Contents UNIT I: Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas 1.1 _ MICROWAVE FREQEUCNY BANDS + Md 12 PHYSICAL CONCEPT OF RADIATION 13 1.2.1 Introduction 13 1.2.2 Radiation Pattern: Antenna Pattern 15 3 Antenna Beamwidth 18 4 Radiation Pattern Lobes 1.10 NEAR-AND FAR-FIELD REGIONS: ANTENNA FIELD ZONES, 1 1.3.1. Introduction 1 13.2 Near —Field Region 1 1.3.3. Far-Field Region 1 1.3.4 Radiation Pattern 1 1.4 FIELDS AND POWER RADIATED BY AN ANTENNA. 1.14 1 1 1 1 1 1.4.1 Radiated Electric Field 1.4.2 Radiated Magnetic Field 1.4.3. Far- Field Distance 1.4.4 Radiation Intensity 16 of ANTENNA PATTERN CHARACTERISTICS 16 1.5,1 Introduction 1.16 1.5.2. Lobes 1.17 1.5.3 Directivity (D) 1.19 1.6 ANTENNA GAIN AND EFFICIENCY 1.20 1.7" APERTURE EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVE AREA 1.22 1.7.1 Introduction. 1.22 1.7.2. Aperture Efficiency 1.22 1.7.3 Effective Area (or) Capture Area 1.23 1.8 ANTENNA NOISE TEMPERATURE AND G/T 1.24 | 1.8.1 Antenna Noise Temperature 1.24 1.8.2 Gain- Antenna Temperature Ratio: G/T 1.27& Antennas and Microwave Engineering fy FRIIS TRANSMISSION EQUATION : 1.10 SINK BUDGET AND LINK MARGIN = VY a Path Loss 35 1.10.2 Other Terms oy 1.103 Impedance Mismatch Loss i 1.104 Polarization Matching : OH Ln 10.5 Link Margin 1.32 411. NOISE CHARACTERIZATION OF A MICROWAVE RECEIVER 1.33 1.12 SOLVED PROBLEMS 135 1.13 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 1.43 1.14 REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.46 UNIT I: Radiation Mechanisms And Design Aspects Chapter 2: Radiation Mechanisms of Linear Wire is and Loop Antennas 21 LINEAR WIRE ANTENNAS 21 2.1.1 Introduction 21 2.1.2 Short Electric Dipoles 22 2.1.3. Fields of a Short Dipole 2.3 2.2 HALF WAVE DIPOLE (?./2 ANTENNA) 2.10 2.2.1 Introduction 2.10 2.2.2 Power Radiation from Half Wave Dipole 2.10 223 Power Radiated by a Half Wave Dipole and its Radiation Resistance 2.15 2.3. RADIATION MECHANISMS OF LOOP ANTENNAS 217 2.3.1 Introduction 2.17 2.18 2.3.2 The Small Loop: Transmitting Loop Antenna 2.3.3 ‘Comparisons between Far Fields of Small Electric Dipoles and Loops _ 2.3.4 General Loop Antenna 2.3.5 Radiation Resistance of Loop Antennaser : contents _* [e3] : 2.3.6 Directivity of Circular Loop Antennas with Uniform Current 2.29 2.3.7 Table of Loop Formulas 2.32 2.3.8 Radiation Efficiency, Q, Bandwidth and Signal-to-Noise Ratio 2.32 24° SOLVED PROBLEM 2.36 25 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 2.37 26 REVIEW QUESTIONS 2.37 3.1 APERTURE ANTENNAS 3.1 32 HORN ANTENNA * 3.1 3.2.1 Introduction 3.1 3.2.2. Types of Horn Antenna 32 3.2.3 Principles of Horn Antenna 3.5 3.2.4 Design of Horn Antenna 3.5 3.2.5 Advantages and Applications of Hor Antenna 3.9 3.3. . REFLECTOR ANTENNAS, 3.9 3.3.1 Introduction 39: 3.3.2 Types of Reflector Antennas : 3.9 3.3.3. Flat Sheet Reflectors 3.11 3.3.4 Corner Reflectors 3.16 3.3.5 Parabolic Reflector zt 3.23 3.3.6 ‘ Patterns of Large Circular Apertures with Uniform Illumination 3.31 3.3.7 Various Feeding Systems or Structures 3.34 34 SOLVED PROBLEMS 3.38 3.5 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 3.44 3.6 REVIEW QUESTIONS 3.46 Antennas and Frequency lependent Antenna 41 MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS (MSAs) 4.1 4.1.1 Salient Features of Microstrip Antennas 4.1 4.1.2 Advantages and Limitations 44= 4.1.3 Rectangular Microstrip Antennas 4.1.4 Feed Methods of Microstrip Antenna 4.1.5 Applications 4.1.6 Computer Aided Design (CAD) Model ar) FREQUENCY INDEPENDENT ANTENNAS 43 44 45 4.6 4.7 ‘SPIRAL ANTENNA 43.1 Introduction 43.2 Planar Log-Spiral Antenna 43.3 Conical -Spiral (CP) Antenna LOG-PERIODIC ANTENNA. 4.4.1. Introduction 4.4.2 Construction of LPDA 4.4.3. Working Principle of LPDA 4.4.4 Design of Log Periodic Dipole Array 4.4.5 Uses of Log Periodic Antenna SOLVED PROBLEM TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS REVIEW QUESTIONS UNIT UI: Antenna Arrays and Applications Antennas and Microwave Engineering 4.5 4.11 4.16 4.19 4.21 + 4.21 4.21 4.22 4.24 4.26 4.26 4.27 4.28 4,29 4.31 4.31 4.33 4.37 » 5.1-5.43 5.1. INTRODUCTION 5.1 5.1.1 Why Antenna Array? 51 5.1.2 Antenna Array 31 5.2 TWO- ELEMENT ARRAY: ARRAYS OF TWO POINT SOURCES: : ARRAY OF TWO DRIVEN 4/2 ELEMENTS 5.3 5.2.1 Arrays of Two Point Sources with Equal Amplitude and Phase: Broadside Array 3s 52) Arrays of Two Points Sources with Equal Amplitude and : Opposite Phase: End-Fire Cases 5.1 5.23 i oe of Two Points Sources with Unequal Amplitude and any Phase: Equal Currents of any Phase Relationcontents 53 N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM AMPLITUDE AND SPACING 5.3.1 Introduction 5.3.2. Antenna Array Factor (AF) PATTERN MULTIPLICATION 5.4.1 Introduction 5.4.2 Radiation Pattern of 4-isotropic Elements fed in Phase, Spaced 2/2 Apart 5.4.3. Radiation Pattern of 8-isotropic Elements fed in Phase, Spaced 2/2 Apart 55 PHASE ARRAY 5.5.1 Introduction 5.5.2 Phaséd Array Designs 5.5.3 Different Types of Feed Using in Phased Array 5.6 ADAPTIVE. ARRAYS AND SMART ANTENNAS &) NON-UNIFORM EXCITATION AMPLITUDES: BINOMIAL ARRAYS 57.1 Why Binomial Array is Needed? 5.7.2. Concepts of Binornial Array 5.8 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 59 REVIEW QUESTIONS UNIT IV: Passive and Active Microwave Devices 5.20 5.20 5.23 5.24 5.24 $25 5.27 5.28 5.28 5.28 5.32 5.33 5.36 5.36 5.37 5.39 5.43 61 INTRODUCTION 62 THREE-PORT JUNCTIONS (T-JUNCTIONS) FOUR PORTS NETWORKS: DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS. 6.3.1. Introduction 6.3.2. Properties of Directional Coupler 6.3.3 Coupling Factor (C), Directivity (D), and Isolation (1) 6.3.4 Scattering Matrix of a Directional Coupler 6.1 6.1 6.3 6.3 6.3 64 6.5|UIDE DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS 6h A WER DIVIDER 65 THE T-JUNCTION PO) 6.5.1 Introduction 6.5.2 Lossless Divider 6.5.3. Resistive Divider 66 THE WILKINSON POWER DIVIDER 67 THE QUADRATURE (90°) HYBRID 6.7.1 Introduction 6.72 Even-Odd Mode Analysis 6 THE 180° HYBRID JUNCTION 69 | WAVEGUIDE MAGIC-T 69.1 Introduction 69.2 Characteristics of Magic Tee 6.9.3. S-Matrix for Magic Tee 6.10 ATTENUATORS 6.10.1 Introduction 6.10.2 Fixed Attenuator 6.10.3 Variable Attenuator 6.11 MICROWAVE RESONATOR 6.11.1 Introduction 6.11.2 Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits 6.11.3 Transmission Line Resonators 6.11.4 Rectangular Waveguide — Cavity Resonator 6.11.5 Circular Waveguide — Cavity Resonator 6.12 SOLVED PROBLEM 6.13 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 614 REVIEW QUESTIONS Chapter Microwave Semiconductor Devices and Tubes 7.1 GUNN DIODE OSCILLATOR 7.1.1 Introduction 7.1.2 Working Principle Antennas and Microwave Engineering 68 6.10 6.10 6.11 6.12) 6.14 6.21 6.21 6.22 6.25 6.26 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.30 6.30 6.31 6.31 6.34 6.34 6.34 6.41 6.45 6.48 6.49 6.51 6.55 TA TA 74contents 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 7.10 TAL G7) AVALANCHE TRANSIT - TIME DEVICES 76. IMPATT DIODE OSCILLATOR AND AMPLIFIER 76 7.3.1 » Physical Structures 16 73.2 Principles of Operation 1 73.3. Mechanism of Oscillations 19 7.3.4 Negative Resistance WAL 73.5 IMPATT Diode Power Amplifier 712 7.3.6 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications 7.13 SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE (SBD) 714 PIN DIODES TAT 7.5.1 Introduction TAT 7.5.2 PIN diode Characteristics TAT 7.5.3. Operation of PIN Diode 718 7.5.4 Applications of PIN Diodes 719 MICROWAVE TUBES 7.26 KLYSTRONS 7.28 7.1.1 Introduction 7.28 7.1.2 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier 7.28 7.1.3 Reflex Klystron Oscillator: Single Cavity Klystron 7.30 HELIX TRAVELING-WAVE TUBE (OR) TRAVELLING WAVE TUBE AMPLIFIER (TWTA) 1.34 7.8.1. Introduction . 7.34 78.2 Operation 735 7.8.3 Characteristics and Applications of TWTA 7.36 Microwave Crossed-Field Tubes (M-Type) 737 7.9.1 Introduction 737 7.9.2. Cylindrical Magnetron: Magnetron 7.38 SOLVED PROBLEMS 7.39 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 7.40 7.12. REVIEW QUESTIONS 7.49Antennas and Microwave Engineering UNIT IV: Microwave Design Principles 8.1 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 IMPEDANCE MATCHING 8.1.1 Introduction 8.1.2 Matching with Lumped Elements: L- Networks [or] Matching Network Design Using L-Sections IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION 8.2.1. Single- Stub Matching Networks: Single-Stub Tuning 8.2.2 Double-Stub Matching 8.2.3 Quarter-Wave Transformer MICROWAVE FILTER Design 8.3.1 Introduction 8.3.2. Periodic Structures FILTER DESIGN BY THE IMAGE PARAMETER METHOD 8.4.1 Introduction i 8.4.2 Image Impedances and Transfer Functions for Two-Port Networks 8.4.3 Constant-k Filter Sections 8.4.4 m-Derived Filter Sections 8.4.5 Composite Filters FILTER DESIGN BY THE INSERTION LOSS METHOD 8.5.1 Introduction 8.5.2 Characterization by Power Loss Ratio 8.5.3 Maximally Flat 8.5.4 Equal Ripple 8.5.5 Elliptic Function 8.5.6 Linear Phase 8.5.7 Maximally Flat Low-Pass Filter Prototype 8.5.8 Equal-Ripple Low-Pass Filter Prototype SOLVED PROBLEM TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANS| WERS REVIEW QUESTIONS 8.1 8.1 8.3 8.6 8.6 8.10 8.12 8.16 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.18 8.18 8.21 8.24 8.29 8.30 8.30 8.31 8.31 8.32 8.32 8.33 8.34 8.37 8.38 8.39 8.4291 INTRODUCTION 