Head-teacher or In-charge of the school where such
child was last admitted, shall immediately issue the transfer certificate.

DUTIES OF APPROPRIATE GOVERNMENT, LOCAL AUTHORITY AND PARENTS

1. The appropriate Government and the local authority shall establish, within such area or limits
of neighbourhood, as may be prescribed, a school, where it is not so established, within a
period of three years from the commencement of this Act

2. The Central Government and the State Government shall have concurrent responsibility for
providing funds for carrying out the provisions of this Act.

3. The Central Government shall develop a framework of national curriculum with the help of
academic authority. Develop and enforce standards for training of teachers. Develop technical
support and resources to the State Government for promoting innovations, researches,
planning and capacity building.

4. Every local authority shall

i. Ensure availability of a neighborhood schools.

ii. Ensure that the child belonging to weaker section and the child belonging to disadvantaged
group are not discriminated against and prevented from pursuing and completing elementary
education on any ground.

iii. Maintain records of children up to the age of fourteen years residing within its jurisdiction, in
such manner as may be prescribed.

iv. Ensure and monitor admission, attendance and completion of elementary education by every
child residing within its jurisdiction.

v. Provide training facility for teachers.

vi. Monitor functioning of schools within its jurisdiction.

5. It shall be the duty of every parents or guardian to admit his or her child to an elementary
education in the neighbourhood school.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF SCHOOL AND TEACHERS

1. No school or person shall, while admitting a child, collect any capitation fee and subject the
child or his or her parents or guardian to any screening procedure.

2. For the purpose of admission to elementary education, the age of a child shall be determined
on the basis of the birth certificate issued in accordance with the provisions of the Births,
Deaths and Marriages Registration Act, 1886 or on the basis of such other document as may be
prescribed. No child shall be denied admission in a school for lack of age proof.

3. No child admitted in a school shall be held back in any class or expelled from school till the
completion of elementary education.

4. No child shall be subjected to physical punishment or mental harassment.

5. No school to be established without obtaining certificate of recognition.

6. A school shall constitute a School management Committee which shall have three-fourth
members shall be parents or guardian and fifty percent of members shall be women. They shall
monitor the working of the school, utilization of the grants and prepare and recommend school
development plan.

7. Any person possessing such minimum qualifications, as laid down by an academic authority
authorized by the Central Government, by notification shall be eligible for appointment as a
teacher.

8. No teacher shall engage himself or herself in private tuition or private teaching activity.

7. INCLUSIVE EDUCATION FOR DISABLED SECONDARY STUDENTS (IEDSS)

This scheme was launched in 2009-10 to enabled children with disability who complete
elementary schooling and help them to pursue further years of secondary schooling in an
inclusive and enabling environment. This scheme has replaced the earlier scheme of Integrated
Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) and would provide assistance for the inclusive education
of disabled in classes IX-XIIth.
 The scheme covers all children studying the secondary stage in Government, local body
and Government-aided schools, with one or more disabilities as defined under the Persons with
Disabilities Act 1995 and the National Trust Act 1999, namely blindness, low vision, leprosy
cured, hearing impairment, loco-motor disabilities, mental retardation, mental illness, autism
and cerebral palsy and may eventually cover speech impairment has been given to help them
gain access to secondary schools.

THE SCHEME PROVIDE FOLLOWING ASSISTANCE

 Student-oriented components such as medical and educational assessment, books and

stationery, uniforms, transport allowance, reader allowance, stipend for girls, support services,
assertive devices, boarding and lodging facility, therapeutic services, teaching-learning
materials, etc.

 Other components include appointment of special education teachers, allowances for

general teachers for teaching such children, teacher training, orientation of school
administrators, establishment of resource room, providing barrier free environment, etc.

 Central assistance for all items covered in the scheme is on 100 percent basis. The State
Government are only required to make provisions for a scholarship of Rs.600 per disabled child
per annum.

