Adama Science and Technology University

College of Applied Natural Science

Department of Applied Physics

Nuclear physics (phys3203) lecture notes for 3rd year physics students
Chapter One
Structure and Static Properties of Nuclei
Introduction
Nuclear physics
 Studies about atomic nuclei, their constituents and interactions. Other forms of nuclear matter are
also studied.
o Everything we can see in the night time sky is made of nuclear matter.
o describes how the Sun generates the energy we need for life on Earth, how all the atoms in your
body were made in stars and what happens in stars when they die.
o Nuclear physics research tries to answer the fundamental questions: Where Do We Come From?
What Are We? Where Are We Going?
 today is a diverse field,
o encompassing research, the individual particles (neutrons and protons) in the atomic nucleus to
the enormous scales of astrophysical objects in the cosmos.
 Its impact extends well beyond furthering our scientific knowledge of the nucleus and nuclear
properties.
 Nuclear science and its techniques, instruments, and tools are widely used to address major societal
problems in medicine, border protection, national security, nonproliferation, nuclear forensics,
energy technology, and climate research.
 Further, the tools developed by nuclear physicists often have important applications to other basic
sciences—medicine, computational science, and materials research, among others—while its
discoveries impact astrophysics, particle physics, and cosmology, and help to describe the physics
of complex systems that arise in many fields.
 The study of nuclear physics so that atomic nucleus was emanated from the properties of the atom,
let’s see some basics of history of atom.
1.1.Nuclear Hypothesis, early atomic theories, Rutherford’s scattering experiment
Early atomic theories
Atom: - the smallest particle of matter that has the properties of an element.
 From the early Greek concept of the atom to the modern atomic theory, scientists have built on and
modified existing models of the atom.
DEMOCRITUS – “Father of the Atom”

o teacher / philosopher in ancient Greece

o Atoms are small hard particles.
o Made of a single material that’s formed into different shapes and sizes.

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 oThey are always moving
oThey form different materials by joining together
oatomus – “indivisible”
 His assumption failed by Aristotle: Who stated as a matter is divided in to smaller parts.

John Dalton (1776-1844) – Father of the Modern Atom

 In 1808, this English schoolteacher proposed:

1. All elements are composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical. Atoms of different elements are different.
3. Atoms combine in simple whole number ratios to form different substances.
4. Atoms of one element are never changed to atoms of another element during
chemical reactions. (But they can be rearranged!)
 As it turns out, the atom can be divided into subatomic particles.
 Thompson and Millikan are given credit for the first discoveries relating to electrons
 Rutherford discovered the positively charged nucleus.

Subatomic Particles

J.J. Thomson – 1897

 Discovered the electron using a cathode ray tube (CRT) – fig. 4.4, p. 105
 Determined the electron mass to be roughly 1/2000 amu
 Robert Millikan – 1916 - determined the electric charge to be (-1) and the mass to be
exactly 1/1840 the mass of a hydrogen atom
Protons
E. Goldstein – 1886
 discovered the proton
o Mass = 1 amu and charge = (+1)
o Thomson put both the electron and proton together and proposed the “Plum Pudding” model of
the atom.
Nucleus
Ernest Rutherford (1871 - 1937)
 Using the “Gold Foil” experiment, Rutherford determines:
1. An atom is mostly space;
2. There is a nucleus in the middle of the atom containing the protons & neutrons;
3. The electrons orbit a large distance away from the nucleus;

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 4. Proposes the “Solar System” model of the atom.

Rutherford “Scattering” Experiment

 Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing how the electrons are arranged within an atom.
o It was expected that α-particles would be deflected by the sub-atomic particles in the gold atoms.
But the result was totally unexpected.

Rutherford’s Revised Atomic Theory (1911)

 Result: Most of the positively charged particles went straight through the gold foil.
o Atomic Theory: Most of the matter of the atom is found in a very small part of the atom. This
is called the nucleus of the atom. It is very tiny and extremely dense.
 Result: Some of the positively charged particles were deflected or even
bounced back.
o Atomic Theory: Like charges repel so the nucleus must have a positive charge. If electrons
have a negative charge, they could not be in a positively charged nucleus. Electrons must
surround the nucleus at a distance.
 Result: The diameter of the nucleus is 100,000 times smaller than the diameter of the entire gold
atom.
o Atomic Theory: Atoms are mostly empty space with a tiny, massive nucleus at the center.
In 1920 Chadwick
 Determined the radii of some heavy elements to be the order of 10 which is smaller than the
order of 10 .
Niels Bohr
 In 1913, this Danish scientist suggested that electrons “orbit” the nucleus.
 In Bohr’s model, electrons are placed in different energy levels based on their distance from the
nucleus (As books are in their shelf)

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 • Electrons can jump from a path on one level to a path on another level.
The Modern Theory of the Atom
 By 1925, Bohr’s model of the atom no longer explained all observations. Bohr was correct about
energy levels, but wrong about electron movement.
 Electrons occupy the lowest energy levels available.
 Energy increases as distance from the nucleus increases.
 Electrons move in patterns of “wave functions” around the nucleus.
 It is impossible to know an electrons velocity and location at any moment in time
• Electrons travel in regions called “electron clouds”
• You cannot predict exactly where an electron will be found

After all this it is confirmed that

 Nucleus as the small central part of an atom with its building blocks Neutrons and protons.