9.1.1_ Low-Noise Amplifier Design Microwave Power Amplifier Design 92 MICROWAVE OSCILLATORS 9.2.1 Introduction 9.2.2 Transistor Oscillators 9.2.3 Dielectric Resonator Oscillators Microwave Mixer Design 9.3.1 Introduction 9.3.2 Mixer Characteristics 9.3.3 Single-Ended Diode Mixer 9.3.4 Single-Ended FET Mixer 9.3.5 Balanced Mixer 9.3.6 Image Reject Mixer 9.3.7 Differential FET Mixer 9.3.8 Gilbert Cell Mixer 9.3.9 Double-Balanced Mixer Circuit 9.3.10 Antiparallel Diode Mixer 94 SOLVED PROBLEMS ~ 9.5 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 9.6 REVIEW QUESTIONS SOLVED MODEL QUESTION PAPERS 94 9.2 9.5 9.8 9.8 9.9 9.11 9.13 9.13 9.14 9.18 9.20 9.22 9.24 9.26 9.28 9.29 9.30 9.31 9.32 9.34 QaCuapter-1 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas = Microwaves are Electro Magnetic (EM) Waves with the wavelengths ranging from J cm fo 1 mm. The corresponding frequency range is 1 GHz (10° Hz) to 300 GHz (3 x 10'' Hz). This means that the microwave frequencies are upto infrared and visible — light regions. The microwaves frequencies span the following three major bands at the highest end of RF spectrum. L () Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 0.3 to 3 GHz, (i) Super High Frequency (SHF) 3 to 30 GHz, and (iii) Extra High Frequency (EHF) 30 to 300 GHz. % Most applications of microwave technology make use of frequencies in the range from I to 40 GHz range. ELF SUF |VLF [LF MF HF |VHF |UHF ISHF |EHF Infrared |Light |x-rays \Senne : | T rays Cosmic | 300H2 | 30KHz | 3MHz | 300MHz | s0GHz 430TH 40°8Hz 102Hz S0Hz —3kHz . 300KHz 30MHz | SGHz . 300GHz 1000TH2 10% Micro | waves Fig 1.1 Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum * During World War II, microwave engineering becomes a very essential consideration for the development of high resolution radars which is capable of detecting and locating an enemy planes and ships through a narrow beam of EM energy.Antennas and Microwave Engineering 1.2 * The microwave band designation that derived from World War II radar security considerations has never been officially sanctioned by any industrial, professional, or government organization. (U.S) Department of Defense started using the % At first, the United States st. 1969 which is microwave frequency band for all their services in Augu: shown in Table 1.1. 36.000 — 46.000 46.000 — 56.000. 56.000 — 100.000 Table 1.1 U.S military microwave bands % On May 24 1970, the Department of Defense adopted another band designation for microwave frequencies as listed below in Table 1.2. Frequency Range in GHz Microwave Band Designation 225. — 390 MHz P 390 — 1550 MHz L 1.550 — 3.900, Ss 3.900 — 6.200 Cc 6.200 — 10.900 Xs 10.900 — 36.000 K .Q Vv. WwW Frequency-Range in GHz Microwave Band Designation 100 — 250 MHz A 250 — 500 MHz BY 05-1 ' c 1-2 D 2-3 E 3-4 F 4-6 6-8 . 8 - 10 I 10 - 20 J 20 - 40 rk 40 - 60 L 60 - 100 M Table: 1.2 - U.S new military microwave bands13: Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas » The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) recommended a new standard of microwave frequency band designations as given in Table 1.3. Fore: citi Frequency Range in GHz Microwave Band Designation 3 -— 30MHz HF 30 — 300 MHz VHF 03-1 UHF 1 L 2 Ss 4 c 8 x . 12 Ku 18 K 27 Ka 40 Millimeter Submillimeter : 1.3 IEEE microwave frequency bands 1.2.1 Introduction An antenna is an important basic component in the communication system. Basically antennas are the metallic structures designed for radiating and receiving an Electromagnetic (EM) energy in an effective manner which is used for conveying the information. Antenna terminal Radiation pattern iy Transmission line NN Transmitter (or) Generator Virtual / resistance) | Virtual transmission line | linking antenna with space Fig 1.2 Schematic representation of transmitting antennaAntennas and Microwave Engineering In general, the radiation can be considered as a process of transmitting energy. The antenna provides the links between transmitter-to-free space (radiating) and ,"""°-space-to receiver (receiving). = % An anienna is basically a transducer, which converts the Radio Frequency (R.F) electrical current into an EM wave of the same frequency. E lines Tapered transition = ~ 7 ~“ } ‘Transmission line t —— ee (Guided wave or TEM wave)! Antenna Transmitter} one dimensional wave | Radiated free space wave in three dimension Fig 1.3 Antenna as a transition device at the transmitting side The Fig 1.3, shows the transmitting antenna which radiates an EM wave via the transmission line to the free space, that is, an antenna is a device which acts as an interfacing medium between the generator and free space. In other words, an antenna is an impedance matching device between the free space and transmission line, The generator (or) source produces an EM wave. The radiated power in the free space is absorbed by the various objects like trees, buildings, hills, ground and also other antennas, The receivin; 'g antenna receives this attenuated radiated power, The radiation resistance and antenna temperature Parameters which are the single valued scalar quantities, (i) Radiation Resistance (R,) are the important . The antenna appears as a terminal resis fance commonly called as radia tion resistance and coupled from space to the antenna terminals, fo the transmission line which is denoted by ‘R,’. It is @ resistanceniroduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas 15 « Itmay be thought of as a “virtual resistance” that does not exist physically but it acts as a quality coupling between the antenna and distant regions of space via the “virtual” transmission line, >. (i) Antenna Temperature (Ta) + The’ receiving antenna receives ‘two types of radiations namely, passive radiations which are the reflections from any obstacle distant objects, while active radiations from other antennas. These radiation increases the apparent temperature of the radiation resistance, which is related to the temperature of the distant objects. : The basic equation of the radiation can be simply expressed as, ie |A—m, =r. ( my. ) tea (1) where — Time-changing current (As), — Length of the current element (m), Charge (C), and Time change of velocity which equals the acceleration of the charge (ms~). I L Q y 12.2 Radiation Pattern: Antenna Pattern %® Definition Any antenna is characterized by its radiation pattern which -is a mathematical or graphical representation of the radiation properties of an antenna as a.function of space coordinates in a desired direction. This is called as the radiation pattern. % Fig 1.4 shows a three-dimensional field pattern with pattern radius r which is proportional to the field intensity in the direction 0 and }. The pattern has its main lobe (maximum radiation) in the z direction (8 = 0) with minor lobes (side and back) in other directions. % The total radiation field strength is expressed as, E= JE, +E; 2)Antennas and Microwave Engineering 1.6 E, is the amplitude of component, and where Ez, is the amplitude of $ component. 2 Zz Main lobe axis : @=0° Field pattern B vse Field components Main —*| beam orobe Eo Field in 0, $ direction MN ~ EG Side Zo lobes 2D vote Back a lobes x $s0 : > Fig 1.4 Three — dimensional field pattern of a directional antenna * The radiation patterns are different for different antennas and are affected by, the location of an antenna with respect to the ground. There are two basic types of radiation pattern: @ If the radiation of an antenna is expressed in terms of the field strength (E) in Vim, then the graphical representation is called field strength pattern or field radiation pattern. @i) Similarly, if the radiation of an antenna is expressed in terms of the power per unit solid angle, then the graphical representation is called power radiation pattern or simply power pattern.1.7 jon'to Microwave Syste 7 8 introduction Systems and Antennas , » Field pattern (in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the magnitude of anelectric or magnetic field as a function of the angular space. 