photosynthesis in higher

plants
Definition:- it is process that uses light energy to dervive the
synthesis of organic compounds.

properties:-
• endothermic process, anabolic process
• involves redox reactions- oxidation(splitting of water) and reduction(
CO2 fixation)
• physiochemical process:- conversion of light energy into chemical
energy
importance:-
• primary source of all food on earth
• responsible for release of oxygen(for respiration and ozone
formation)
What do we know?
Simple experiment have shown that chlorophyll, light, carbon dioxide are
required for photosynthesis.
Experiment 1;- variegated leaf
experiment
cover the leaf with a black paper, expose to
light
observation:- only part exposed to
sunlight gave positive starch-iodine test.
conclusion:- photosynthesis occurs only
in green parts of plant in presence of
sunlight.
Experiment 2:- Moll's half leaf experiment
• half of leaf was kept in a test tube containing
KOH solution( absorbs CO2 )
• exposed to sunlight
• only exposed part tested positive for starch
Observation:- the test tube part reained
colourless, the exposed part showed blue
colour.
conclusion:- carbon dioxide is required for
photosynthesis.
Early experiments......
• Stephen Hales:- discovered
photosynthesis, father of plant
physiology.
• Joseph Priestly:- discovered
oxygen in 1774, did series of
experiment to show the role of
air in photosynthesis.
conclusion:- plants restore the air
that was 'damaged' by candle or
mouse.
Jan ingenhouse:-
• did similar experiment like Priestly
• placed plant once in light then in dark
• in another experiment showed that the
bubbles are formed in water is by aquatic
plants in sunlight but not in dark.
• concluded:- only gtreen parts of plant can
release oxygen under the presence of
sunlight.
Julius von sachs
• provided evidences that plant produce
glucose
• glucose (chemically active and soluble) is
stored as starch (chemically inactive and
insoluble).
T.W.Engelmann
• made first action spectrum of photosynthesis
• action spectrum is the graphical
representation of the measure of rate of
biological activity with respect to wavelength
of light.
• used a prism to segregate white light into
VIBGYOR-----> illuminated a gren algae
Cladophora that was suspended in a aerobic
bacterial solution------> measured
photosynthesis rate.
• the bacteria were used as a way to detect
the site of oxygen evolution.
observations:- bacteria accumulated mainly in
the region of blue and red light of the split
spectrum.
By the middle of the nineteenth century empirical
equation representing total process of photosynthesis for
oxygen evolving organism was then understood as:-

CO2 + H2O [CH2O] + O2

where [CH2O] represent a carbohydrate like glucose, a

six carbon sugar.
 Robert Hill and Bendall:-
Cornelius Van Niel:-
• are credited for the detailed study of light reaction and Z
• studied purple an sulphur bacteria
Scheme.
• demonstarted that “ photosynthesis is
• isolated chloropalst from a plant and performed
essentially a light depenent reaction
experiments to concluded similar results as that of
in which hydrogen from a suitable
Cornelius.
oxidisable compound( something that
• they broke down components into either a hydrogen
can be broken down) reduces the
donor and a hydrogen acceptor= Hills reagent.
carbon dioxide into carbohydrate
(means convert carbon dioxide into
carbohydrate)
• green plants and blue green algae uses Ruben, Hasid and Kamen:-
water as hydrogen donor. • proved that the oxygen evolved by green plants comes
• purple and sulphur bacteria uses from water and not carbon dioxide
hydrogen sulphide gas as hydrogen • they did so by using radioisotopic techniques.
source. • 6CO2 + 12H2O18---------> C6H12O6 +6H2O +6O2
• he inferred that the oxygen evolved
by green plants comes from water and
not carbon dioxide.
The correct equation that would represent the
overall process of photosynthesis is
therefore....

Question:- can you name some parts of plant other than leaves where
photosynthesis may occur?
Answer;- Sepals, herbaceous stem, unripe fruits (green chilly, green tomato)
Where does photosynthesis takes place?
 chloroplast

membranous system
light reaction occurs fluid stroma
here.

dark reaction oocurs

grana lamella stroma lamella
here
Alignment of chloroplast:-
usually the chloro[last align themselves along the walls of the mesophyll cells, such that they get optimum
quantity of incident light.
Condition alignment of chloroplast
high light intensity parallel to the incident light/ lateral walls
(parastrophe)
low light intensity perpendicular to the incident light
(epistrophe)
moderate light intensity random (apostrophe)
how many pigments are involved in photosynthesis?
 chlorophyll carotenoids phycobilins

• chlorophyll a:- bluish • carotenes:-yellow • lacks magnesium

green, universal and orange and purely • proteinacoeus, hot
primary hydrocarbon e.g. water soluble,
• chlorophyll b:- beta- caerotene
yellow green • xanthophyll:- yellow
• chlorophyll c coloured, derivatives
• chlorophyll d of carotene, e.g.
• chlorophyll lutein.
chlorophyll without • functions of
magnesium is called carotenids :- make
as phaeophytin photosynthesis more
which has 2 efficient, and acts as
hydrogen instead sheild pigments
Absorption spectrum :- it is the measure of
absorption of radiation at specific wavelength.

