Eljen Dave Cayamba 3rd Year BSED-SCIENCE

MODULE 4

MODULE ASSESSMENT

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. Describe how the valves keep the blood moving in one direction.
 Valves moves the blood in one direction because of their ability to open
and let the blood flow throughout the body and close to prevent the blood
from flowing backward.

2. Why is the pressure in the pulmonary circulation lower than in the systemic
circulation?
 The pressure is lower in pulmonary circulation than in systematic
circulation because of thinner walls of the pulmonary capillaries.
Pulmonary arteries are also less muscularized than their systematic
counterparts which makes it easily swell or expand.

3. Describe one cardiac cycle, beginning with both atria and ventricles
relaxed.
 The cardiac cycle begins with diastole or the relaxation of the atria and the
ventricles. Then, the atria will contract and the remaining blood will be
pushed into the ventricles. This phase is called Atrial systole. Lastly, the
ventricles will contract and push blood to the aorta and pulmonary artery.

4. Arterioles are often referred to as resistance vessels. Why?

 Arterioles are often referred to as resistance vessels because they have
smaller diameter which causes them to have greater resistance.

5. Cocaine use causes vasoconstriction. Is this likely to increase or decrease

blood pressure, and why?
 Vasoconstriction can affect blood vessels by reducing the the space or
volume inside it which can result to reducing the flow of the blood. This
will lead to increasing of resistance or force of the blood flow which in the
end results to increase of blood pressure.

6. A blood vessel with a few smooth muscle fibers and connective tissue, and
only a very thin tunica externa conducts blood toward the heart. What type of
vessel is this?
 Venule

7. Identify the ventricle of the heart that pumps oxygen-depleted blood and the
arteries of the body that carry oxygen-depleted blood.
 Right Ventricle

8. What organs do the gonadal veins drain?

 Gonadal veins drains the reproductive organ of male which is the testes
and the ovaries which are the reproductive organs of female.
9. What arteries play the leading roles in supplying blood to the brain?
 The arteries that leads in supplying blood to the human brain are the
internal carotid arteries and the vertebral arteries.

10. Describe the flow of lymph from its origins in interstitial fluid to its emptying
into the venous bloodstream.
 Fluid goes through lymphatic capillaries when rising pressure
caused by the build-up of interstitial fluid pushes open a flap where
adjacent endothelial cells of a lymphatic capillary overlap. The
interstitial fluid is then called lymph and it drains into larger
lymphatic vessels. The lymph can only go in one direction due to
one-way valves in the vessels, and it eventually drains into the left
subclavian trunk. The left subclavian trunk merges with the thoracic
duct that drains the lymph into the left subclavian vein near the
internal jugular vein.

11. Describe the process of inflammation in an area that has been

traumatized, but not infected.
 Cell debris and damaged cells stimulate macrophages to begin cleaning
them up. Macrophages produce cytokines that attract neutrophils, which
are then followed by more macrophages. Other mediators released by
mast cells increase blood flow to the area as well as vascular
permeability, allowing recruited cells to travel from the blood to the site of
infection and phagocytoze dead cells and debris, preparing the site for
wound repair.

12. Describe two early induced responses and what pathogens they affect.
 Interferons are proteins that are produced by virally infected cells and
cause them to secrete signals that cause surrounding cells to produce
antiviral proteins. The liver is induced to produce C-reactive protein, which
opsonizes certain bacteria.

13. Describe how seroconversion works in HIV disease.

 Seroconversion is when the immune system of the body produces
antibodies in response to the virus that infected the body just like HIV
which can multiply rapidly in the body.
14. Describe tuberculosis and the innocent bystander effect.
 Bacteria resistant to lysosomal enzymes in alveolar macrophages cause
tuberculosis, resulting in chronic infection. The majority of the lung
damage caused by this life-threatening disease is caused by the immune
response to these bacteria.
 MODULE 5

MODULE ASSESSMENT

Measuring Vital Capacity Please watch this video for your reference
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4yE89Z4qTiE

A. Measuring Your Vital Capacity

Vital Capacity
Vital Capacity (ml)

Predicted Vital Capacity VCp 3.7 liters or 3,700 ml

(from table
measurement)
Directly Measured Vital VCdm 3.2 liters or 3,200 ml
Capacity (from
spirometer )

1. Calculate the difference between your predicted vital capacity and your
directly measured vital capacity: VCdm – VCp =
 500 ml

2. How well did your actual vital capacity match your predicted vital capacity?
Explain.
 My VCp or predicted vital capacity is 3,700 ml while my actual vital
capacity is 3,200 ml. My VCp is slightly similar to my VCdm because it
only has a small difference which is 500 ml.