6=0° POWER Pq(8) = En(0) (@ Field pattern (in linear scale) (b) Power pattern (in linear scale) (c) Power pattern (in dB) Fig 1.5 Radiation pattern representations[13] Antennas and Microwave Engineering Power pattern (in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the. square of the magnitude of an electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular space. &» Power pattern (in dB) represents the magnitude of an electric or magnetic field, in decibels, as a function of the angular space. % The half-power level occurs at those angles 8 and ‘for which Ep (8, 6), = 1/2 = 0.707. % Normalized Field Pattern: The normalized field pattern is obtained, when dividing a field component of radiation pattern by its maximum value. It is a dimensionless number with a maximum value of unity. . Eo, 9) E60, max E, (>), = (dimensionless) GB) % Normalized Power Pattern: The normalized power pattern is obtained, when dividing a power component of radiation pattern by its maximum value as a function of angle. It is a dimensionless number with the maximum value of unity. S '|P,@,4), a > (dimensionless) } sass @ where S(®, >) = Poynting vector E5 ©, 6) + E2 , 6) ee Ot ES gs Lak) — Z Wm2 Zo = Intrinsic impedance of space = 376.7 Q 1.2.3 Antenna Beamwidth * Basically, antenna beamwidth is the measure of the directivity of an antenna and itis defined as, “the angular separation, that is, angular width. in degrees between the two identical Points on the opposite side of the main radiation pattern”.nroduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Ae + Inan antenna pattern, there are a number of beam-widths possible, but two: of the most widely used beam-widths are: (@) — Half— Power Beam Width (HPBW), and (ii) First — Null Beam Width (FNBW). (1) Half-Power Beam Width (HPBW) o HPBW is an angular width in degrees, measured on the major lobe radiation pattern between points where the radiated power has fallen to half of its maximum value, which is called half power points. o HPBW is also known as “3-dB beamwidth” because at half power points, the power is 3-dB down the maximum power value of the major lobe. ‘Main lobe Major lobe axis Fig 1.6 Beamwidths in antenna radiation pattern o From Fig.1.6, it is clear that the power is maximum at point P in main lobe, while it is half at half power points P; and P2, where the power is 3 dB down from the maximum power. (2) First-Null Beam-Width (FNBW) © FNBW is defined as, “the angular width (in degrees) between the first nulls(zero power) or first side lobes, which has a beamwidth of 10 dB down Jrom the power maximum of the main lobe”.[i109] : Antennas and Microwave Engineering Main lobe —10 dB Fig 1.7 Bandwidths on logarithmic scale (decibels) o FNBW is also known as 10-dB beamwidth and it is usually used to approximate the HPBW as, FNBW HPBW x Dear eee end (5) 1.2.4 Radiation Pattern Lobes Major lobe ~~ First null beam width (FNBW) — Half power beam width (HP8W) _- Site lobe Seely Back lobe fe = part plane Fig 1.8 Lobes and beamwidths ofan antenna radiation pattern1.11 Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas. «Different parts of radiation pattern are referred to as “lobes”. A radiation lobe js a three dimensional portion of strong fields which is surrounded by a weak field. It is the portion of significant field strength in a particular direction. & Depends on the field strength, the radiation lobes of an antenna may be classified into four types: @) Major Lobe, (i) Minor Lobe, (iii) Side Lobe, and (iv) Back Lobe. (1) Major Lobe * This is the radiation lobe containing the maximum radiation in a desired direction, which is also referred to as main lobe ot main beam. * The maximum power is transmitted to the free space from an antenna only by the major lobes. Based on the types of an antenna there is a possibility to have more than one major lobe in a pattern. (2) Minor Lobe * All the lobes other than the main lobe are called minor lobes. It represents the radiation in an undesired direction. The level of a minor lobe is usually expressed as, “a ratio of power density in that lobe to that of the major lobe”. * In most of the wireless systems, minor lobes are undesired. Hence, a good antenna design should minimize the minor lobes, (3) Side Lobe These are the minor lobes adjacent to the main lobe and which are separated by the various nulls (zero power). The side lobes are the largest among the minor lobes. (4) Back Lobe This is the minor lobe diametrically opposite to the main lobe. At is the radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of approximately 180° with the major lobe direction.Antennas and Microwave Engineering 1.12 131 ction «| The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into three regions: () Reactive near-field region (or) Antenna region, (ii) Radiating near-field (or) Near-field (or) Fresnel region. (iii) Far-field regions (or) Fraunhofer region. 13.2 Near -Field Region ‘ * Reactive near-field region is the portion of the near-field region which is immediately surrounding the antenna wherein the reactive field predominates, For most antennas, the outer boundary of this region is commonly taken to exist at a distance R, from jtenna surface as, Ri& 0.624 EY Age pnts hou. oc hy seesee qa where Z— Maximum dimension of the antenna, m and A - wavelength, m. Definition Near — field region (or) Fresnel region is defined as, “region of the field of an antenna between the reactive near-field region and the far-field region wherein radiation fields predominate and wherein the angular field : on is dependent upon the distance from the antenna.” * \The inner boundary is taken to be the distance R,>0.62/L°/A (m) and the outer boundary distance is R,2.1? /A (m). 1.3.3 Far-Field Region + The far-field region is a region which is commonly taken to exists at 4 distances Sreater than R,=21?/A (m) from an antenna. The far-field patterns of certain antennas, such as multibeam reflector antennas, are sensitive to the variations in phase over their apertures,Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Boundary sphere of antenna region region Antenna region To infinity Far field or Fraunhofer region | Fresnel-Fraunhofer boundary sphere Fig 1.9 Field regions of an antenna 13.4 Radiation Pattern = a by The radiation pattern of an antenna, as the observation distance is varied from the reactive hear field to the far field, changes in shape because of variations of the fields in both magnitude and phase. Reactive Near-field Radiating Near-field “" Fresnel Distribution Far-Field Fraunhofer Fig 1.10 Typical changes of antenna radiation pattern in the different regionsAntennas and Microwave Engineering 1.14 *» A typical shape changes of radiation pattern from reactive near field toward the far field, with the largest dimension L is shown in Fig 1.10. Itis apparent that in the reactive near field region the pattern is more spread out and nearly uniform, with slight variations. In the radiating near-field region, the pattern begins to smooth and form lobes. oe In the far-field region, the pattern is well formed, usually consisting of few minor lobes and one, or more, major lobes. 1.4.1 Radiated Electric Field * Consider an antenna located at the origin of a-spherical coordinate system. At large distances, where the localized near-zone fields are negligible, then the radiated electric field of an arbitrary antenna can then be expressed as, be a A ewer E(r, 0,9) = [Fo (0,4) + $F, @, 6) ] pe WA ee apeeee (dy _. Where E - Electric field vector, al A Aa . and — Unit vectors in the spherical coordinate’ system, r — Radial distance from an origin, i ky=2n/h — Free Space propagation constant, with wavelength X=clf, and F, 8, >) and F,(, 6) — Antenna pattem functions, 7 J fi eri Tepresents that this electric field propagates in the radial direction wi ne sk . 7 = » a me of e"""" and an amplitude variation with distance of rae Wave, so the electric field may be polarized in either the 9 or $ direction, but are Not in the radial direction.Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas 14.2 Radiated Magnetic Field 4 The magnetic fields associated with an electric field of equation (1) can now be expressed as, (2a) seeese (2b) No where wave impedance of free-space, y= 377 Q. 4% The magnetic field vector also polarized only in the transverse directions and the Poynting vector for this wave is expressed as, S=ExH Wm @) * And the time-averaged Poynting vector is = Desi ie ee pd ete te Sang = 7Re {S}=7Re{ ExH } W/m? 14.3 Far- Field Distance -* The far-field distance is the distance where the spherical wave front radiated by an antenna becomes a close approximation to an ideal planar phase front of aplane wave. * This approximation applies over the radiating aperture of an antenna which depends on the maximum dimension (ZL) of the antenna. Then the far-field distance is defined as, 2 Ry = HM otro (5) * The above result is derived from the condition that the actual spherical wave front radiated by an antenna departs less than 7/8 = 22,5° from a true plane wave front over the maximum extent of an antenna. ’ . * For electrically small antennas, such as short dipoles and small loops, this tesult (equation 5) may give a far-field distance that is too small; in this case, a minimum value of R /, = 22 should be used. :Antennas and Microwave Engineering 116 1.4.4 Radiation Intensity * The radiation intensity gives the variation in radiated power versus position * ground the antenna. The radiation intensity of the radiated electromagnetic field is expressed as, i Po Any, AA UG, 6) = 7? |Spgl= 7 Re (Bo 9x Hyd +E, ox Hy 0}... © By using equations (1), (2) and (4), then equation (6) becomes 2 1 ae 2 eee eee 2 (2: = FyyllBoP+1Esl = Fy [FOP +1 FO W The units of the radiation intensity are Watts, or Watts per unit solid angle, since the radial dependence has been removed. We can find the total power radiated by an antenna by integrating the Poynting vector over the surface of a sphere of radius r that encloses the antenna which is equivalent to integrating the radiation intensity over a unit sphere: ann Breit sn 0d0e = J J U@,4)sinodods—...... (8) $=00=0 2n doa $=00 1.5.1 Introduction %. Definition: The radiation pattern (or) antenna pattern of an antenna is a plot of the magnitude of the far-zone Sield strength versus Position around the antenna, at a fixed distance from an antenna. + The radiation pattern can be plotted from’ the pattern function F,(0, 4) of F, (6, 9), versus either the angle 6 (for an elevation plane pattern) or the angle 9 (for an azimuthal plane pattern).Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas 1.17 + The’ choice of pattern plotting either Fy or F, is dependent on the polarization of an antenna. \ » A typical antenna pattern is shown in Fig 1.11 which is plotted in polar form versus the elevation angle, 6 and a small horn antenna oriented in the vertical direction. ‘Small horn. antenna Fig 1.11 E-plane radiation pattern of a small horn antenna % This plot shows the relative variation of the radiated power of the antenna indB, normalized to the maximum value and the pattern functions are proportional to voltage. * The radial’ scale of the plot is’ computed either as 20 log |F(®, $)| or alternatively, the plot could be computed in terms of the radiation intensity as 10 log | U@, 4) |. 15.2 Lobes * The pattern may exhibit several distinct lobes, with different maxima in "different directions that is, different part of the radiation pattern.Antennas and Microwave Engineering The lobe having the maximum value in the desired direction is called the main while those lobes at lower levels other than main lobe are.called the beam, sidelobes. In Fig 1.11, the pattern has one main beam at @ = 0 and several sidelobés, the largest of which are located at about 0 = +16°. The level of these sidelobes is 13 dB below the level of the main beam. Radiation patterns may also be plotted in the rectangular form which is especially useful for antennas having a narrow main beam. A fundamental property of an antenna is its ability to focus power in a desire direction, not for the other directions. Thus, an antenna with a broad main beam can transmit (or) receive power over a wide angular region, while it has a narrow main beam over a small angular region. * To measure the about effect, we can use a parameter called as 3-dB beamwidth of the antenna, that is defined as the angular width of the main beam at which the power level has dropped 3 dB from its maximum ons that is, its half power points. # The 3 dB beamwidth of the pattern of Figure 1.12 is about 10°. 2 Isotropic Radiator: * An isotropic radiator is a radiator which radiates uniformly in all the directions. It is also called as isotropic source or omni directional radiator or simply unipole. Isotropic radiator Radiation pattern Fig 1.12 Isotropic radiator1.19 nnroduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas > Basically, it is a lossless ideal radiator or antenna. Generally, all the practical antennas are compared with the characteristics of an isotropic radiator. So it is also called as the reference antenna. a. Pencil Beam: Patterns that have relatively narrow main beams in’both planes are known as pencil beam antennas, and are useful in applications such as radar and point-to-point radio links. 15.3 Directivity (D) + Another measure of the focusing ability of an antenna is the directivity which is defined as, “the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity in the main beam to the average radiation intensity over all space”: Maximum Radiation Intensity in the main beam (or) test antenna B= Radiation Intensity of an Isotropic antenna p = Daas Uayg % ~The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated (P,,,) by an antenna divided by 47. _ 4x, An Uma -) Prod n 2m J J v@4)sino dodo 8=09=0 * Directivity is a dimensionless ratio of power, and it is usually expressed in dB as D (dB) = 10 log (D) and an isotropic element D = 1, or 0 dB. ° * Typical directivities for some common antennas are 2.2 dB for a wire dipole, 7.0 dB for a microstrip patch antenna, 23 dB for a waveguide horn antenna, and 35 dB for a parabolic reflector antenna.Antennas and Microwave Engineering | 1.20 %® Relationship Between Directivity and Beamwidth: i bility of an i irectivity are both measures of the focusing al an | Tit pti th a narrow main beam will have a high | ide beam will have a lower directivity. whereas = Beam’ . antenna: an antenna pattern wil while a pattern with a wi i is only dependent on the size and shape of the main beam, » Beamwidth of ae directivity involves integration of the entire radiation pattern. Thus it is possible for many different antenna patterns to have the same beamwidth but quite different directivities due to differences in sidelobes or the presence of directivity, more than one main beam. It is possible to develop approximate relations between beamwidth and directivity that can apply with reasonable accuracy to a large number of practical antennas. Such approximation works well for antennas with pencil beam patterns are the following relationship as, _ 32,400 Die srg. Se ONS ant ny (2) where 9; and 6) are the beamwidths in two orthogonal planes of the main beam, in degrees. This approximation does not work well for the omnidirectional patterns because there is a well-defined main beam in only one plane for such patterns. The gain is an useful measure describes the performance of an antenna which acts as the figure of ‘merit for an antenna. It is closely related to the directivity, which is a measure that takes i j es into account an ie i directional capabilities, =e see The gain of the transmitting concentrate the radiated receiving antenna, “it is the particular radiation antenna is defined as, “the ability of an antenna to Power in a given direction”, where as for the an ability of absorbing ine; pane ig incident power effectively from® 121 Introduction 10, Microwave Systems and Antennas ya, Radiation Efficiency (or) Antenna Efficiency: : The radiation efficiency of an antenna is defined as, “the ratio of the desired output power to the supplied input power”. Prod P rad eer Naat = "Py = Prag t Pow [> Pin = Praa * Pross] Pin =P Poss a ee ates a) P, Pin in where = Prag - Power radiated by the antenna, Pi - Power supplied to the input of the antenna, and Pioss - Power lost in the antenna. % Other factors that can contribute to an effective loss of transmit power are the impedance mismatch at the input to the antenna npedance mIsE putt with the receive antenna. % These losses are external to an antenna and could be eliminated by the proper use of matching networks, or the proper choice and positioning of the receive antenna. + Antenna directivity is a function only of the shape of the radiation pattern which is not affected by losses in an antenna itself. An antenna having a radiation efficiency less than unity will not radiate all of its input power. * The relation between antenna gain (G) and directivity () is expressed in terms of antenna efficiency (n) as, -Q) G=My_q D 051% $1 * In most well-designed antennas, 7,,, may be close to the unity (100%). In Practice, G is always less than D (G < D) due to ohmic losses in the antenna. * When an antenna efficiency is 100% (j-aa= 1), the gain (G) and directivity (D) are used interchangeably. Gain of an antenna is expressed in decibel as, G(aB) = 10log,, G (3)Antennas and Microwave Engineerin, 17.1 Introduction Aperture antenna means that the antenna has a well-defined aperture area from which radiation occurs. Examples include reflector antennas, horn antennas, lens antennas, and array antennas. * The maximum directivity that can be obtained from an electrically large aperture of area A and it is given as, Dae = = fesse (1) * For example, a rectangular horn antenna having an aperture 24 x 3A has a maximum directivity of 247, or about 19 dB. - 1.7.2 Aperture Efficiency * In practice, there are several factors that can serve to reduce the directivity of an antenna from its maximum possible value, such as non-ideal amplitude ot phase characteristics of an aperture field, aperture blockage, or, in the case of reflector antennas, spillover of the feed pattern. %& Definition of Aperture Efficiency: An aperture efficiency is defined as, “the ratio of the actual directivity of an aperture antenna to the maximum directivity value possible to that of the antenna”. Then we can write the directivity of an aperture as, 4nA D = Ney ar 0Sny<1 aps : jm euenna, efficiency is simply defined for an aperture antenna as, “the ratio of etlective area (or) Capture area to physical aperture of that antenna”. Nap = A (dimensionless) (4)} k & y 1.23 gntroduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas ~ 173 Effective Area (or) Capture Area wall <——_____ | Propagation E of plane <——_ | Polarisea wave Side € Direction of ‘Side wall Ap | «Receiving Antenna | Fig 1.13 Plane wave incident on receiving antenna of physical aperture Ap Definition of Effective Area: Effective area (Ae) is an area over which an antenna extracts power from the incident radio waves. It may be defined as, “the ratio of power received ai “an antenna load terminal to the Poynting vector (power density) in W/m’ of an incident wave. A Power received by the antenna a Poynting vector (or) power density of the incident wave avg where P, — Power received-in watts, Sig — Power density [power flow per sq.meter] or Poynting vector of an incident wave in W/m’, and A, — Effective area in mm PL = Aging antes © * The maximum effective aperture area of an antenna can be related to the directivity of an antenna as, Dw eat tee ait iat Fah q)Antennas and Microwave Engineering (71 above expression does For electrically large aperture the actual physical [u2d) Jength of the antenna and where A not include the eff antenn ture area. . = such