History of Nuclear physics

 1896 - Henri Becquerel, a French physicist, reads of William Roentgen's experiments with X-
rays, and learns that they can cause certain materials to fluoresce(shine).
 Becquerel wonders, do phosphorescent materials emit X-rays while they are glowing?
 To test his idea, He conducts some experiments; he obtains some materials and first sets it out in
the sun to start them glowing, then sets them on top of a photographic plate (very light sensitive
plate) wrapped in black paper to see if they are emitting X-rays. Becquerel obtains some positive
results, and some negative ones, which is confusing.
 He, like Poincare’s and many others, found the phenomenon of “Becquerel rays” fascinating, but
he nevertheless lost interest in the subject within the following six months, because it was cloudy.
 Then he kept one of the minerals that has been giving him positive results into a drawer with an
unexposed photographic plate - and then on a whim decides to develop it, expecting to see only a
faint outline since the Sun was so dim that day.
 Instead, he accidentally discovers that the plate has become completely fogged even though the
mineral had been barely exposed to light at all and wasn't glowing!
 The mineral happens to be potassium uranyl disulfate, and Becquerel eventually discovers that the
uranium in this compound is the magic ingredient.
 All compounds with uranium in them will fog a photographic plate; compounds without uranium
will not. Becquerel therefore calls the new radiation "uranic rays". This was the turning time of
nuclear physics.
 In the same year, nuclear physics as a subject distinct from atomic physics.
 1897 - Ernest Rutherford, investigates Becquerel's "uranic rays" and discovers that they are in fact
a mixture of two components:

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 o a very heavy component which is easily absorbed by matter and has a positive charge; and a
much lighter, more penetrating component which is not so easily absorbed and has a negative
charge.
o Rutherford calls these components, − , − and −
 − are bound states of two protons and two neutrons (the nuclei of helium atoms),
 − and
 − are photons, the quanta of electromagnetic radiation
 1898 - Pierre and Marie Curie, two French physicists who are studying Becquerel's "uranic rays",
discover that thorium also gives off "uranic rays". They propose the new term "radioactivity" to
describe elements which have the property of giving off rays. Working from samples of
pitchblende, they isolate and discover two new elements which are much more intensely radioactive
than uranium: the Curies name them polonium (after Marie's homeland of Poland) and radium (due
to its highly radioactive power).
 In 1903, the third Nobel prize for Physics was awarded to Becquerel, and to Pierre and Marie Curie.
o While Becquerel discovered radioactivity, it was the Curies who elucidated many of its
characteristics by chemically isolating the different radioactive elements produced in the decay
of uranium.
 Ernest Rutherford, became interested in 1899 and performed a series of brilliant experiments
leading up to his discovery in 1911 of the nuclei itself.
 It can be argued, however, that the first scientists to observe and study radioactive phenomena were
Tycho Brahe and his student Johannes Kepler.
 The history of nuclear physics can be divided into three periods.
o The first begins with the discovery radioactivity of the nucleus and ends in 1939 with the
discovery of fission.
o During this period, the basic components (protons and neutrons) of the nucleus were discovered
as well as the quantum law governing their behavior.
o The second period from 1947 to 1969 saw the development of nuclear spectroscopy and of
nuclear models.
o Finally, the emergence of a microscopic unifying theory starting in the 1960s allowed one to
understand the structure and behavior of protons and neutrons in terms of the fundamental
interactions of their constituent particles, quarks and gluons.
 This period also saw the identification of subtle non-classical mechanisms in nuclear structure.
 Today, nuclear physics has entered into our modern world in a significant way.
 Nuclear physics: is a science which studies about interaction in the nucleus and highly integrated
science with many other fields of study.
 It influences other branches of science:
o chemistry, biology, archaeology, geology, engineering, astrophysics and cosmology.
o It is used widely in society at large - in industry, the environment, medicine, defense,
criminology, power production and many other areas.
o the study of quark-gluon plasma in relativistic heavy-inn collisions involves both particle and
nuclear physics.
o In astrophysics, stellar evolution and nucleosynthesis are intimately related to low energy
nuclear reaction rates, and the subject is of interest to nuclear physicists as well as
astrophysicists.