3. Describe one factor, not related to respiratory disease, that would tend to
cause one’s vital capacity to be greater than the value on the standardized
chart.
 High CSF, H+ ion concentration which results in increase in breathing rate and
alveolar ventilation.

4. Describe one factor, not related to respiratory disease, that would tend to
cause one’s vital capacity to be significantly less than the value given in the
table.
 Stretch of tissues is one of the factor that cause one’s vital capacity to be
significantly less than the value given in the table because it triggers
inflation reflex which reduces the duration of inspiratory movement.
5. List and describe some other major factors that are related to respiratory
diseases that could affect one’s vital capacity.
 Low blood PO2 increases alveolar ventilation (peripheral chemoreceptors
in the carotid bodies & aortic bodies detect low O2 concentrations).
 High blood Pco2 increases the alveolar ventilation.

6. What three lung volumes, when added together, should equal ones vital
capacity? List and define each of these lung volumes
 The three lung volumes that when added together results to vital capacity
are the
A. tidal volume(TV) which is the amount of air moving in and out of the lungs
during normal breathing and has an average value of 500ml
B. the inspiratory reserve volume(IRV) which refers to the amount of air that
can be inhaled after normal respiration and has an average value of 3000 ml
C. expiratory reserve volume(ERV) which refers to the amount of air
exhaled after normal expiration and has an average value of 1,100ml.

7. Define residual volume and how it is related to pneumothorax.

 Residual volume(RV) refers to the amount of air that is always left in the
lungs after expiration and has an average value of 1,200 ml. It is related to
pneumothorax because the higher the residual volume, the higher the risk
of pneumothorax because of the force of air inside the lung which pushes
it outside, making the lungs collapse.

8. Make a chapter review of these module.

 This module discusses lot of things and give us lots of knowledge. The
contents of this module discuses the different system of the body
particularly the respiratory system, digestive system and the urinary
system.

In respiratory system, this module tackled about calculating the vital

capacity and how to do it. It also gives information about the parts of the
system and how it plays a role in the respiratory function of the body. It
also talks about the factors that contributes to the increase and decrease
in one’s vital capacity both related and not related to respiratory diseases.
Different lung volume are also tackled in this module. The urinary system
was also part of this module. The function of the urinary system is to filter
blood and produce urine as a waste byproduct. The kidneys, renal pelvis,
ureters, bladder, and urethra are the organs of the urinary system. The
body uses nutrients from food to create energy. After the body has
absorbed the necessary food components, waste products are excreted in
the bowel and blood. The kidney and urinary systems aid the body in the
elimination of liquid waste known as urea as well as the balance of
chemicals such as potassium and sodium and water. Urea is produced in
the body when protein-containing foods, such as meat, poultry, and
certain vegetables, are broken down. Urea travels through the bloodstream to
the kidneys, where it is excreted along with water and other wastes as urine.
Lastly, the digestive system which is the process used by the human body
to break down food into a form that can be absorbed and used as fuel.
The digestive system's organs include the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
 pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, large intestine, and anus.
Understanding digestion requires understanding how these organs work
together to digest food. In the mouth, the digestive process begins. Even
before eating begins, the anticipation of eating stimulates saliva glands in
the mouth. The digestive system performs three primary functions: mixing
food, moving food through the digestive tract (peristalsis), and breaking
down food into smaller molecules using chemicals.

MODULE 6

MODULE ASSESSEMENT

1. Make a comparative clinical reaction between the male and female

anatomical structures of the human and pig.
(Introduction, Content/Body, and Conclusion). At least 250 words each (male
and female)
 Mammals include pigs. As a result, the fetal pig has all of the major
structures found in humans. They can all be found with the right
instructions, especially with large, full-term fetal pig specimens. There are
some structural differences, most of which are minor in nature.