8.PROVIDING QUALITY EDUCATION AT MADRASAS (SPQEM)

This scheme seeks to bring about qualitative improvement in Madrasa education, so

that Muslim children can attain standards of the national education system in formal education
subjects. The scheme was launched with the following objectives:

 To encourage traditional institutions such as madrasas and maktabs by giving financial

assistance to introduce science, mathematics, social studies, Hindi and English in their
curriculum, so that academic proficiency for classes I-XII is attainable for children studying in
these institutions. However, the process of modernization of traditional Madrasas and Maktabs
would be voluntary.
 To provide opportunities to students of these institutions to acquire education
comparable to the National Education System especially for secondary and senior secondary
levels.

9.SCHOLARSHIP SCHEMES OF HRDD SIKKIM

The Scholarship Section of HRDD, Govt. of Sikkim looks after the implementation of
Scholarships schemes of both the State and Central Governments.

(A) TYPES OF SCHOLARSHIPS (STATE SPONSORED SCHEMES)

(1) POST MATRIC SCHOLARSHIP

The government of Sikkim provides Post Matric Scholarship to all the local students
pursuing various Post Matric Courses i.e. Professional and Technical courses in the various
universities in and outside the states as indicated below:

(a)Merit Scholarship- Marit Scholarship at the rate of Rs.800/- per month is awarded to
students who secure 70% and above marks in class XII board Examination in single sitting for
pursuing any courses of his /her choice. Merit Scholarship at the rate of Rs.1200/-per month
plus reimbursement on account of payment of compulsory fees subject to a maximum of
Rs.10,000/- per annum is awarded to any students who scores 70% and above in single sitting
for pursuing Honours courses.

(b) General Scholarship- General scholarship is awarded to students who secures less than 70%
marks in class XII Board Examination in a single sitting and whose parents’ combined income is
less than Rs.10,000/-per month.

(c) Fellowship grants for pursuing PhD courses- Fellowship grants for pursuing PhD courses at
the rate of Rs.6000/- pm and contingency grant of Rs.15,000/- per annum for a maximum
period of three years is awarded to local students.
(2). SCHOLARSHIP FOR BELOW POVERTY LINE STUDENTS- Financial assistance at the rate of
Rs.300/- pm is awarded to local students studying in Government colleges of Sikkim including
SHEDA.

(3) FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE TO LOCAL STUDENTS STUDYING IN RASHTRIYA INDIAN MILITARY

COLLEGE (RIMC),DEHRADUN-This scholarship is awarded at the rate of Rs.20,000/- per AM per
student. The candidate have to qualify in the entrance exams conducted by the Home
Department for the said institute. The said exams are conducted twice in a year in the month of
December and June.

(4).FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE TO LOCAL STUDENTS STUDYING IN SAINIK SCHOOL, GOALPARA-It is a

totally residential army public school established for the three states i.e. Sikkim, Assam and
Meghalaya. The main objectives of the school is to remove imbalance in the officer cadre of the
defense service and to bring public school education within the reach of the common man.
Financial assistance is awarded at the rate of Rs.20,000/- per AM per student.

(5) MERIT SCHOLARSHIP SCHEMES FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION

Merit Scholarship is awarded to students of Government Schools who secure First, Second
and Third position in the qualifying examination.

SL.NO. QUALIFYING EXAMINATION POSITION RATE OF SCHOLARSHIP CLASS

1 Class V Exam. and merit at Sub-division Level 1st

2nd

3rd Rs.1200/-PA

Rs.1000/-PA
Rs.800/-PA VI, VII and VIII

2 Class VIII Exam. and merit at District Level 1st

2nd

3rd Rs.1500/-PA

Rs.1200/-PA

Rs.900/-PA IX

and

3 Class X Board Exam. and merit at District Level 1st

2nd

3rd Rs.1800/-

Rs.1500/-

Rs.1200/- XI

and XII
6.PRENA SCHOLARSHIP SCHEME FOR GIRLS STUDENTS

SL. NO. NAME POSITION RATE OF SCHOLARSHIP CLASS

1 Elementary Education 1st

2nd

3rd Rs.800/-

Rs.700/-

Rs.600/- VI, VII and VIII

2 Secondary Education 1st

2nd

3rd Rs.900/-

Rs.800/-

Rs.700/- IX and X

3. Senior Secondary Education 1st

2nd

3rd Rs.1200/-

Rs.1100/-

Rs.1000/- XI and XII

(7) CASH AWARDS FOR LOCAL TOPPERS IN CBSE

CLASS 1ST Position 2nd Position 3rd Position

XII Rs.1 lakh Rs.75,000/- Rs.50,000/-

X Rs.1 lakh Rs.75,000/- Rs.50,000/-

8. HON’BLE CHIEF MINISTER’S MERIT SCHOLARSHIP

In order to provide national level school education to the class V toppers of the Government
schools, the State government of Sikkim has launched the HCM Merit Scholarship from the year
2010 in which state government bears all expenses with respect to the study of these students
selected in different public schools both inside and outside the state.