as dipoles and loops, ctional area ofan ant js the operating waveren ct of losses in as, the effective aperture area the antenna. is often close to there is no simple For many other types of antennas, eanind’ it relation between the physical’ cross-se effective aperture area. 1.8.1 Antenna Noise Temperature @ Definition: The antenna temperature or antenna noise temperature for a lossless antenna is defined as, ‘the temperature of a far field region of space and near surroundings which are coupled to the antenna through radiation resistance”. Radiation Efficiency (1),,4): It is the ratio of output power to input power of an antenna, x Trad = Pe ql) Ifa receiving antenna has dissipative loss and its radiation efficiency iraq is less ra than unity (77,4 < 1). The Power available at the terminals of the antenna is reduced by the factor Nraa from that intercepted by the antenna This reduction applies to received Power, So that the noise temperature the brightness temperature ( noise! i ¢’ power, as well as received signal (T,) of an antenna will b 4 e red T,) by the factor Tae wet fen The thermal noise will be 7 generated j which will increase the no Sd Internally b; . Y resistive losses j se temperature of an €s In the antenna antenna,Le "e siroduction t0 Microwave Systems and Antennas 125 # In terms of noise power; a lossy antenna cari be modeled as a lossless antenna and an attenuator having a power loss factor of L = 1/7raa- Then, equivalent noise temperature of an attenuator, we.can find the resulting noise temperature seen at the antenna terminals as, ~%,@-1 m= Tt TL Ty = tag Ty Mad) Tp ee a) where T4 — Antenna noise temperature (K), T,, — Brightness temperature (K), and T, — ‘Antenna physical temperature (K). 4 The antenna noise temperature (T,,) is a combination of the external brightness temperature seen by the antenna and the thermal noise generated by the antenna. 4% For lossless antenna, 77,.; = 1, then equation (1) reduces to T, = 7; If the radiation efficiency is’zero (7,.q = 0), it means that the antenna appears as a matched load and does not see. any external background noise, then equation (1) reduces to 7, ~ T,, due to the thermal noise generated by the losses. & Thermal Noise: Assuming no losses or other contributions between the antenna and the receiver, then the noise power transferred to the receiver is given by, SET AR ee eee aes 2) where P, — Antenna noise power (W), k — Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-3 J/K), T, — Antenna temperature (K), and Af — Bandwidth (Hz). (1) Overall System Noise Temperature: « © The more general problem of a receiver is when it connected through a lossy transmission line to an antenna and viewing as a background noise temperature1.26 Antennas and Microwave Engineering distribution Tg when an impedance mismatch exists between the antenna and the line which can be represented by the system shown in Figure 1.14. r Background (omm temperature : Receiver Tp (0, >) 3 i Lossy line f=, Antenna Ip, Tp, Ts Tp, Mrad Fig 1.14 Impedance mismatch exists between the antenna and the line. © Here, the antenna is assumed to have a radiation efficiency 7,,. and the connecting transmission line has a power loss factor of L > 1, with both at physical temperature 7,. © The effect of an impedance mismatch between an antenna and the transmission line is represented by the reflection coefficient I. © The equivalent noise temperature seen at the output terminals of the transmission line consists of three contributions: @ Noise power from an antenna due to internal noise and the background brightness temperature, (ii) Noise power generated from the lossy line in the forward direction, and (iii) Noise power generated by the lossy line in the backward direction and reflected from an antenna mismatch toward the receiver, © Due to above noise contributions, the noise due to the antenna is given by equation (1) is reduced by the loss factor of the line, 1/Z, and the reflection mismatch factor, (1 —|T' ?). 0. The forward noise power from the lossy line is reduced by the loss factor, 1/L. The contribution from the lossy line reflected from the mismatched antenna is reduced by the power reflection coefficient, | I’ /’, and the loss factor, 1/L?.ction to Microwave Systems and Ante) 5 mnas o Therefore, the overall system 1.27 noise temperature seen at an input to the receiver is given by, Ty, =44 r, zr, Ts LONI A) +G-n+a-y Fire sees Q) By substituting equation (1) in equation (3) we get _ G-IrPy 7 e Ts = Urea T+ tag) T+ 2D HEE) 7, sees @ o Fora lossless line (Z = 1), the effect of an antenna mismatch is to reduce the system noise temperature by the factor (1— | T P) and the received signal power will be reduced by the same amount. For a matched antenna (I = 0), equation (4) reduces to ot L-1 Ts = TU Mra Ty + (1 A Died Eg Bp al eae Pee (5) + Radiation efficiency accounts for the resistive losses, and thus involves the generation of thermal noise but aperture efficiency does not. * Aperture efficiency applies to the loss of directivity in aperture antennas and by itself does not lead to any additional effect on noise temperature that would not be included through the pattern of an antenna. 18.2 Gain- Antenna Temperature Ratio: G/T + Another useful figure of merit for receive antennas is the G/T ratio and it is defined as, ‘ G/T (dB) = 10 log 7 © where, Gis the gain of the antenna, and T, is the antenna noise temperature. * This quantity is important because, the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) at an input to a receiver is proportional to G/Ty. The ratio G/T can often be maximized by increasing the gain of an antenna and usually minimizes the reception of noise from hot sources at the low elevation angles. % Higher gain requires a larger and more expensive antenna, and high gain may not be desirable for applications requiring omnidirectional coverage (¢.g., cellular telephones or mobile data neti orks), so often a compromise must be made,Antennas and Microwave Engineering 1.28 ir Receiving Transmitting antenna antenna G G, Pr O-<— 2 Pe R Fig 1.15 A basic radio system A general radio system link is shown in Fig 1.15, where the transmit power is P,, the transmit antenna gain is G,, the receive antenna gain is G,, and the received power which is delivered to a matched load is P,. The transmit and receive antennas are then separated by the distance R. The power density radiated by an isotropic antenna (D = 1 = 0 dB) at a distance Ris given by, What? Sitti ers: ay P, . Sov — Ge We must be able to recover all of the radiated power by integrating over a sphere of radius R surrounding the antenna. That is, the power is distributed isotropically, and the area of sphere is 4 R?. If the transmit antenna has losses, we can include the radiation efficiency factor, which has an effect of converting directivity to gain. The general expression for the power density radiated by an arbitrary transmit antenna is, Ss te G, P, 2 ee epee (2) If this power density is inciggat on the receive antenna of effective aperture A,, is G, P, Ae, P, = Ae, Sayg = oye @G)yntroduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas # The gain of the transmitting antenna can then be expressed as, A ; S Bh co Ye ln cae (4) « By substituting equation (4) in equation (3), we get P, Ae, 4n Ag, 4nR? “WP P Aer Act © RA P,: AjA P, 7 Pe (dimensionless) | __...... (6)) where A,, — Effective aperture of transmitting antenna, m? and A,, — Effective aperture of receiving antenna, m* * In terms of gains of antenna, from equation (4) Gn A fp Oe a SL, © + By substituting equation (6) in equation (3), we get P,G, GW 7 An 2 an P, GG 1 P, (mR es (7) * Equations (5) and (7) are called as Friis transmission formula (or) Friis radio link formula and it addresses how much power is received by a radio antenna. * These equations include impedance mismatch at either antenna, polarization mismatch between the antennas, propagation effects leading to attenuation or depolarization, and multipath effects that may cause partial cancellation of the received field. * It is observed in equation (7) that the received power decreases as 1/R? as the Separation between the transmitter and receiver increases. For long-distance Communications, radio links will perform better than the wired links.Antennas and Microwave Engineering 1.30 From the Friis formula, we can seen that the received power is proportional to the product of P, G,, which characterizes the transmitter. i 1 in beam of an antenna, the product P,G, can be interpreted antenna with input power Isotropic Radiated Power * In the mai equivalently as the power radiated by an isotropic P, G,. Thus, this product is defined as the Effective (EIRP). (8) EIRP = P,G, W * Fora given frequency, range, and receiver antenna gain, the received power is proportional to the EIRP of the transmitter and cah only be increased by increasing the EIRP. This can be done by increasing the transmit power, or the transmit antenna gain, or both. ‘ i * Ina link budget, the various terms in the Friis transinission formula are often tabulated separately and each of the factors can be individually considered in terms of its net effect on the received power. # In the link budget, the additional loss factors, such as line losses or impedance mismatch at the antennas, atmospheric attenuation arid polarization mismatch can also be added. 