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  However, the exploitation of such a powerful force carries with it some danger and is the subject
of much debate.
 The primary aim of nuclear physics is to understand
o the force between nucleons, the structure of nuclei, and how nuclei interact with each other and
with other subatomic particles.
Composition, Charge; Size; Mass and Angular momentum of the nucleus

The basics of the nucleus

 An atomic nucleus is the small, heavy, central part of an atom consisting of A nucleons:
o A=Z protons + N neutrons;
o Where A is the mass number and Z, the atomic number.
o An atom can be denoted by , more often by
 When talking of different nuclei, we can refer to them as
o Nuclide: atom/nucleus with a specific N and Z.
o Isobar: nuclides with same mass # A (≠ Z, N).
• Isotone: nuclides with same N, ≠ Z.
• Isomer: same nuclide (but different energy state)
Nuclear size

 Is estimated from Rutherford alpha particle scattering,

 is measured in fermis (also called femtometers): 1 = 10 .
 Approximated as it is < 1
 For e.g., =0.8fm and
 =7fm
 In comparison with the atom
o =0.5 0A ≅ 50000 , if you take the ratio of their radius

50000
= ≅ 62,500
0.8fm

 For this ℎ - must be smaller ⇒ kinetic energies of alpha particles are at

least 2MeV, 8MeV for protons and 120MeV for electrons.
o Two basic methods are used
 EM mtd. -gives the charge distribution
 Nuclear mtd -gives matter distribution
 Charge radius = matter radius in the nucleus ⇒charge and matter distribution are uniform.
 Because of protons the electromagnetic force inside the nucleus is repulsive and nucleons can’t be
held together unless there is another source of force that is attractive and stronger than Coulomb.
o Here was the first encounter with strong interaction, nuclear force.

In general, for any nucleus its Nuclear Radius:

 Considering approximated spherical model of a nucleus, measurements for several different nuclei
shows that:

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 o the central nuclear charge density is nearly the same for all nuclei.
o Nucleons do not seem to congregate near the center of the nucleus, but instead have a fairly
constant distribution out to the surface. (the nuclear matter distribution is
the same.)
o Thus, the number of nucleons per unit volume is roughly constant:
 ≈
 ~

 Thus
 ∝ and = 1.2 , defining the proportionality constant gives
=
 The basic properties of the atomic constituents can be summarized as follows:

Mass:
 Nuclear and atomic masses are expressed in atomic mass units (u), based on the definition that
the mass of a neutral atom of | is exactly 12.000 u (1 = 1.6605 x10 ).
Units and dimensions
 Nuclear energies are measured in powers of the unit Electron volt:
o 1 = 1.6 × 10
 The electron volt corresponds to the kinetic energy gained by an electron accelerated
through a potential difference of 1 volt.
 Nuclear energies are usually in the range of MeV.
 Nuclear masses are measured in terms of the atomic mass unit:
o 1 amu or 1u = 1.66 × 10 .
o 1 amu is equivalent to 1/12 of the mass of a neutral ground-state atom of 12C.
o Because of the mass-energy equivalence, we will often express masses in terms of energy
units. From = relation
 = 931.502
 Proton mass: 938.280 .
 Neutron mass: 938.573 .
 Electron mass: 0.511 .
 Scales of magnitude for typical lengths are femtometer (1 = 10 ) also called Fermi (F) and
Angstrom 1˚ A = 10 (for atomic properties (small distance)).

Examples
1. Consider a nucleus of mass number A.
A. Find an approximate expression for the mass of the nucleus.
B. Find an expression for the volume of this nucleus in terms of A.

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 C. Find a numerical value for the density of this nucleus.
Angular momentum of the nucleus
Nucleus
 is a quantum mechanical object.
 is a collection of two kinds of particles, Neutrons and Protons called nucleons.

o Which are
 Nucleons and electrons are spin fermion,
 their intrinsic angular momentum projected on an arbitrary direction can take on only the values
ℏ
of ± .
 Having spin 1 2 they must satisfy the Pauli exclusion principle that prevents two identical
particles (protons, neutrons or electrons) from having the same spatial wavefunction unless their
spins are oppositely aligned.
 orbital angular momentum of their own.
 Thus, the total angular momentum of the nucleus is the vector sum of both spin and orbital angular
momentum of the nucleus.
Spin angular momentum
 Of a nucleon is because of its spinning motion about an axis passing through its center.
 It is in the unit of ℏ(ℏ= ), h- Planck’s constant.
 Each nucleon are fermi particles and have
o ⃗=± ℏ
o The resultant spin angular momentum of the nucleus is given by the vector sum of the spin angular
momentum of the individual nucleon.
o i.e., ⃗ = ∑ ⃗
o where → ⃗ ℎ ,⃗ → ℎ .
 Since ⃗ = , ⃗ can be integral or half integral depending up on the number of nucleons A in the
nucleus is odd or even.
 From its quantization;
=ℏ ( + 1), where = and n-principal quantum numbers and non-negative integer,
 For the z-component
= ℏ
s= , , , …. are spin quantum number for fermions, S- spin angular momentum.
Orbital angular momentum

 The nucleons inside the nucleus rotates about an axis (about the center of mass of the nucleus),
thus each nucleon has an orbital angular momentum, .
o − integral multiple of ℏ 0.
 = 0,1,2,3,4, … … ..