IMPORTANT FEATURES

1.Local students between the age of 11-12 and half years who have studied in Govt. school from
I to V and have stood 1st in class V annual exam.

2. Eligible candidates must appear for the selection test conducted by the HRDD.

3. Preference in allotment-

i. Candidate position in the merit list.

ii. Number of seat available.

iii. 20% of the toppers shall admitted in the best public schools outside the state and 80% shall
be admitted in best public in the state.
4. Outside State-

a. Scindia Boys School, Gwalior, MP

b. Scindia kanya Vidhyalaya, Gwalior,MP

c. Pinegrove School, Dharampur, HP

d. Aryan School, Dehradun,Uttarkhand

e. Sighally Hills International School, Dehradun, Uttarkhand

5. Within State-

a. TNA,gangtok

b. St.Xavier Pakyong

c. S t.joseph, Martam

d. Namchi Public School

e. Don Bosco Malbasey

f. St.Mary’s Gyalsing

Unit V

Teacher as an Agent of Social change

Teaching Professionalism

What is a Profession?

A profession can be define as an occupation whose core element is work based upon the
mastery of a complex body of knowledge and skills. It is a vocation in which knowledge of some
department of science or learning or the practice of an art founded upon it is used in the
service of others. Its members are governed by codes of ethics and profess a commitment to
competence, integrity and morality, altruism, and the promotion of the public good within their
domain.

These commitments form the basis of a social contract between a profession and
society, which in return grants the profession a monopoly over the use of its knowledge base,
the right to considerable autonomy in practice and the privilege of self-regulation. Professions
and their members are accountable to those served, to the profession and to society

Any professional person provides professional service for a limited period of time when
his/her clientele are in an institution or within the institutional framework, for example, a
teacher who is a professional person renders his/her service for a period of time when
students are in educational institutions and within the institutional framework, of a school,
college or university.

Brehm argues that professionalism is divided into the three categories;

1. Professional parameters,

2. Professional behaviors, and

3. Professional responsibilities.

Professional parameters: focuses on the legal and ethical issues to which a professional must
adhere such as the local, state, and federal laws pertaining to educational and instructional
issues or Code of Professional Conduct delineated by state boards of education.
Professional behaviours: are observable actions that demonstrate the individual’s appropriate
behaviours such as: maintaining appropriate relationships with students, parents, and
colleagues; modelling of the appearance and attitudes of a professional; and promptness.

Professional responsibilities: for a teacher would include demonstrating responsibility to the

profession, students, the school district and the community. Examples of professional
responsibility would include becoming an active member of one’s professional association,
volunteering for school or community functions and attending school events.

Definition

 When defining professionalism, Brown and Ferrill (2009) emphasized the importance of
identifying the unique characteristics of one’s profession and how it differs from others.

 Katz and Raths' definition includes a summary of actions that can be observed or
documented through the use of behavioral observations.

Characteristics of a Teaching Profession

1. It essentially involves an intellectual profession: Teaching requires conscious

organisation of learning activities, deliberate creation of a conducive and supportive learning
environment. While providing learning experiences a teacher has to constantly analyse and
evaluate classroom climate and evolve a suitable plan of action to achieve the pre-specified
desirable change in the behaviours of a group of learners who are constantly varying with
respect to their interest and understanding speed. All such operations, which are to be carried
out by a teacher, are intellectual operations.

2. It draws material from science:

Teaching is not only an art but also a science. On the basis of this assumption, a teacher can be
trained. The moment it is accepted as a science, it is accepted as a science, it has definite steps
which are followed in raining a teacher.