The wavelength at which the chlorophyll a shows maximum

absorption is in blue and red regions.

it also shows higher rate of photosynthesis.

therefore chlorophyll a is the major pigment responsible for trapping

light.

Other pigment can absorb light and transfer it to chlorophyll a.

This enables not only a wider range of wavelength of incoming light

to be utilised for photosynthesis but also protets chlorophyll a from
PHOTO-OXIDATION.

photooxidation:- is the process of oxidation (break down) induced by

light.
 • Light reactions:- also called as the
photochemical reactions or hills reaction How to harvest light or absorb
includes steps like:- light???
1. light absorption
2. water splitting the pigments that we studied before get
3. oxygen release organised into photochemical complexes
4. and formation of atp and NADPH( called as light harvesting complexes.
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotie
phosphate in reduced form i.e. has
accepted protons)

The LHC are made up of hundreds of pigment

molecules(2000) bound to proteins within the
photosystems.
The single chlorophyll a molecule forms the
REACTION CENTER.

Reaction center is different for both

photosystems.

In PS1 the reaction centre has chlorophyll a has

anabsorption peak at 700nm, therefore it is
called as P700.

In PSII the reaction center has chlorophyll a with

its absorption maxima at 680nm, therfore called
as P680.

Each system has all pigments ( except chlorophyll

a ) forming a light havrvesting system also called
antenna.
The electron transport system and Z scheme of electron
transport
in photosytem II chlorophyll a electrons are picked up by passed on to electron transport
absorbs 680nm and causes electron acceptors= system made of different
the electron to jump in to phaeophytin cytochromes on the thylakoid
outer orbits

Movement of eletrons
from lower redox potential
to greater redox potential
Simultaneously the these electrons are
is termed as down hill
electrons in the PS I are also not used up but
movement of electrons.
excited when they receive simply passed on to
where redox potential is
light of wavelength 700 nm PS I
tendency to accept
transfered to another
electrons by different
electron acceptor that has
protein complexes.
greater redox potential i.e
NADP+
adition of two electrons to when we study the
NADP+ changes into a NADPH wntrie scheme it looks
and it is said to be reduced as like a Z!!
gain of electron
happened.(NADP reductase
enzyme)
How is PS II able to supply uninterrupted flow of electrons
to electron acceptors??

a splitting of water complex is associated

with the PS II which is in inner side of
membraf thyalkoids, hence is taking place
in lumen
How actually ATP is
synthesised in th
chloroplast?
the chemiosmotic hypothesis was put
forward to explain this.
In 1961, Peter Mitchell postulated the
Chemiosmotic hypothesis. It explains
the mechanism of ATP synthesis
within chloroplast during
 How does splitting of water occur to supply an uninterrupted flow of
water??
it happens on the electrons are picked by the electron
water splits into
inner side of acceptor located on the
electrons, protons
membrane of membrane(either by PS II in non cyclic
and oxygen
thylakoid phosphorylation or by PS I in cyclic
phosphorylation)

but the carrier is not just an

hence the protons to pick up the electron a
electron carrier rather it is
present out in the stroma carrier is required which
coupled with a H
moves along with the also present in
carrier.(cytochromes b and f in
electron into the lumen photosystems.
the diagram are carrier)

the electron travels in the Also on the thylakoid membrane

electron transport system
from PSII to PSI while protons
are getting accumulated in
the lumen
towards outside that is on stromal side
an enzyme complex is present called
NADP reductase enzyme for using
electrons and proton to reduce NADP
to NADPH
so because protons are
continuosly added into
lumen and from the
stroma and are also getting
used in stroma a gradient
is set from the outside to
inside.
THIS GRADIENT IS WHAT IS
RESPONSIBLE FOR MAKING ATP.
BREAKDOWN OF THIS GRADIENT
THROUGH A TRANSMEMBRANE
CHANNEL ACTIVATES THE
the enzyme is orienwars stroma
ENZYME ATPase THAT MAKES
and have two parts:-
ATP.
f0 :- which is the transmembrane
channel and hence is present on
the thylakoid membrane
f1:- which is a head like structure
and is the actual enzyme that
uses the energy of gradient to
convert the ADP into ATP
molecule
F0-F1 particles are also called as
oxysome or ATP synthase or
elementary particles.
As a result the
accumlated
protons are
brought back
to the stroma.

this cyclic flow

continues and ATP
gets produced
continuosly.
 Where are the ATP and NADPH produced used??????

it is use to generate FOOD !!!!!