110.1 Path Loss + Path loss is one of the terms in a link budget which accounting for the free- space reduction in signal strength with distance betweén the transmitter and the Teceiver. From Friis transmission formula, path loss is defined (in dB) as, L 5 4nR 0 (4B) 20 og x }>o. - | w % Path loss depends on wavel 4 length (frequency) and it 5 normalization for the units of distance, » It serves to provide @piroauction to Microwave Systems and Antennas 131 110.2 Other Terms # The remaining terms of the Friis formula as shown in the following link budget: Transmit power Transmit antenna line loss OL Transmit antenna gain G, Path loss (free-space) OLy Atmospheric attenuation OL Receive anténna gain G, | Receiye antenna line loss Receiye power a 4 Atmospheric attenuation and line attenuation loss terms also included in link budget. If all of the above quantities are expressed in dB (or) dBm, then the receive power is expressed as, P, (dBm) = P, -L,+G,-Ly—L4+G,-L, cesses (2) i 110.3 Impedance Mismatch Loss f * If the transmit or receive antenna is not impedance matched to the transmitter or receiver or to their connecting lines, then an impedance mismatch will reduce the. received power by the factor (1 -| T° P), where T is the appropriate reflection coefficient. : * The resulting impedance mismatch loss can be included in the link budget to account for the reduction in received power will be expressed as, Linp PB) =-10log(I-|TP)20 sees GB) 110.4 Polarization Matching 4% Maximum power trausmission between transmitter and receiver requires both antennas to be polarized in the same manner. Therefore, the polarization matching of the transmit and receive antennas is an important entry in the link budget. :‘Antennas and Microwave Engineering 1.32 * For example, if a transmit antenna is vertically polarized, maximum power will only be delivered to a vertically polarized receiving antenna, while zero power Rd be delivered to a horizontally polarized receive antenna, and half the available power would be delivered to a circularly polarized antenna. 1.10.5 Link Margin * In practical, communications systems, generally it is desired to have the received power level greater than the threshold level required for the minimum acceptable quality of service which is usually expressed as the minimum carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR), or minimum SNR. + This design allowance for the received power is referred to as the link margin, and it can be expressed as the difference between the design value of received power and the minimum threshold value of the receive power: Link margin (GB) = LM = P,—Py p> saene * In equation (4) all the quantities are in dB. Link margin should be a positive number and its typical values may ranges from 3 to 20 dB. * Reasonable link margin provides a level of robustness to the system to account for variables such as signal fading due to weather, movement of a mobile user, multipath propagation problems, and other unpredictable effects that can degrade the system Performance and quality of service. + Link margin is used to account for fading effects and it is sometimes referred to as fade margin, For example, satellite links operating at frequencies above 10 GHz, often require fade margins of 20 dB or more to account for attenuation during heavy rain. * Link margin for a given communication system can be improved by, @) Increasing the received power by increasing the transmit power or antenna gains, : (i) Reducing the minimum threshold power by improving the design of the receiver or changing the modulation method. * Increasing link margin therefore usually involves an increase in cost and complexity, so excessive increases in link margin are usually avoided.introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas £33 Background ' i Gri im Gv H on Tip Si, Gamat Te Ln ty Ter Tu Tie | Nay e Pt | Transmission L Antenna + line RE IF + Amp. Amp. Ts pM St: iat aaa Receiver Fig 1.16 Noise analysis of a microwave receiver « Fig 1.16 shows the noise analysis of a microwave receiver front end. which includes both complete antenna and transmission line. + In this system, the total noise power at the output of the receiver is No, it will be due to the contributions from the antenna pattern, the loss in the antenna, the Joss in the transmission line, and the receiver components. + This noise power will determine the minimum detectable signal level for the receiver and for a given transmitter power, the maximum range of the communication link. % The receiver components in Figure 1.16 consist of an RF amplifier with gain Grr and noise temperature Tgp, a mixer with an RF-to-IF conversion loss factor Ly and noise temperature Ty, and an IF amplifier with gain Gir and noise temperature Tir. + The noise effects of later stages in the microwave receiver can usually be ignored since the overall noise figure (F) is dominated by the characteristics of the first few stages. The component noise temperatures can be related to noise figures as T=(F-1)T. The noise temperature of the receiver can then be expressed as, Tree = Tre + +2 ot fely eeeees (1) RF RF . * The transmission line connecting the antenna to the receiver has a loss Lr, and it is at a physical temperature 7. Then, its equivalent noise temperature is expressed as, Beep) Tp Q)1.34 * Antennas and Microwave Engineering If the transmission line (TL) and receiver (REC) cascade, then the noise temperature at the antenna terminals that is, the input to the transmission line is = Ty t+ Ly Tree GyaNifet Ep Tape: | oP gett 3) The entire antenna pattern can collect noise power. If the antenna has a reasonably high ‘gain with relatively low sidelobes, we can. assume that all noise power comes via the main beam, so that the noise temperature of the Tr +REc antenna is given as, Ty = rad T+ (1 - Maa) Tp where Mraq - Efficiency of the antenna, T, - Physical temperature of the antenna, and Ty, - Equivalent brightness temperature of the background seen by the main beam. The noise power at the antenna terminals that is, the noise power delivered to the transmission line is : N, = ABT,= HBL thrag Ty (1~ Mra) Tp] essans 6) where B is the system bandwidth. If S, is the received power at the antenna terminals, then the input SNR at the antenna terminals is S,/N, . The output signal power is, — SGre Gir OS ERE Si Css Mets Pes (6) Gsys defines system power gain. The output noise Power is given as, No = (Nj+kBT, « nec) Geys = KB(T4+T 1 4 pec) Ce (1) By substituting equations (3) and (4) in equation (7), we get = EBL tha Ty + (1 - rad) T, + (Ly 1) T+ LpT ec] Gsys = EBT 575 Gsys (8)1.35 i duction to Microwave Systems and Antennas Isvs.is the overall system noise teniperature. Then the output -SNR is written as, SoS, Ny BT sys By using equation (8) the above equation becomes “ 5S; =O EBL Maa Ty * (= Myaa) Ty + p= 1) T+ Lr Trac | | » This SNR is improved by various signal processing techniques. It is very convenient to use an overall system noise figure to calculate the degradation in SNR from an input to output of the above system. PROBLEM -1 ‘An antenna has a field pattern given by E(0) = cos’ 0 for 0°< 0 $902 Find the HPBW. © Solution: E(@) athalf power = 0.707 That is, 0.707 = cos? => cos =~ 0.707 @ = cos! [0.707 =cos" (0.840) = 33° HPBW = 20=2 x 33°=66° f HPBW. 268° (0) = cos? 4Antennas and Microwave Engineering 1.36 PROBLEM - 2 | ntenna used for reception with the direct broadcast tem (DB: : Is aie in diameter and operates at (z. Find out the far- stem (DBS) is eg di id s at 12.4 GHz. Find syst 12.4 Gi is this antenna. gem ang inch = 0.0254m => 18 inch=0.457m Given: ( Operating wavelength at 124 GH is e 3xt0 3 = 00242 m=2.42 em X= F = 4x10 ~ 124 (ii) Far-field distance, Ry = A = 0.0242 =-0.0242 PROBLEM 3 | An antenna whose radiation resistance is 300 Qoperates ata frequency of 1 GHz and with a current of 3 Amperes. Find the radiated power. © Solution: Given: Radiation resistance R, = 300Q Antenna current = 3 A " Radiated power P, = I2R, = 32x 300 = 9x 300 P, = 2700 Watts PROBLEM — 4 ! A dipole antenna has a radiation resis esistance of 72 Qand a loss resis of 18 2. Determine its efficiency, 7 © Solution: Given: Radiation resistance R, = 722Q Loss resistance R, = 18Q Efficiency (n) = Fred = —*, Pratt Pa Re R 1% W 2 741g <100 = 80%roauction to Microwave Systems and Antennas 137 PROBLEM A dipole antenna has a radiation resistance of 75 @, a loss resistance of 320 Qand a power gain of 12 dB. Determine the antenna efficiency and directivity. © Solution: : 75Q Given: Radiation resistance R, = Loss resistance R, = 20Q (y Antenna efficiency (n): R, 75 1" aR = 754797 0-79 (ii) Directivity (D): The power gain is given by, : Gp (dB) = 124B als Gp = Antilog (12 dB) = 10° = 15.84 The relation between power gain and directivity is given by Gp = nD Hence the directivity in dB is given by D (AB) = 10 logio (20.05) = 13.02 dB PROBLEM -6 A dipole antenna has a radiation resistance of 72 9, a loss resistance of 20.Q. What is its directivity if the power gain is 16? © Solution: Given: Radiation resistance R, = 72Q° Loss resistance R, = 202Antennas and. Microwave ANGE In, a R 78. 