3. It transforms raw material into a practical and definite end:

In teaching profession, the learners constitute the raw material. These learners are prepared to
teach in a continuously evolving society which has varied expectations. Learners are trained into
a practical and definite end by means of providing practical training in teaching and other
pedagogical courses.

4. It possess an educationally communicable technique:

Teaching techniques are systematic and have definite steps to be followed. It is easily
communication.

5. It essentially performs a social service:

Teaching is a social service. It has generally been accepted that education is potent tool to bring
about changes in any nation. The obvious evidence of such a statement is the developed
nations like U.S.A., U.S.S.R. These and other nations have been able to constantly develop
because of high rates of literacy. It is through teaching that a society develops.

6. It tend towards self-organisations

It is self-organised in a sense that the personals who are engaged in technique profession are
sensitive towards growth and development. They evolve a definite mechanism to sustain and
promote the standards of teaching profession.

7. It is based upon a systematic body of knowledge:

Teaching profession is based upon a systematic body of knowledge which has been derived
from social, psychological, historical, political and economical sphere of life. It is also influence
by the religious and spiritual beliefs of a society.

Professional Traits of a Teacher

Professionally, a teacher should possess the following traits:

i. Mastery over content: Unless one has mastery over content of a subject one cannot
become an effective teacher. Content mastery can be achieved through various ways like
reading books , magazines, periodicals, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, newspaper etc., attending
seminars, workshop, conferences, meetings, discussing with colleagues, experts, observing the
happenings in and around the environment, and so on.

ii. Knowledge of teaching skills: The knowledge and use of a set of skills facilitates
teaching-learning process. These skills are known as instructional skills. Instructional skill is
defined as the cluster of behavior manifested by a teacher which can be acquired through
practice.

iii. Other attributes: Along with content mastery and knowledge of instructional skills, the
other effective attributes of a teacher are sense of responsibility, showing concern for the
students, acknowledging and appreciating the effort of students, accepting each student as a
distinct individual, loving and caring etc. These help a teacher to understand students as they
are.

iv. Professional Responsibility

1. Reflecting on Teaching

• Articulates an understanding of lessons’ goals and objectives

• States the strengths and weaknesses of lessons based on data

• Analyzes students’ participation in terms of content comprehension

• Encourages participation from diverse student populations

• Writes reflections about lessons and refines subsequent instruction

• Accepts feedback and implements recommendations

• Develops written plans for improvement

2. Maintaining Accurate Records

• Records and updates the results of students’ assignments

• Collects information about students’ progress in a systematic manner

• Analyzes performance of students with diverse learning styles

• Maintains records of non-instructional activities

3. Communicating with Families

• Maintains confidentiality in all situations/settings

• Communicates positive information and concerns to parents/caregivers

• Engages family members/caregivers in the instructional program

4. Working in and Contributing to the School and District

• Establishes rapport with members of diverse populations

• Seeks assistance from other professionals concerning teaching and learning

• Participates in school-related activities

5. Growing and Developing Professionally

• Participates in student teaching seminars and other required university events

• Attends all required school and district professional development programs

• Shows evidence of participation in at least one professional organization

• Integrates information from professional publications into daily instruction

• Articulates a philosophy of education that includes critical self-reflection

• Assesses personal cultural perspective and its influence on interactions with others

6. Showing Professionalism

• Attends promptly and regularly

• Dresses professionally in the school setting

• Practices personal hygiene and neat grooming

• Completes schedules, assignments, and other paperwork on time

• Completes work in the manner prescribed by the university and/or the school district

• Complies with school and class rules

• Uses relevant codes of ethics for the teaching profession

• Follows proper procedures for reporting students’ welfare and safety

• Acts responsibly regarding school and personal property

• Challenges stereotypical attitudes

• Ensures that all students receive an equitable opportunity to succeed

Conclusion: Teachers who are focused on professionalism participate in the events regardless of
the requirements. They are committed to staying up-to-date on best practices and other
strategies for teaching. They regularly read books, magazines and blogs about education and
leadership, and conduct research to help improve their teaching methods and the performance
of their students. They attend conferences, sometimes even as a presenter, and join
professional organizations to connect with others in the field.