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 o The resultant orbital angular momentum of the nucleus is given by the vector sum of the
orbital angular momentum of the individual nucleons.
o ⃗=∑ ⃗
 The total angular momentum of a nucleon
o = ± , = or =−
o ⇒ = + or = −
 From its quantization;
= ℏ ( + 1), where − ,
 For the z-component
= ℏ
 The total angular momentum of the nucleus
o ⃗= ∑ =∑ +∑
o ⃗= ⃗+ ⃗
o can be either integral (for even A) or half odd integral (for odd A).
 = (± , , , , … … . )ℏ
o Refers to as the nuclear spin.
 Is a quantized quantity and in general the magnitude of the total angular momentum of any
nucleus is given by:
 ⃗ = ( + 1) ℏ → quantization nuclear angular momentum magnitude.
 Where J=0, ,1, , …...
o The direction in which this angular momentum oriented in space also quantized and
is given by
o = ℏ → space quantization of a given nucleus.
 = − , −( − 1), 0, ( − 1),
o Let as see some examples;
 For the angular momentum = , = − , − , 0, , , then thequantized z-
component ( = ℏ) of angular momentum becomes; − ℏ, − ℏ, ℏ, ℏ,
 If we represent it in 3D motion becomes,

 Implies that, a rotating nucleus in a certain spin in a given direction in the space, have z-
component of angular momentum any one of the above values, and spins in a conical section.

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  In all four cases the magnitude of the angular momenta is same, and only the z-component is
quantized.
 The direction at which a particular nuclear spin is restricted in to or the magnitude of the angular
momentum is determined by the values of J=0, ,1, , …... called nuclear spin.
 So, for a given nucleus the value of these nuclear spin for a given nucleus is determined by
looking the number of proton and electron in its ground state.
1. For even-even nuclei like , , ……
 The opposite spin protons and neutrons pair and cancel each other.
o The spin angular and orbital angular momentum=0
 the nuclear spin J=0
 The effect called pairing effect.
2. For even-odd nuclei like , , ……
 The opposite spin protons and neutrons pair and cancel each other, and form central core
with zero angular momentum.
 one unpaired nucleon out of the core but inside the nucleus will left, this determines both
the spin angular and orbital angular momentum so does the nuclear spin = 1 2.
3. For odd-odd nuclei like , ……
 The opposite spin protons and neutrons pair and cancel each other, and form central core
with zero angular momentum.
 Two unpaired nucleons (1-neutron and 1-proton) will left un paired. these determines both
the spin angular and orbital angular momentum so does the nuclear spin = 1.
Nuclear Magnetic Moments
magnetic moment
 is a physical quantity that gives an idea about the magnetic strength and orientation of a magnet
or other object that produces a magnetic field.
 Let we consider a circular current loop of area A and a current I is flowing through it, then as I
flows through the loop;
o circular magnetic field is produced around it.
o It forms like a bar magnet shown at the right

o Then the magnetic moment ( ) given by;

=
 Similar to the motion of an electron around the nucleus; hence
o =− , where = 2 , .
o =− 2 ,
 So,
= =− 2 × =− 2

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  Multiply the numerator and the denominator by m, then;
=− 2
 But, = , is the angular momentum associated with the electron revolving around the
nucleus.
=− 2 ⇒ ∝ , all the rest are constants.
o This is the classical form of the magnetic moment which is identical to the quantum form
with a little correction.
o Shows that a given particle is generated by the following two reasons:
 The motion of Electric Charge
 Angular Momentum
 And the angular momentum is both spin and orbital angular momentum.
 Therefore,
o The orbital angular momentum is;
=− , =1
o The spin angular momentum is;
=− , ≅2
 are a correction factor(g-factor) to the classical descriptions.
 From the orbital as well as spin angular momentum quantization;
= ℏ ( + 1),
= ℏ
 And
=ℏ ( + 1),
= ℏ
ℏ
 Then to make in ℏ unit, multiply it by ℏ then it becomes;
o The orbital angular momentum is;
ℏ
=− ( ) ,
ℏ
o The spin angular momentum is;
ℏ
=− ( ) ℏ,
oIn either the term in the bracket is called Bohr’s constant,
ℏ
= = 5.78 × 10
2
 Then, the orbital angular momentum is;
=− ℏ
, and
o The spin angular momentum is;
=− ,
ℏ
In the same way we can find nuclear magnetic moment for nucleons, in this case instead of Bohr
magneton we will use nuclear magneton,
ℏ
= = 3.15 × 10
2
Nuclear Magnetic Moments