In comparison to a human female uterus, the pig uterus is much

smaller and serves as part of the birth canal rather than housing
developing fetuses. It is formed by the union of the two uterine horns at the
body's midline. The vaginal canal is located posterior to the uterus and
joins the urethra as it exits the urinary bladder. Thus, both urination and
birth occur in female pigs through a single urogential opening. In females,
the urethra and vagina are two distinct canals.Each ovary in pigs is
connected to a tightly coiled uterine horn (similar to the fallopian tubes in
humans). Pig fetuses develop in the uterine horns, as opposed to human
fetuses, which develop in the uterus. The female pig has a bipartite uterus,
whereas the female human has a pear-shaped uterus. The structural
difference between these two uterine types is, a pig uterus has two large
horns attached to the body that can be confused with fallopian tubes. These
horns allow a female pig to give birth to large liters of piglets. In comparison to
humans, the uterine tubes are tiny and much shorter. A human female's
uterus is the size and shape of an inverted pear. The zygote is implanted in
the uterine cavity, where it develops into a fetus over time. The uterus has two
tubes called fallopian tubes that extend laterally. Thus, not all reproductive
organs that humans have is present in pigs and some organs in pigs are not
present in human female.
The male pig's reproductive system is located in the abdomen and
extends outside the abdominal cavity in the area of the groin. Its primary
function is to produce and maintain a supply of sperm while the majority of the
male reproductive system is situated outside of the abdominal cavity or pelvis.
The penis, scrotum, and testicles are external parts of the male reproductive
system. The male pig's reproductive system consists of paired testes,
epidiymes, ampullae, and seminal vesicles. There is also the prostate gland,
the bulbo-urethral glands, and the penis while the male reproductive system
includes the penis, scrotum, testes, epididymis, vas deferens, prostate, and
seminal vesicles. The testes are the primary reproductive organs in male pigs,
and they are in charge of producing hormones and sperm. They are found in
the scrotum and are made up of a complex network of ducts called
seminiferous tubules. The male pig's testes are unique in that they are
anatomically upside down, storing sperm near the top of the testicle while
testis in human males are oval organs about the size of large olives that
reside in the scrotum and are held together at either end by a structure known
as the spermatic cord. The majority of men have two testes. The testes are in
charge of producing sperm and testosterone, the primary male sex
hormone.The urethra is a canal that connects the bladder to the end of the
penis and is made up of the root, shaft, and glans. The urethra excretes both
sperm and urine. Seminal plasma combines with sperm to form sperm, which
is then transported through the urethra during ejaculation. The average
number of sperm produced per ejaculation in a pig is 8,000 million, compared
to 280 million in humans.
In conclusion, humans and pigs have specific similarities and differences
between their anatomical structure specifically, in the structures of
reproductive system. Despite these similarities and differences, reproductive
system in both pigs and humans has the same function which is the
reproduction.

2. Make a chapter review for this module.

 This module is all about the human reproductive system. It talks about
the different parts and structures of male and female reproductive organs.
In male reproductive system, the major organs that are part of it are
the penis, scrotum, testes, epididymis, vas deferens, prostate, and
seminal vesicles. Spermatogenesis was also discussed in this module
which is the process of producing sperm cells in human male that takes
place in the testis. The journey of the sperm cell from entering the vagina
until fertilization was also discussed in this module. Mechanism of penile
erection is a sexual stimulation for males. Androgen are the term for male
sex hormones. Testosterone is a male sex hormone which triggers or
stimulates the developments of male reproductive organs.
The major organs of female reproductive system are the vagina,
uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The vagina is a hollow, muscular tube
that connects the vaginal opening to the uterus. The vagina can expand
and contract due to its muscular walls. Progesterone and estrogen are
femal sex hormones that stimulates the development of female
reproductive organs and also female secondary sex characteristics.
Oogenesis is the process in which there is the formation and the
development of an oocyte or ovum. It is the part of gametogenesis and
the female gamete that is formed is called an ovum. It occurs in the
female ovary.The ovarian cycle is a series of changes that occur in the
ovary during the menstrual cycle that result in follicle maturation,
ovulation, and corpus luteum development..The menstrual cycle is a
series of natural changes in hormone production and the structures of the
female reproductive system's uterus and ovaries that allow pregnancy to
occur. The ovarian cycle regulates egg production and release, as well as
the cyclical release of estrogen and progesterone. Fertilization of the egg
cell which can result to pregnancy was also discussed in this module.
STD’s or sexually transmitted diseases which is acquired through sexual
intercourse such as ghonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, and genital herpes
are also explained in this module.