Teacher Ethics

Meaning of Ethics

Ethics deals with morality. Ethics is concerned with distinguishing between good and evil
in the world, between right and wrong human actions, and between virtuous and non-virtuous
characteristics of people.
Professional Ethics

Teaching may be regarded as a profession in its own right, and one that demands a great
deal of professional expertise. But it also requires its own code of ethics, which may be
expressed in a set of ethical principles. These constitute a code of “quality control” for the
profession and those who practise it, a response to the trust shown by society at large

A teacher has to be an example for his/her students and society and therefore the values
he/she holds should be clear, precise and ethical. He/she should be honest not only when he
stands to gain by being honest but in situations where he/she is likely to suffer a loss. He/she
must exemplify the dignity of labour and professional commitment, however stressful the
circumstances many be.

Teacher must be an embodiment of eternal values-values that remain the same,

however much the circumstances may change. Truth, love and goodness are values that are
admired across creeds, culture and religions. He/she should be conscious of the accountability
to profession of teaching by being accountable for effective teaching and effective learning of
students.

The sense of responsibility attached to the practising of a profession is based on

knowledge and vocational skills on the one hand and on the values and norms that form the
foundation of the work on the other. Both are essential, and neither can replace the other.
Good ethical principles cannot compensate for poor professional skills, and good professional
skills cannot make up for a lack of ethical principles. Thus teachers should feel obliged by their
sense of responsibility to pay constant attention to the maintaining of their professional skills,
and also to show particular sensitivity in the perception of ethical problems and readiness to
observe the highest standards of professional ethics when resolving such situations. The change
in the role of teachers has brought them closer to the learners, but it has also increased their
responsibility for the learners' development and has frequently led them into closer
cooperation with others who are also responsible for this development. Teachers have a great
deal of power and responsibility in matters concerned with the evaluation of learners, for
instance, and it is only by fully internalizing the ethical principles involved that they can avoid
abusing their position in this respect.

A high standard of professional ethics is one of the most important resources available
to teachers, guiding their work and their interactive relations at the professional level. The work
of teaching should include consideration and evaluation of the ethics of one's own goals and
motives. In this sense the purpose of the present account of a teacher's professional ethics is to
codify and promote the sense of what is ethically right that has always been a part of
educational work.

Conclusion: The profession of teaching reflects a high degree of academic excellence, repertoire
of teaching and practical wisdom on the one hand and a well-integrated value system on the
other, both being oriented towards selfless service. The personal development of a teacher is
the core of professionalization and forms the base for professional ethics.

Role & Responsibilities of a Teacher

Teaching is a complex activity. It is a process in which students are provided with a

controlled environment for interaction with the purpose to promote a definite learning in them.
Teachers play vital roles in the lives of the students in their classrooms. Teachers are the best
known for the role of educating the students that are placed in their care. Beyond that, teachers
serve many other roles in the classroom. Teachers set the tone of their classrooms, build a
warm environment, mentor and nurture students, become role models, and listen and look for
the signs of trouble.

Role of the Teacher as an Instructional Input

Instruction is the complex process by which learners are provided with a deliberately
designed environment to interact with, keeping in focus pre-specified objective of bringing
about specific desirable changes. Whether instruction goes in a classroom, laboratory, outdoors
or library, this environment is specifically designed by a teacher so that students interact with
certain specific environment.

Learning is directed in pre-determined direction to achieve certain pre-specific goals.

This does not however, mean that, in the pre-determined environment no learning other than
what a teacher has decided upon as instructional objectives does not take place. The variety of
experiences that students go through with a teacher, among themselves provides learning
opportunities.

Input essentially means all those elements which help the process to start and which
gets transformed into a product as a result of the process. The product of the transformed input
is the output of the process. These concepts are essentially borrowed from industry, where raw
materials are the inputs, which go through a process (such as manufacturing) and are
transformed into the finished products of the industry which become the outputs. For example,
in a soap factory the chemicals and other ingredients are the raw materials that are the inputs
in the process.

In the context of such a complex process of instruction, let us analyse the teacher’s role
in the following situation.