The phase is called as biosynthetic phase. OR the dark reaction of photosynthesis

To make food we will need.....

1. ATP
2. NADPH
3. CO2
4. H2O

biosynthetic phase can continue for some time after light becomes unavailable but the stops, and if light
becomes available again it starts again.
WHERE IS THE CARBON DIOXIDE ADDED TO?
OR
WHAT IS THE FIRST PRODUCT FORMED WHEN WE ADD CARBON DIOXIDE??

Expalined by melvin calvin by studying algal photosynthesis by Experiments were done gave very
using radio active C14 unexpected results....
in some plants a completely new
the first product he discovered was 3-phosphoglycerate or in product was discovered... oxaloacetic
short PGA. it is a 3 carbon compound. acid. it is a 4 carbon compound.

This lead to development of two

So the next question
type of pathway follow different
thatcould be asked ... plants to make their own food.
do all plants produce 1. C3 pathway
the first product as 2. C4 pathway
PGA???

The primary acceptor of CO2
So to make a three carbon first product....
what should be used to add carbon
dioxide should be some thing like this...
This pathway is called
as CALVIN PATHWAY
OR CALVIN CYCLE.
It occurs in all the
photosynthetic plants, it doesnt
matter whether they are C3 or C4
2C + CO2 ---------> a three
carbon compound....
but the actuality was that it
was a 5 carbon compound.
It is called as ribulose
biphosphate (RuBP) a 5
carbon ketose sugar!!!
Calvin and coworkers worked out the
entire pathway and showed us how
exactly the food i.e glucose was made by
plants.
It consist majorly of three
steps
1. carboxylation:-
enzyme used is RuBP
carboxylase or RuBisCo.
2. Reduction:- these
are series of reactions
that utlimately leads to
glucose formation.
3. regeneration:- to
remake the carbon
dioxide acceptor RuBP
so that ore carbon
dioxide can be fixed.
To make one glucose molecule a total of 6 Calvin cycle has to be done.

Steps of calvin cycle Number of ATP and input output

NADPH used.

Carboxylation zero ATP and zero 6CO2 C6H12O6

NADPH

Reduction two ATP and two 18ATP 18ADP

NADPH

Regeneration one ATP and zero 12NADPH 12NADP+

NADPH
 RuBisCo
• full name:- ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase enzyme. its former name was
carboxydismutase.
• it has dual nature it can bind with carbondioxide( carboxylase) and with oxygen as well (oxygenase)
but not at the same time1
• binding of either gases is competitive in nature and there depends on the concentration of the
either gases in chloroplast at that moment
• magnesium and red light are necessary for its activation.
 C4 pathway or Hatch and Slack pathway
• occurs in plant that are present in dry
tropical climate, such plants are called as C4
plants, for example:- sugarcane, maize,
Sorghum,Amaranthus, Salsola, Atriplex.

Special feature:-
• they have a special type of leave anatomy called
as Kranz anatomy
• they tolerate high temperature
• they show response to high light intensities
• they have two types of chloroplast (dimorphic
chloroplast)
1. the chloroplast of mesophyll cells are small in
size and granal (with grana)
2. the chloroplast of bundle sheath cells are large
in size and agranal (without grana).
 Features of kranz anatomy
1. mesophyll is not differentiated into plaisade
and spongy tissue
2. cells of mesophyll are arranged in concentric
rings around bundle sheath( Wreath manner)
3. celss of mesophyll and bundle sheath are
interconnected by plasmodesmata.
4. bundle sheathcells are in layers and have no
intercellular space between them, have thick
wall impervious to gaseous exchange, have
large number of chloroplasts,
Warburg effect:-
it is the decrease in the rate of
photosynthesis by high
concentration of the oxygen as it
is a competitive inhibitor of
carbon dioxide fixation by
RuBisCo.
Photorespiration doesnot occur in the C4
plants because they have the
mechanism that increase the
concentration of carbondioxide nat the
ezyme site. this takes place when c4
acid from the mesophyll is broken down
in the bundle sheath cells to release
carbondioxide resulting in increasing
the intracelluar concentration of carbon
dioxide.
This ensures that RuBisCO functions
only as a carboxylase. thereby
increasing the productivity of these
plants.