0 8 —_ Antenna efficiency (1) = R4R, — 72+20 eae ‘The relation between power gain and directivity is given by Gp =nD Gp 16 = =o = 205 n 0.78 Hence, the directivity in dB is given by D(AB) = 10 logio (20.5) = 13-11 4B PROBLEM -7 } A loss resistance of an antenna.is 24 Q. Calculate its radiation resistanc if the power gain is 28 and directivity is 40. © Solution: Given: Loss resistance, R, = 24.Q Power gain, Gp = 28 Directivity, D = 40 The antenna efficiency is expressed as, bie 2h, 7 D RR qd) S D ~ 49 = 07 7 a stitute the values 1 = 0.7 & R, = 24 Q, in equation (1), we get eee Lamers R 0.7 = ——r_ i R,+24 0.7(R, +24) = p 0.78, +168 = R R,(1-0.7) = 16.8 16:8) R= OF = 560Introduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas 1.39 ( ppdpLEM 8 The direct broadcast system in North America operates at 12.2-12.7 GHz, with a transmit carrier Power of 120 W, a transmit antenna gain of 34 dB, an IF bandwidth of 20 MHz, and a worst-case slant angle (30°) distance from the geostationary satellite to Earth of 39,000 km. The 18-inch receiving dish antenna has a gain of 33.5 dB and sees an average background brightness temperature of T, = 50 K, with a receiver low- noise block (LNB) having a noise figure of 0.7 dB. The required minimum CNR is 15 dB. The overall system is shown in Figure LNB : > -@y CNR G, F DBS receiver q, Find (a) the link budget for the received carrier power at the antenna terminals, (b) G/T for the receive antenna.and LNB system, (c) the CNR at the output of the LNB, and (@) the link margin of the system. © Solution: Operating frequency is 12.45 GHz, = & 3108 Wavelength, 2 = Sf 12.45 x 10° 4nR Path loss Ly (dB)' = 20 le x ) R = 39,000 km = 39 x 10°m‘Antennas and Microwave Engineering 6 4 x 3.14 x 39 x 10° 489.84 x 10' ) Sih OE, ( 90241 = 20 log | “~0.0241. = 20 Jog (20325 x 10%) = 20x 10.3 = 206.2 dB (a) The link budget for the received power is P, = 120 W = 50.8dBm e G, = 34.0dB Ly = (-) 206.2 dB G, = 33.5¢4B P, = —87.9dBm = 1.63 x 10°? W (}) To find G/T we first find the noise temperature of the antenna and LN] cascaded, referenced at the input of the LNB: (2 = 14+ Typ = Th+(F-1) TY F = 0.7dB = 1.175 and T, = Room temperature = 290 K = 50+ (1.715 — 1) (290) 3 = 50+ (0.175) (290) = 50+50.8 = 100.8K Then G/T for the antenna and LNB is G G/T (dB) = 10 logy [G=34 dB = 2239 ] So 8700.8 = 10 log 22.21 = 10x 1.35=13'5 dB/K (©) The CNR at the output of the LNB is P, Ging CNR = - ET.BGg, (B=20MHz = 20x 10° Hz] . 1,63 x 10-2 (1.38 x 10) (100.8) (20 x 10°) = —1.63 x 19-2 = 163x105 163000 2782.08 x 10-7 = “979998 = 2782.08 = 58.6 = 19 log 58.6 = 17.7 dB1.41 introduction to Microwave Systénis and Antennas () If the minimum required CNR is 15 dB, then the system link margin is LM = P, =P, ny) = 177-15 = 2.7 dB «(PROBLEM - 9 A microwave receiver has the following parameters: Background 1 | Gre Lu Cr S Gama Tr} pn Tre Tu Tir | yg i, Smt btn t So 1 Transmission [> L Antenna’ {ine RF 1F = Amp. zo Amp. i fie Se Receiver f = 4.0GHz, Gar = 204B, TS B = 1MHz, For = 3.0 4B, G, = 2648, Ly = 6.048, Naa = 0.90, Fy = 7.04B, Tp = 300K, Gir = 304B, : T, = 200K, Fry = L1dB Ly = L5dB ’ If the received power at the antenna terminals is S,=— 80.dBm, calculate the input and output SNRs. © Solution: We first convert the above given dB quantities to numerical values and noise figures to noise temperatures as, Gap = 10°" = 100 Gye = 10° = 1000 Ly = 10'5" =1.41 Ly = 10 =40 Ty = Fy-W)T = 00-1) (290) =1163KAntennas and Microwave Engineerin 1.42 Tre = (Frp-1)T) = (10™"° —1) (290) =289K Typ = (Fyr-1)-Ty = 10" — 1) (290) =84K The equivalent noise temperature of the receiver 1 M JF =M. Tree = tet Git aon = \ 63 ay 336 A ee 289 + 11.63 00 = 289+ ~T09- +" 100 289 + 11.63 #3.36 = 304K Noise temperature of transmission line Tr, = (Lp-1) T, = (41-1) 300 — = (0.41) 300 = 123K Noise temperature of antenna © Ly = Mad T+ (1 Mra) Ty = 0-9 (200) + (10.9) 300 = 180+ 0.1 300 = 180+ 30=210K The input noise power N, = kBT, [B = 1 MHz=1x 10° Hz] 1.38 x 10 x 106 « 210 : 290 x 10"? = 2.9x 10° W = —115dBm 0 Then the input SNR is YW, = —80+11.5=35 dB The total system noise temperature Tyr = Ty + Try, + Ly Tree = 210 + 123 + (1.41) (304) 333 + 428.64 = 761.64 ~ 762K The output SNR is 0 oy No KBT 5 KB Typ = 1.38 x 10° x 106 x 762 1051 x 10-'7= 1.05 x 10" W = ~110 dBm —80+110 = 30dBIntroduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas 1.43 poe EE KS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS —_| SSS a ree 1, Define antenna. An antenna is an important basic component in the communication system. Basically antennas- are the metallic structures designed for radiating and receiving an Electromagnetic (EM) energy in an effective manner which is used for conveying the information, : The antenna provides the links between transmitter-to-free space (radiating) and free-space-to receiver (receiving). 2. What do you mean by radiation pattern? Any antenna is characterized by its radiation pattern which is a mathematical or graphical representation of the radiation properties of an antenna as a function of space coordinates in a desired direction. This is called as the radiation pattern. 3. Define antenna beamwidth, and its types. Basically, antenna beamwidth is the measure of the directivity of an antenna and it is defined as, “the angular separation, that is, angular width in degrees between the two identical points on the opposite side of the main radiation pattern”. In an antenna pattern, there are a number of beam-widths possible, but two of the most widely used beam-widths are: » (i) Half— Power Beam Width (HPBW), and Gi) First - Null Beam Width (FNBW). 4. What is HPBW? Why it is called as 3 -dB beamwidth? 4 Half-Power Beam Width (HPBW) is an angular width in degrees, measured on the major lobe radiation pattern between points where the radiated power has fallen to half of its maximum value, which is called half power points. HPBW is also known as “3-dB beamwidth” because at half. power points, the power is 3-dB down the maximum power value of the major lobe. 5. Define FNBW. First-Null’ Beam-Width (FNBW) is defined as, “the angular width (in degrees) between the first nulls(zero power) or first side lobes, which has/a beamwidth of 10 dB down from the power maximum of the main lobe”,Antennas and Microwave Engineering 1.44 6. What do you mean by Near-field region (or) Fresnel region if bead : fats “ of the . - ion (or) Fresnel region is defined as, “region i oo ctive near-field region and the far-field region an antenna between the rea ° ld regi wherein radiation fields predominate and wherein the angular field distribution is dependent upon the distance from the antenna”. The inner boundary is taken to be the distance R, 20.62yP/4 (m) and the outer boundary distance is R, >2L?/2 (m), where L— Maximum dimension of the antenna, m and A - wavelength, m. 7. Define far-field region. The far-field region is a region which is commonly taken to exists, at a distances greater than R,=2L’/A (m) from an antenna. Where L — Maximum dimension of the antenna, m and A - wavelength, m. 8 What do you mean by isotropic radiator? An isotropic radiator is a radiator which radiates uniformly in all. the directions. It is also called as isotropic source or omni directional tadiator or simply unipole. Isotropic ( radiator Radiation pattern 9. - What is directivity? The directivity of an antenna is defined as radiation intensity in the main beam to the averag space”, “the ratio of the maximum e radiation intensity over all D= Maximum Radiation Intensity in the main beam (or) test antenna — U, Radiation Intensity of an Isotropic antenna oe u. avgIntroduction to Microwave Systems and Antennas 1.45 10. Define gain of an antenna, U. 12, 13. The gain of the transmitting antenna is defined as, “the ability of an antenna to concentrate the radiated Power in a given direction”, where as for the receiving antenna, “it is an ability of absorbing incident power effectively from the particular radiation direction”, The relation between antenna gain (G) and directivity (D) is expressed in terms of antenna efficiency (n) as, G=N_yD 05 My <1 What do you mean by radiation efficiency? The radiation efficiency of an antenna is defined as, “the ratio of the desired output power to the supplied input power”. ty rad Nat = B= Be Ds Pn = Pra + Pr] Poss ~ P, in in = PnP, 7 P, where Prag - Power radiated by the antenna, Pin - Power supplied to the input of the antenna, and Pioss - Power lost in the antenna. Define aperture efficiency. An aperture efficiency is defined as, “the ratio of the actual directivity of an aperture antenna to the maximum directivity value possible to that of the antenna”. Then we can write the directivity of an aperture as, D= Nap axe 0 2/2), it is called as Jong-wire or a harmonic antenna. Their lengths are usually taken in multiples of half wavelength, i.