1. A teacher introduces a lesson

2. A teacher explains a concept

3. A teacher clarifies doubts of students with suitable illustration

4. A teacher draws a diagram while explaining

5. A teacher puts questions to students

Teacher is directly involved in teaching-learning process, as a part of the instructional input. The
other inputs are the context that gets transacted across students, mode of transaction as used
by a teacher and other audio-visual aids used by the teacher to promote effective learning.
Instruction

Instead of just lecturing in the classroom, teachers are facilitators of learning, providing
students with the information and tools they need to master a subject. At times, teachers act
like tutors, working with small groups of students or individual students within the classroom or
after class. Teachers also play the role of evaluators, constantly assessing students' abilities
through formal and informal assessments, providing suggestions for improvement and assigning
grades.

Student Interaction

Perhaps the most important roles teachers must involve in interacting with students.
Teachers must be leaders in the classroom and in the school, earning the respect of students
and setting a positive example. They must be disciplinarians, doling out fair and consistent
punishments to students who break the rules. At the same time, teachers must show care and
concern for students. A teacher has the power to build up or tear down a student's self-esteem
and make a student's day or ruin it in an instant. When interacting with students, a teacher
must fill the role of a counselor, a surrogate parent, a nutritionist and someone who has the
best interests of every child at heart.

Role of a teacher as a facilitator

To facilitate means, to promote, to help and to make easy. Therefore, in the context of
instruction, a teacher’s role would be to promote learning, to help students to develop more
and more by learning, by providing them a conducive environment to interact with, in order to
bring about learning and further development.
 There are different methods of promoting learning. Some are student-centered- like library
work, project work, experimentation, home assignment etc. Where major focus is on how
students organise their steps of learning by interacting with different environment components
like printed matter, natural realties etc. In all such methods teacher guides students as to how
to go about learning sequences, thus facilitating their learning. In other words in all
student-centered methods teacher is a facilitator and not participant. Here are more examples.

i) Students are asked to collect samples of leaf formation, preserve, draw then and discuss
in the class, with teacher’s guidance.

ii) Students are asked to sow seeds in a pot, and observe in different light situations,
ranging from absence of light to full sunlight to artificial lighting, with reporting the
development of different at stages and discussions with the teacher.

Role of a teacher as a counsellor

The role of as a counsellor is quite different from other roles described so far. To counsel is
to give advice. In the context of a school, the teacher is the counsellor and the student either
approached the teacher when she/he has a problem, which cannot be solved by self, or the
teacher senses, the problem and offers help to the student to solve the problem.

Teacher as a counsellor addresses not only problems related to schools, studies etc. But also
those related to friends, family, health, etc.

Role of a Teacher in the Community

A teacher has a very dynamic role in the community. The various aspects of the roles
include:

i) One of the major roles is to promote the importance of education among parents
particularly those in rural areas so that they enrol their children in schools.
ii) Teacher has to be the part of the adult education programmes organised to educate
adults who have not got an opportunity to go to schools in their childhood days.

iii) Many of our rural folk need awareness programmes regarding vaccination, birth control
measures, woman health during pregnancy and child birth, cleanliness in and outside home,
contagious diseases, personal hygiene etc. Teacher being an educated person should either
directly inform people or lead then to proper source of information like a doctor.

iv) Community member especially, parents of students expect a teacher to be a model for
their children than they are themselves. They want a teacher to avoid any behaviour which
might be bad for children to imitate.

v) In a rural community where a majority of the adult population is likely to be illiterate, a

teacher also has to play the role of guide, philosopher and a counsellor. Generally, people would
approach a teacher for seeking solutions to their problems.

Conclusion

Throughout the school day and over the course of the school year, teachers take on other
roles, as well. They are chaperones at school functions and coaches of school sports. They are
monitors at lunch and recess and serve as fundraisers for field trips and school supplies.
Teachers also play the role of interior designer, making sure their classrooms are set up to
support learning and act as artists when they update their bulletin boards and other displays.

Teachers and Community Development in reference to SMC, PTA, MTA, VEC etc.

