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Insights on the tectonic styles of the Red Sea rift using gravity and magnetic
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Article  in  Marine and Petroleum Geology · July 2021

DOI: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2021.105253

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 Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (xxxx) 105253

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

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Insights on the tectonic styles of the Red Sea rift using gravity and magnetic
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Saada Ahmed Saada a, ∗, Kevin Mickus b, Ahmed Mohammed Eldosouky a, Amin Ibrahim c

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a Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Suez University, Egypt
b Geology Department, Missouri State University, Springfield, MO, 65897, USA
c Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, Egypt

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Global topography, bathymetry, magnetic, and gravity data were analyzed to study the nature of the Red Sea
Red Sea

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crust to infer its tectonic regime. The Red Sea is a classic example of incipient ocean basin formation after the
Heat flow breakup of a continent. We used spectral analysis of the magnetic and gravity data and two-dimensional (2D) for-
Bathymetry
ward modelling of the gravity data to image crustal sources within the Red Sea. The magnetic data were also ana-
Gravity and magnetic
lyzed to determine the Curie point depth, which was then used to estimate heat flow values within the Red Sea.
Axial trough
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Seafloor spreading Profiles of bathymetry, gravity, magnetic, and heat flow data were constructed across the southern, central and
northern portions of the Red Sea to determine crustal structural differences between these regions. Residual and
regional gravity anomaly maps determined from the spectral analysis and 2D gravity forward models indicate
that there is a large amplitude gravity maxima over the main axial trough within the central and southern Red
Sea caused by a combination of partially molten material intruding into the crust and the formation of a new
oceanic crust. However, the central portion of the Red Sea based on the residual gravity anomaly map is a transi-
tion zone where the oceanic crust is discontinuous and is separated by inter-trough zones. In the northern portion
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of the Red Sea, the discontinuous residual gravity maxima and high frequency magnetic anomalies can be corre-
lated with isolated deeps implying the last stage of the continental rifting and beginning of seafloor spreading.

1. Introduction ing that has been suggested from seismic reflection surveys (Stockli and
Bosworth, 2019).
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The Red Sea has been commonly described as the stereotypical ex-
ample of the transition of continental rifting to the formation of an in-
cipient ocean basin (Bosworth, 2015). While there has been contro-
versy on the cause of this tectonic activity, most workers have used ei-
ther passive or active rift models to describe the onset of rifting (Hansen
et al., 2007). In the passive rift models, the Red Sea region (RSR) or at
least its northern and central portions formed in response to far-field
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Haase et al. (2000) interpreted basaltic samples from the axial
deeps in the northern RSR to be tholeiitic mid-ocean ridge basalts
(MORB) that formed in a slow-spreading ridge from an asthenospheric
source. Ligi et al. (2018) studied the gabbroic rocks of the mafic com-
plex exposed on the Brothers islands and determined that the geo-
chemical signatures are analogous to that of MORB.
There has been a variety of geophysical studies (gravity, magnetics,

stresses associated with subduction within the Zagros Mountains (Fig.
1). These extensional stresses caused divergence and anti-clockwise ro-
tation of the Arabian plate, causing the initial opening of the RSR (Ligi
et al., 2019). Other workers suggest that the southern RSR was formed
in response to active rifting produced by the Afar plume that formed the
Ethiopian-Yemen Large Igneous Province. The southern RSR has been
classified as a volcanic rifted passive margin (Menzies et al., 1997),
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seismic reflection/refraction and seismic receiver functions) on the na-
ture of the RSR crust and lithosphere, and the nature of the continental
margins in both Africa and Saudi Arabia (e.g., Brown and Girdler, 1982;
Cochran, 1983; Bonatti et al., 1984; Mooney et al., 1985; Izzeldin,
1987; Martinez and Cochran, 1988; Mougenot and Al-Shakhis, 1999;
Saleh et al., 2006 Hansen et al., 2007; Ravat et al., 2011; Hosny and
Nyblade, 2014; Mitchell and Park, 2014; Gallacher et al., 2019; Tang et

while the northern RSR, has been termed a nonvolcanic rifted passive al., 2016; Augustin et al., 2019; Ligi et al., 2019; Azab et al., 2020).
margin due to the lack of basaltic volcanism and magmatic underplat- These geophysical studies have shown that the crust thins under the
axis of the RSR (Hansen et al., 2007; Hosny and Nyblade, 2014) and