¢., 1/2 where ‘n’ is an integer. Wires with large electrical lengths are used for the formation of a number of well-known antennas such as V, inverted-V, rhombic, beverage and certain antennas.and Microwave Engineering [2.2] Antennas 21.2 Short Electric Dipoles ’ . « Any linear antenna may be considered as large number of very shor, con ‘uciors which is connevted in series. be assumed to be constan, so short that current may & Ashort linear conductor is : ; own in Fig 2.1. Such short linear conductor is Ofte, throughout its lengths as sh called a “short dipole” or a “Hertzian dipole”. h End plate provides loading | with little effect on pattern JE Transmission line Fig 2.1 A short dipole antenna (@) and its equivalent (b) + Let us consider a short di ipole as shown in Fig 2.1(a). Th Li short when compared to the wavelength ) i.e, (L<< ie inet 2a * Plates at the ends of the di citiv ing. The short len; e dipole provide iti a capacitive loadi: he sh eth and the Presence of these plates results in a uniform current I tire d th ae nt ‘I’ along the enti-_ pataion Mechanisms of Linear Wire and Loop Antennas (23) % 713 Fields of a Short Dipole yg Let the dipole of length ‘Z.’ be placed coincident with the “z" axis and with its center at the origin as in Fig 2.2. It is also assumed that the medium 7 surrounding the dipole is vacuum or air. The electric field components E,, Ey ey and Ey are as shown in Fig 2.2. Fig 2.2 Dipole in a spherical coordinate * Ifa current is flowing in the short dipole, the effect of the current is not felt instantaneously at the point P, but only after an interval equal to the time required for the disturbance to propagate over the distance ‘r? % Then, the current ‘I’ can be written as, I= Ie! wee Q) where I, is a maximum or peak current. Equation (2) implies instantaneous Propagation of the effect of the current. The propagation time or the retardation time as done by Lorentz and can be as, [1] =| ef olt-eley Where [I] - Retarded current.2.4 Antennas and Microwave Engineering To be more specific, the retardation time r/c results in a phase retardation. y DRS 360° 360° t or. PEL? sadians = ie ae ae c where T = ; = Time of one period or cycle (seconds), and f — Frequency, Hz. The brackets [ ] in equation (3) indicates that the effect of the current is retarded. Equation (3) represents that the disturbance at a time ‘f’ and a distance ‘r’ from a current element is caused by a current [ /] that occurred at fae r an earlier time t —¢. The time difference r/c is the interval required for the disturbance to travel at the distance r, where ‘c’ is the velocity of light. Fig 2.3 Geometry for short dipole25 Radiation Mechanisms of Linear Wire and Loop Antennas # Now fora short dipole located as in Fig 2.3, the retarded véctor potential of the electric current has one component A,, ie., the currént is entirely in the z-direction. It follows that the retarded vector potential has only z-component. and it is given by, +2 a-f pte 4) -L2 where [I] = Ip e/°#-C'= Retarded current. sees (5) z — Distance to a point on dipole. I, — Peak value in time of current (uniform along dipole). Hy — Permeability of free space = 4x x 1077 H/m. © + Radian frequency. s — Distance from dz to point P. % If the distance from the dipole is large, compared to its length (r >> L) and if. the wavelength is large compared to the length (A >> L), then s =r can be put and the amplitude and the phase differences of the field contributions from the different parts of the wire may be neglected. Hence, the equation (4) is reduced as, +12 jo [e~ +12 7 Iy ef” (t-@/e)] 21) e/® [t-(le)) ae J ee a 2 an r 4n r -L2 0 Hy Ip 2 ef t-@le)] u2 s 4nr [+], fig Ip 2 ef = Ets ae : TC) Hy LI e/° A= 4nr overs (OY * = The retarded scalar potential V of a charge distribution is given by, 1 tel J eye ere O) ~ An &92.6 ‘Antennas and Microwave Engineeriny Where [p ] is the retarded charge density given by., [p] = poe!” [t-le)] dy — Infinitesimal volume element. eq — Permittivity of free space = 8.854 x 107? F/m. Since the region of charge in case of the dipole being considered is confined ty the points at the ends as in Fig 2.1(b) and equation (7) reduces to, -—-_[ial_fo1 : hgh eb ey sa oe © But for a conductor of length ‘L’ with a uniform current ‘I’ and point charge ¢ at the end [Fig 2.1(b)]. The current and charge are related by, tql=fttlae let (10) By substituting equation (5) in equation (10), we get lal= J Ip el E-CO at = ae ee (it) By substituting equation (11) in equation (9), we get I, eJOlt-Gyl jo [t-Gp/c)] = Gne,jo (Sata | dene (a2) To point P Fig 2.4 Relations for short dipole when r >> L,2.7. Radiation Mechanisms of Linear Wire and Loop Antennas “"p_ Referring to Fig 2.4, when r >> L, the line connecting the ends of the dipole and the point P may be considered as parallel so that, sare F cos 0 seats (13a) Shh a (135) + By substituting equations (13a) and (13b) into equation (12), it may be shown that the fields of a short electric dipole are, Tp L cos 0 e/0 l= (rien af ee (| oh (14a) . Te Ey er jor IpLsin@e/U-W re ig yy ] = Bhs de ete df b Ey An & [ eri er ‘jor aa % Equations (14a) and (14b) represents the electric fields of short dipole in general case which uses the relation, 1j¢q = 1/c”. Then, the magnetic fields of a short dipole for general case is expressed as, I —ee 1 ] ee +3 cry * Thus, the field from the dipole have only three components E,, Ey and Hy. The components E, , H, and Hy are everywhere zero. Case-1: For Field Region or Radiation Zone | r | >> A: 1 . : : © The field in this region vary as >. When ‘r? is very large in comparison to as r 1 1 the higher terms of E and H ie, ? and 7p can be neglected in favour of 1. © As such, the E, component is neglected as can be seen from equation (14a) ' 1 . Which has no y term. Therefore, effectively only two Components E, and H, are Contributing to the radiation field. i.e.,Untennas and Microwave Engineering 2.8 Joly Lsing ef) _ 7 EEE sin e101 ite (16a) a any cr m Eo Joly L singe?) _ 72 Ein lO ane (168) 7 4ncr mr 3 . 2. mM Mme Wee fh we o Equations (16a) and (16b) are representing an electric and the magnetic fields of short dipole for far-field case. Taking the ratio of Ey to Hy as given by equation (16a) and (16b), we obtain the impedance of space as, Bye si Ho — 120m Q = 376.72... an H, ~-89¢ Case - 2: Near Field Region | r | << A. o For E, and H, components, the near field pattern are the same as the far field patterns as both are proportional to sin @ However, near field pattern for E, is Proportional to cos @as shown in Fig 2.5. Dipole (4) Near and. | far-field patterns of Eg and Hg components Sor short dipole (b) Near-field pattern of Ey component Fig 2.5Radiation Mechanisms of Linear Wire and Loop Antennas 2.9. See ee: case - 3: Quasi-Stationary Field Region or D.C Case E r _ gob cos 0 Ey = H, = 3 Qn egr qoLsin® 4nEyr? I, Lsin@ 4nr? o The situation at a very low frequencies are referred to as quasi-stationary or " d.c case and fields components are expressed as, o The restriction that r >> L still applies. At low frequencies, @ — 0 [a] = goa? lol = gy Here, the field of two point charges + qo and — gy separated by distance L. Component General Expression FarField Quasi- Stationary E, |[11beose/ 1, 1 ) 0 qu cos 8 Qne, (cr jor? Qneyr? BE, | [1] Lsine/ jo LLL sine ~itetsin OL qlsind ane, aneycr dneyr H, | [1]bsind (jo, 1 [1]Ljo sind j{tsinoL | 1,Lsind 4x (err Aner dr od “ae Table 2.1 Fields of a short electric dipole * The radiation resistance of a short dipole with an uniform current is expressed as 2 R,=807 (%) = 800 L? =790L? (Q)Antennas and Microwave Engineering 2.10} 2.2.1 Introduction | The half wave dipole means half-wavelength simplest antennas and it is frequently employe: array. It is also known as Hertz antenna or some! doublet. ipole (7 = 2/2). It is one of the d as an element of an antenng imes called half way 73 Q.impedance Radiating element Feeder Fig 2.6 Half wave dipole antenna # Because of its radiation resistance about 73 ohms, which is very near to the 50-ohm or 75-ohm, the characteristics impedances of some transmission lines are matching to the line and it is simplified especially at the resonance. 2. Definition: Half wave dipole is the fundamental radio antenna which is made up of a metal rod or thin wire and it has a physical length of A/2 in free space at the Srequency of operation. This is usually Jed at the centre having maximum current, that is, maximum radiation is in the plane normal to the axis, 2.2.2 Power Radiation From Half Wave Dipole * It is a symmetrical antenna in which the two ; ends are at an equal potential telative to the mid point, The overall specified length is L = 2h and vertical antenna height is h =F.Radiation Mechanisms of Linear Wire and. Loop Antennas 2.11 Distant point In AABC, AC =r—R r-R Ty sin BO — z) = cos 0 r—R=z008 0 Rer—zcoso Ty Sin B(h + 2) Fig 2.7 Assumed sinusoidal current distribution in half wave dipole % It is found that the linear current distribution is not suitable for this antenna. But if, this antenna is fed at the centre with the help of a transmission line, its current distribution is approximately sinusoidal with maximum at the centre and zero at the ends and it is given by, I= I, sinB(k-z) for 2>0 } I= I,sinB(h+z) for 2<0 where I,, = Current maximum at the current element I dz , B= on = Phase constant, and Idz — Current element placed at a distance ‘z’ from z = 0 plane. % Consider a point ‘P’ located at a far distance from the current element. Then, the vector potential at point P due to the current element I dz is given by, = tL JAR dA, = TqR laze peti (2) where R = Distance between Idz to distant point P. % The total vector potential due to all such current elements at distant point ‘P’ can be obtained by integrating the vector potentiai dA, over the total of the antenna and it is given by,