Community generally refer to groups that some sense of shared identity and belonging,
often within a geographic and political context. Thus, the communities have common values,
traditions, interests, institutions and experiences; they always look forward for development of
their members.
 School are considered as the formal institutions, who work for and with community as per
expectations desire of community participation is must in schools. It is a common feeling that
inspite being located in community. This also creates a gap between school activities and
community expectations. So, a good community-school relationship should make conscious and
formal efforts to bridge the gap between community and schools and both should work on
some common objective for development of children.

Community participation refers to both the processes and activities that allow members to
be part of decision-making processes and enabling them to take direct action on education
issues. In India, a number of institutions have been created to coordinate community
participation for education, such as School Management Committee (SMC), Parent Teacher
Associations (PTA), Village Education Committees (VECs), and Mother-School Associations.

Village Education Committee (VEC)

Village Education Committee (VEC) IS established where the Panchayat comprises more
than one village, as the sub-Committee of the Panchayat for each village. It has statutory as they
will be established by the Panchayats, thus the Panchayat are empowered statutorily to
delegate powers to these committees.

The village Education Committee is presided over by the president of the Panchayat where
he//she is elected from the village. In other villages, a member of the Panchayat representing
the village concerned may preside over the VEC. The numbers of members of the VEC are the
same as provided for the Panchayat standing committee on Education i.e. 7 to 15. The
composition of the committee is also the same, except that all members must be drawn for the
village.

After the implementation of Right to Education Act (RTE Act) 2009, the concept of Village
Education Committee (VEC) has been replaced by School Management Committee (SMC). The
major responsibilities of SMC are same as VEC.

School Management Committee

 A School Management Committee shall be constituted in every school, other than an
unaided school, within its jurisdiction, within six months of the appointed date, and
reconstituted every two years.

 Seventy five percent of the strength of the School Management Committee shall be
from amongst parents or guardians of children.

 The remaining twenty five percent of the strength of the School Management
Committee shall be from amongst following persons, namely:-

a) One third members from amongst the elected members of the Local Authority, to be
decided by the Local Authority.

b) One third members from amongst teachers from the school, to be decided by the
teachers of the school.

c) Remaining one third from amongst local educationist/Children in the school, to be

decided.

d) 50% members in total shall be female.

The SMC shall meet at least once a month and the minutes and decisions of the meeting
shall be properly recorded and made available to the public.

Functions of SMCs are as follows:

1. SMC shall monitor the functioning of school, prepare and recommend School
Development Plan

2. Monitor the utilization of grants received from State Government or local authority

3. Ensure the enrolment and continued attendance of all the children from the
neighbourhood
4. Bring to the notice of the local authorities any deviation from the rights of the child, in
particular mental and physical harassment of children, denial of admission, and timely provision
of free entitlement.

5. Where a child above of six years has not been admitted in any school, for his/her age
appropriate learning level, identify the needs, prepare a plan, and monitor the implementation
of the special training.

6. Monitor the implementation of the Mid Day meal programme in the school and ensure
its enrichment

7. Monitor the identification and enrolment of and facilities for education of children with
disabilities, and ensure their participation in, and completion of elementary education

8. The school management committee shall prepare a school development plan at least
three months before the end of the financial year

9. The school development plan shall be signed by the chairperson or the Vice- chairperson
and member secretary of the school management committee and submit to the authorities
concerned before the end of the financial year in which it is to be prepared.

10. Making School Development Plan (SDP) as per the RTE guidelines/norms

11. Keeping proper accounts of the fund available and sharing its deployment and utilization
with the ‘Aam Sabha’.

12. Monitoring academic progress of the children.

Conclusion: The quality of the SMC will directly depend on the level and quality of the
participation of parents. Therefore, it is necessary that sensitization of community members
with respect to the provisions of RTE, the roles and responsibilities of the SMC.

Parents Teacher Association

 Government education schemes such as Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) have advocated community mobilisation and involvement.
Under RMSA every school should have a PTA.

The Parent Teachers Association is a voluntary and welfare Association of Parents and
Guardians, as well as teachers of a particular school. The promotion of such understanding and
co-operation between the teachers and parents, as would make it possible for each party to
contribute towards the creation of a conducive atmosphere that will facilitate the process of
learning and teaching in schools.

According to Elui (2007), the aim of P.T.A. is to enable parents know what is going on in
the school and also give their opinion on certain issues concerning children.