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  is the magnetic moment of an atomic nucleus and arises from the spin of the protons and
neutrons.
 The fig. below shows the magnetic
moment orientation with respect to the
direction of spin
o In proton and spin are in the
same direction, where as
o In neutron in the opposite direction.
 The magnetic moment for nucleons also described by the same way (both are fermions)
 Like their spins, their magnetic moments projected in any direction can only take on the values ±µ
or ±µ :
o i.e. For = ± , the magnetic moment along the z-direction (in the direction of the external
magnetic field),
ℏ
=±
2
 Then;
Proton
 µ = µ
ℏ
µ
 (µ ) = ± = ±2.793µ
 = 5.5858
 ± shows the magnetic moment and spin are in the same direction.
Neutron
 µ = µ
ℏ
µ
 (µ ) = ∓ = ∓1.913µ
 = −3.8263
 ∓ shows the magnetic moment and spin are in the opposite direction.
Nucleus
 µ= µ
ℏ
Nuclear Force
 is one of the four fundamental forces of nature.
o Forces: - Gravitational, Electromagnetic forces, Strong and Week Nuclear Forces.
 10 million times stronger than the chemical binding forces, they are also known as the strong forces.
 acts between the protons and neutrons and determines the properties of a nucleus and its structure.
 it binds the protons and neutrons in a nucleus together (is what holds the nucleus together)
o It can exist between protons and protons, neutrons and protons or neutrons and neutrons.
 The charge of protons, which is +1e, tends to push them away from each other with a strong electric
field repulsive force, following Coulomb’s law.
 But nuclear force is strong enough to keep them together and to overcome that resistance at short
range.
Properties of Nuclear Force
 It is attractive in nature but with a repulsive core.

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 o That is the reason that the nucleus is held together without collapsing in itself.
 It is short range, about 1 Fermi=1 = 10 .
 At this range, ≫ → .
 At a distance of less than 0.7 Fermi, this force becomes repulsive.
 this repulsive component of the force is what decides the physical size of the nucleus.
 However, if the distance is more than 2.5 Fermi, nuclear force is practically non-existent.
 The nuclear force is identical for all nucleons, charge independent.
 - is spin dependent.
o Since nucleons are spin ½ particles, must obey Pauli exclusion principle (No two N’s or ’s of
same spin state occupies same spatial state)
o It means that, to occupy a spatial state they must be in opposite spin state (one up the other down),
which gives a net spin of zero (S=0) for the lowest state of Diproton/ Dineutron.
o But for the n-p combination; their spin can be arranged
 either parallel, S=1, or
 The between n-p is stronger in the S=1 state, b/c n-p can form a bounded system.
 ⇒ b/n neutron and proton > b/n two identical nucleons in average by a factor of 2.
 anti-parallel, S=0 state.
 The between n-p is same as it is either Diproton/ Dineutron.
 It plays an essential role in storing energy that is used in nuclear power and nuclear weapons.
 Work (energy) is required to bring charged protons together against their electric repulsion.
o This energy is stored when the protons and neutrons are bound together by the nuclear force to
form a nucleus.
o The mass of a nucleus is less than the sum total of the individual masses of the protons and
neutrons, and
o The difference in masses is known as the mass defect, which can be expressed as an energy
equivalent

Nuclear Force Examples

 The most obvious example of Nuclear Force, is the binding of protons, which are repulsive in nature
because of their positive charge.
o On a larger scale, this force is responsible for the huge destructive power of nuclear weapons.
 The release of energy when a nuclear weapon exploded is due to strong .
o − also used in nuclear power plants to generate heat for the purpose of generating energy,
such as electricity.
 A weaker nuclear force can transform a neutron into a proton and proton into a neutron.
 It is unique in that it allows quarks to swap their flavor for another.
 For example, during beta minus electron and an electron
decay, a down quark within a antineutrino.
neutron is changed into an up
quark, thus converting
the neutron to a proton and
resulting in the emission of an
o It initiates the nuclear fusion reaction that fuels the Sun and also acts on radiocarbon dating etc.

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  Nuclear force
o Cannot follow radial dependence as Gravitational and Electromagnetic (∝ ).
o Is very short-range force, not more than the confine of the nucleus itself.
o Is far stronger than the electromagnetic force.
o The fundamental force responsible for nuclear properties
o is the strong interaction between quarks.
 is restricted between the quarks inside a nucleon with gluons as the field quanta.
Nuclear Binding Energy

Mass Defect (∆ )

 According to nuclear particle experiments, the total mass of a nucleus (actual mass) ( )
is less than the sum of the masses of its constituent nucleons, protons and neutrons, (expected
mass).
 This difference in mass is called mass defect. For any nucleus is given by;
∆ = + − ( )
 Related to the energy lost in the combination of the constituent particles according to the Einstein
mass energy relation.
=∆ , Mass-energy equivalence.
∆ =
 As we can see actual mass ≠ expected mass
Example
1. Consider a deuterium
 Its actual mass is=2.014102u
 The total mass of its constituent particle is
→ +
 Then ( ) = 1.007825
+ ( ) = 1.008665
=2.016490u →expected mass
i.e., ∑ → particles coming together
 = – = 0.002388 is missing mass in
the form of energy
 The equivalent energy of this is
=∆ =(0.002388 )(3 × 10 ⁄ ) , or
 You can use; 0.002388 × 1.67377 × (3 × 10 ⁄ ) =-----------
 1amu/u=931.49MeV/u
.
 = 0.002388 × = 2.224MeV, the E released during a
nucleus formation.
Nuclear Binding energy
 the total mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of its individual nucleons.
 Therefore, the rest energy of the bound system (the nucleus) is less than the combined rest energy
of the separated nucleons.
 This difference in energy is called the binding energy of the nucleus

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  and can be interpreted as the energy that must be added to a nucleus to break it apart into its
components.
 Therefore, to separate a nucleus into protons and neutrons, energy must be delivered to the system.
 For a given nucleus, with its constituent nucleons,
∆ = + − ( )
 And the binding energy;

( , )=∆ =[ + − ( )]

 The binding energy, can also be defined as, the energy liberated during the combination of
nucleons.
 Gives us an information about the direction of E flow in an nuclear reaction.
Example;

 separated by 2.224MeV
o slowly moving protons and neutrons combine and 2.224MeV energy is liberated as a
−radiation.