Through P.T.A., parents and teachers interact and take decisions on the management and
welfare of the children, teachers and the school. The P.T.A. can solve the problem of inadequate
teaching staff by recruiting and paying part time teachers. In fact, the effect of a good organized
and effective parent-teachers Association is to make both parents and teachers alike to:

a) Want to understand more about the children that are being educated so as to be in a
better position to help them move effectively

b) Appreciate the necessity for constant dialogue and communication between parents and
teachers and hence the need to create a system or channel through which it will take place

c) Realize that the two parties are equally important in the education process of the
children and that the educational objectives we have for these children will not be achieved
without both parties playing active roles.

Some of PTA’s Benefits.

• Leverage Volunteer Power: PTA organizes hard-working, dedicated volunteers. Parents

are ready to help implement school improvement programs.
• Improve Communication: PTAs frequently coordinate production of a school newsletter
and information fliers, keeping the entire school community informed of current events, issues,
and accomplishments. Regular meetings allow PTAs to share information with members.

• See Measurable Results: More than 85 research studies conducted over the past 30
years prove that kids do better when parents are involved. Grades are higher. Test scores
improve. Attendance increases.

• Discover more financial help: Local PTAs are self-funding. By inviting the entire school’s
parent community to join, they generate membership fees to pay for programs. Local PTA
fundraisers support school programs, building improvements, and educational events.

• Tap into Proven Programs: Local PTAs have access to ready-made, easy-to-use programs
with proven success records. From health and safety topics, to collaborating with teachers and
community members, to fundraising, the programs get results.

• Boost Children’s Well-Being: PTAs focus on what students need to be successful in their
learning, including nutrition, health, school safety, physical fitness and general well-being. PTA
works with schools to ensure that children succeed.

• Enjoy Informed Parent: Involved parents understand the challenges schools face and
become part of the solution. By developing a closer relationship with parents, student
achievement improves, and the school develops a positive reputation in the community.

Functions of Parent Teacher Association

1. The parents of every student shall be members of a PTA

2. The PTA does not interfere in the day-to-day administration of the schools

3. 50% of PTA members should be women

4. Duties of the PTA committee involve assisting the school in planning and organising
educational programs, seeing the syllabus is completed, to collect and present information
regarding school fees
5. PTA work towards pupil enrolment and attendance and assist in enhancing the quality of
teaching and learning,

6. CRC should finalise the date of PTA meeting of the school within his jurisdiction.

7. One Nodal officer from the office shall attend the meeting.

8. The head of the school shall convey the role and function of the PTA in the PTA meeting.

9. The Parent Teacher Association in each meeting shall select one of the members as the
chairperson to preside over the meeting. The time of meeting shall be decided as per the
convenience of the parents.

10. Every Parent Teacher Association shall take decisions with regard to raising of
contribution in shape of kind only which in its opinion is required for the development of the
school infrastructure with the resolution of the SMC. Contribution in any kind shall not entail
any liability on the part of the school.

11. PTA shall elect/select the SMC members for constitution of SMC

12. The minute of meeting shall be recorded by the Head of school in the minute book and
signed by all the members of PTA present and countersigned by the chairman.

13. It shall be the duty of PTA to oversee the functioning of school with regard to the
following matters from time to time:

a) Ensuring universal access and enrolment

b) Motivating regular attendance of the children of the school, their retention and
effectively arresting dropout.

c) Mobilization for collection of contributions/funds of the school.

Conclusion: PTA addresses issues that are important to parents and public school
administrators. We fight for full funding, quality teachers, and capabilities for schools to thrive.
If your school or district does not have a PTA, now is the time. Membership is open to everyone.
Mother Teacher Association

Mother Teacher Association has been formed to seek co-operation of the mother of the
children attending the school. This is a smaller body as its membership is confined to the
parents of enrolled children only. This also gives adequate representation to the disadvantaged
groups and looks after the functioning of the schools.

Some of the functions of MTAs are as follows:

1. Assisting the teachers in conducting school activities,

2. Helping the teachers in conducting door to door survey work,

3. Assisting the teachers in pursuing the parents of un-enrolled children for sending them
to school, and

4. Providing feedback to the teachers about educational progress of their children.

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