Binding energy per nucleon ( )

 Is the average energy that each nucleon has.
 of a nucleus is the binding energy divided by the total number of nucleons.
 A plot of binding energy per nucleon, as a function of mass number for various stable nuclei is
shown in the Figure below.

 increases as A increase, from light nuclei and reaches its maximum value around ≅ − 60,
in the iron Nickel region, beyond this it decreases slowly as a function of A.

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  This immediately tells us that E can be released by fusion of light nuclei in to heavier ones or by
fission of heavy nuclei in to lighter ones.
 The decrease in binding energy per nucleon for > 60 implies that energy is released when a heavy
nucleus splits, or fissions, into two lighter nuclei.
 because the nucleons in each product nucleus are more tightly bound to one another than are
the nucleons in the original nucleus.
 Another important feature of the Figure is that the binding energy per nucleon is approximately
constant at around 8 per nucleon for all nuclei with > 50.
o For these nuclei, the nuclear forces are said to be saturated, meaning that in the closely packed
structure of a spherical nucleus, a particular nucleon can form attractive bonds with only a limited
number of other nucleons.
o Binding energy per nucleon for some nucleus,
.
, = = 1.112
.
, = = 7.07
.
, = = 7.98
, = = 7.8
 ∝
 also tells us that, stability of the nucleus.
 Implies that as is large, large needs to break it⇒ the stability is large.
 This gives us an information about a bout nuclear transformation process (that takes place by
absorption or emission of E) that happens in nature.
o If you consider a nuclear reaction of light nuclei to give higher middle range nuclei by nuclear fusion,
large amount of energy released.
 A nucleus of large is formed, up ≅ 56 − 60 (iron-nikle)
 Less Nr transformation Higher + , the ∆ b/n Higher and Lower .
 After ≅ 56, Nr reaction of fission takes place
o Energy gained and higher but less massive nucleus is formed.
o Larger nucleus ( ) break to form lighter nuclei of larger .
 As per nuclear volumes, for stable nuclei, say for > 12, ≈ (number of nucleons).
 The nucleus has the largest binding energy per nucleon of 8.794 5 MeV.
o It takes additional energy to create elements with mass numbers larger than 63 because of
their lower binding energies per nucleon. This energy comes from the supernova explosion
that occurs at the end of some large stars’ lives.
o Therefore, all the heavy atoms in your body were produced from the explosions of ancient
stars. You are literally made of stardust!
( , )
 In fact, since arises from the pairwise nucleon – nucleon interaction, one may expect that
( )
should increase with the number of nucleon pairs .
 Precisely

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 ( , )
7.7 < < 8.8
 Nucleon interaction strongly with their nearest neighbors.
Exercise
1. For the copper-63 nucleus, if the actual mass of a copper-63 nucleus is 62.91367 amu. Calculate
a. The mass defects
b. The binding energy
2. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon for an alpha particle whose mass defect is calculated as
0.0292amu. Given: mass defect = 0.0292amu.
3. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon (in units of MeV) for 9Be, for which the atomic mass is
9.01219 amu. Particle masses in amu are: proton = 1.007277; neutron = 1.008665; electron =
0.0005486. Conversion factor for E = mc2 is 931 MeV/amu.
4. Argue on each of the following basics.
a. Mass defect is the amount of matter that would be converted into energy if a nucleus were
formed from initially separated protons and neutrons.
b. Nuclear binding energy is the energy released in the formation of an atom from subatomic
particles.
c. Nuclei with highest binding energies are the most stable nuclei.
d. Einstein postulated the Theory of Relativity in which he stated that matter and energy are
equivalent.
e. Mass number is the sum of all protons and electrons in an atom.
5. If nucleus is formed from separate nucleons, energy is added in the process.
6. Answer the following questions.
a. What is the mass defect for U-238? (The mass of U-238 atom is 238.050785amu.)
b. What is the binding energy for U-238?
c. Which has the greater binding energy per number of nucleons: U-235 or U-238? (U-235 has a
B.E.=1784 MeV.)
7.

8. The atomic mass of 62Ni is 61.928 u. 62Ni consists of 28 protons, 34 neutrons, and 28 electrons. If
we add up the mass of 28 protons, 34 neutrons, and 28 electrons, how would this combined
mass compare to the mass of a 62Ni atom?
a. A 62Ni atom has more mass
b. The protons, neutrons, and electrons have more mass
c. They have exactly the same mass
9. The ‘missing mass’ in the 62Ni nucleus can be found in the form of energy, as per Einstein mass-
energy relation. Why might 62Ni nucleus contains more energy than 28 individual protons and 34
individual neutrons?
a. Ni-62 nucleus is positively charged

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 b. Energy is required to hold the Ni-62 nucleus together
c. A Ni-62 nucleus has more kinetic energy than the individual nucleons
d. A Ni-62 nucleus is unstable while the individual nucleons are stable
e. None of the above
10. Suppose we look up the mass of nucleus in a stable of values. We can calculate its mass
defect by

11. The first ionization energy of helium is the energy required to remove 1 electron from a helium
atom. How does this compare to the binding energy per nucleon of helium?
a. The ionization energy of helium is much larger than its binding energy per nucleon
b. The ionization energy of helium is approximately the same as its binding energy per nucleon
c. The ionization energy of helium is much smaller than its binding energy per nucleon

Nuclear Model
 Understanding the structure of the atomic nucleus is one of the central challenges in nuclear
physics;
 Because, the atomic nucleus is a strongly-interacting, many-body quantum mechanical system that
exhibits a fascinating variety of shapes and excitation modes,
o from spherical to super deformed, and from excitations of single protons and neutrons to
collective vibrations and rotations of the nucleus as a whole.
 These strong nuclear interaction b/n nucleons determine the structure, shape and the whole
properties of the nucleus, but it has been challenging for many years
o First of all, the properties of the nuclear force were not known.
o And it is very difficult to solve many body interactions.
 Therefore, the major task then is to make approximations which reduce the exact but insoluble
problem to a soluble one, while introducing as little error as possible.
 In physical terms we construct a model system which approximates the actual system as closely as
possible, but is mathematically tractable.
 The development of nuclear models has followed along two different lines. Side by side with the
so-called
a. Strong interaction models
 which treat the nucleus as an assemblage of closely coupled particles,
b. Independent particle models
 The nucleons are assumed to move rather independently in the average nuclear field.
 Recent evidence suggests that the assumptions of the independent particle models are the
more nearly correct, at least for low energy phenomena, though the coupling of nucleons
by virtue of their mutual interactions can by no means be neglected.

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  In fact, several nuclear models yielded to give considerable insight into nuclear structure, proven
valuable for correlating nuclear data and stimulated further work.
 We will try to discuss some of them.

The Liquid-Drop Model

 is one of the first models of nuclear structure, proposed by Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker in
1935.
 Is based on the short range of nuclear forces, together with the additivity of volumes and of binding
energies.
 Therefore, one can attempt to describe their properties by the corresponding quantities, i.e., the
radius, the density, the surface tension and the volume energy.
 It describes the nucleus;
o as a semiclassical fluid (liquid) made up of neutrons and protons, with an internal
repulsive electrostatic force proportional to the number of protons.
o Spherical shape (radius R) with definite boundary.
o Constant density as in an incompressible fluid (consistent with R = R A )
o The drops are charged due to the protons (total charge Z e assume to be uniformly distributed).
o Nucleons interact strongly with their nearest neighbors, just as molecules do in a drop of water.
 The quantum mechanical nature of these particles appears via the Pauli exclusion principle,
o which states that no two nucleons of the same kind can be at the same state. Thus, the fluid is
actually what is known as a Fermi liquid.
 In this model, the binding energy of a nucleus with Z protons and N neutrons is given by
Z (N − Z)
B(A, Z) = a A − a A − a −a + δ(A)
A A
 The coefficients a are chosen so as to give a good approximation to the observed binding
energies. A good combination is the following:
a = 15.753 MeV  And
a = 17.804 MeV 33.6A , If N and Z are even
a = 0.7103 MeV δ(A) = −33.6A , If N and Z are odd
a = 23.69 MeV 0, If A = N + Z is odd

 The numerical values of the parameters must be determined empirically (other than a ), but the A
and Z dependence of each term reflects simple physical properties.
 This formula relies on the liquid-drop analogy but also incorporates
o asymmetry energy, which tends to favor equal numbers of protons and neutrons, and
o pairing energy, which favors configurations where two identical fermions are paired

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  Volume Term (a )
o This term suggests that each nucleon interacts with each other.
o So, it gives a term for B that is proportional to R and hence to A:
o lead to a constant binding energy per nucleon ∼ 16 MeV
o So: we write contribution to B = +a A (a = +ve constant)
 Surface Term (a )
o Is because of the interaction of fewer surface nucleons with their neighbors.
o This is analogous to the surface tension effect or surface energy in a liquid, so it is proportional
to the surface area (4πR ~A ).
o lowers the binding energy
o So: contribution to B = −a A (a = +ve constant)
 Coulomb Term (a ), Coulomb repulsion term of protons.
o This arises due to the electrostatic potential energy of a volume distribution of charges
(assuming a total charge Ze distributed uniformly though a sphere).
o Total electrostatic energy ∝ ∝
o This will tend to decrease the value of B.
o It is smaller than the nuclear terms for small values of Z. It favors a neutron excess over
protons.
o So: contribution to, B = −a , (a = +ve constant)
 The asymmetry term (a ),
o This is a quantum effect rising from
the Pauli exclusion principle which
only allows two protons or two
neutrons (with opposite spin
direction) in each energy state.

o If No N=No then for each type the protons and neutrons fill to the same maximum energy
level (the ‘fermi level’).
o If, on the other hand, we exchange one of the neutrons by a proton then that proton would be
required by the exclusion principle to occupy a higher energy state, since all the ones below
it is already occupied.
o The upshot of this is that nuclides with Z = N = (A-Z) have a higher binding energy,
o When N ≠ Z we need a term that reduces the value of B. This can be represented in B by an
( )
extra term of the phenomenological form: −a (a = +ve constant)
 Sometimes a fifth term δ(A) is a quantum pairing term
o is added to the semi-empirical mass formula (mainly to model the preferences for N and Z to
be even, rather than odd)
 The existence of the Coulomb term and the asymmetry term means that for each A there is a nucleus
of maximum binding energy found by;

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 = 0 ⇒ Z(A) = ~ .
.

 The maximally bound nucleus hasZ = N = for low A where the asymmetry term dominates but
the Coulomb term favors N > Z for large A.
 As A increases, the surface term loses its importance in favor of the Coulomb term. The binding
energy has a broad maximum in the neighborhood of A ∼ 56 which corresponds to the even-Z
isotopes of iron and nickel.
 Light nuclei can undergo exothermic fusion reactions until they reach the most strongly bound
nuclei in the vicinity of A ∼ 56.
o These reactions correspond to the various stages of nuclear burning in stars.
 For large A’s, the increasing comparative contribution of the Coulomb term lowers the binding
energy. This explains why heavy nuclei can release energy in fission reactions or in α-decay. In
practice, this is observed mainly for very heavy nuclei A > 212 because lifetimes are in general too
large for smaller nuclei.
The shell models
 Atomic theory based on the shell model has provided remarkable clarification of
the complicated details of atomic structure. For instance;
 In atomic physics, there is an ionization energy
o The energy needed to extract an electron from a neutral atom.
 On the way, in ionization energy Vs Z, displays discontinuities (sudden jumps show
transitions to the next shell) around Z = 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86,
 These are called noble gases.
 These discontinuities are associated with closed electron shells.

Atomic radius (top) and ionization energy (bottom) of the elements. The smooth
variations in these properties correspond to the gradual filling of an atomic shell, and
the sudden jumps show transitions to the next shell.

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  An analogous phenomenon occurs in nuclear physics. There exist many experimental indications
showing that atomic nuclei possess a shell-structure and that they can be constructed, like atoms,
by filling successive shells of an effective potential well.
 For example, the nuclear analogs of atomic ionization energies are the “separation energies”
and which are necessary in order to extract a neutron or a proton from a nucleus
= ( , )− ( , − 1)
= ( , ) − ( − 1, )
 These two quantities present discontinuities at special values of N or Z,
 i.e., 2 8 20 28 50 82 126
 which are called magic numbers.
 In this case No N=magic number, No P= magic number or both no N and no P are =magic
number (double magic number)
 At this value the nucleus becomes more stable and forms closed shells.
 As shown in the Fig. below the neutron separation energy of lead isotopes (Z = 82) as a function
of N. The discontinuity at the magic number N = 126 is clearly seen.

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  (Top) Two-proton separation energies of sequences of isotones (constant N).The lowest Z
member of each sequence are noted.
 (Bottom) Two-neutron separation energies of sequences of isotopes. The sudden changes at the
indicated “magic numbers” are apparent.
 The data plotted are differences between the measured values and the predictions of the semi
empirical mass formula.
 The discontinuity in the separation energies is due to the excess binding energy for magic nuclei
as compared to that predicted by the semi-empirical Bethe–Weizs¨acker mass formula.
Assignment Problems

1. The average atomic mass of Boron-11 is 11.009305u. What is the mass of the nucleus of one boron
atom in kg?
2. Determine the atomic number (Z) of an atomic nucleus A, at the maximum binding energy value?
3. For the copper-63 nucleus, if the actual mass of a copper-63 nucleus is 62.91367 amu. Calculate
a. The mass defects
b. The binding energy and the binding energy per nucleon.
c. Using the semiempirical mass formula, compute the total binding energy and the Coulomb
energy:
4. The fact that BEN peaks at roughly A=60 implies that the range of the strong nuclear force is about
the diameter of this nucleus.
a. Calculate the diameter of A=60 nucleus.
b. Compare BEN for 58 Ni and 90Sr. The first is one of the most tightly bound nuclides, whereas
the second is larger and less tightly bound.
N.B.
 It is an individual assignment, which would be corrected 10%
 You are expected to submit it within one week after compellation of chapter one.

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