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: saada.elsayed@suezuniv.edu.eg (S.A. Saada).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2021.105253
Received 21 September 2020; Received in revised form 30 May 2021; Accepted 26 July 2021
0264-8172/© 2021
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Fig. 1. Tectonic map of the Red Sea and surrounding area (modified after Bosworth et al., 2005; Bosworth, 2015; Rasul et al., 2015). (For interpretation of the refer-
ences to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
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that the oceanic crust consists of intermediate to mafic material. Seis-
mic refraction and gravity modelling have shown that the crustal thick-
ness along both margins is approximately 20 km (Voggenreiter et al.,
1988; Prutkin and Saleh, 2009) and the crust thins to approximately
10–15 km in the center of the northern RSR (Gaulier et al., 1988). Seis-
mic refraction analyses on the Arabian shield and in Egyptian Precam-
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brian regions show that the crust thickens to 35–40 km (Mooney et al.,
1985; Hansen et al., 2007; Hosny and Nyblade, 2014).
While the above geophysical studies have revealed the general
lithospheric structure of the RSR, the detailed morphology of the RSR
crust has only becoming known recently after increased seismic reflec-
tion analyses and drilling (Augustin et al., 2019; Ligi et al., 2019;
Stockli and Bosworth, 2019). These studies showed that the northern
and southern portions of the axial rift are distinctly different (Augustin
et al., 2019). The southern portion have axial valleys that are continu-
ous and well developed with distinct normal faults and having basaltic
volcanism while in the northern axial valleys, the ocean volcanic mater-
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ial only crops out in the low areas (Deeps) on bathymetric maps
(Augustin et al., 2019). These low areas are discontinuous and become
more widely spaced as one goes further north. The Deeps are separated
by inter-trough zones which are shallower and have distinct gravity and
magnetic anomalies that suggest that they are regions of thinned conti-
nental crust (Gaulier et al., 1988; Egloff et al., 1991; Makris and Rihm,
1991; Augustin et al., 2019). However, portions of the northern seg-
ment of the RSR are covered by thick sediments especially salt, which
inhibit determining the nature of the crust in this region (Augustin et
al., 2019; Ligi et al., 2019).
Of importance in defining the origin and crustal structure of the RSR
is determining both the geothermal gradient (GG) and heat flow (HF)
along the RSR. Previous studies using both direct HF measurements and
HF values determined from magnetic studies (e.g., Girdler and Evans,
1977; Morgan et al., 1985; Boulos, 1990; Saleh et al., 2013; Saada,
2016; Saada and Kharbish, 2019) have shown that the mean HF value
within the RSR (116 mW/m2) is higher than 90% of the mean HF values
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Fig. 2. Composite stratigraphic column of the northern and southern RSR (adapted after Bosworth and Burke, 2005; Bosworth, 2015).
recorded worldwide. The high HF values are not restricted to the axis of
the RSR but extend to the coasts where they are twice the world mean
(Girdler and Evans, 1977). However, all of the above studies have
shown a noticeable increase of the HF towards the axial trough (AxT).
Understanding the thermal structure of the embryonic continental mar-
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gins and its local variations is important for determining the origin of
the early stage of plate separation.
To aid in determining the nature of the lithosphere in the northern
RSR region, a detailed geophysical study was conducted using available
bathymetry, magnetic and gravity data. The analysis was performed by
creating gravity and magnetic derivative maps, spectral analysis of the
magnetic data and two-dimensional (2D) gravity forward modelling.
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The spectral analysis of the magnetic data was used to determine the
Curie isothermal point depth (CPD) and the CPD was used to estimate
the heat flow in the RSR. The anomaly maps, CPD values and 2D for-
ward models was integrated to determine a general lithospheric struc-
ture of the northern RSR and to generate a model on how the northern
RSR formed.
2. Geology and tectonics
The RSR and Gulf of Suez rift system is a Tertiary tectonic feature
and is considered one of prime examples of the breakup of a continent
(Stockli and Bosworth, 2019). The complete tectonic and geologic his-
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tory is beyond this short recap and the readers are referred to the out-
standing overview by Stockli and Bosworth (2019). The RSR is approxi-
mately 2250 km long, has a maximum width of 355 km and a maxi-
mum depth of 3040 m that occurs within the central Suakin Trough
(Fig. 1). The RSR was formed after the breakup of the Arabian-Nubian
shield. The Arabian-Nubian shield was formed during the 715-530 Ma
East African orogeny where multiple episodes of accretion of island arcs
occurred (Miller and Dixon, 1992; Abdelsalam and Stern, 1996; Stern
and Johnson, 2010). Later Paleozoic and Mesozoic extensional tectonic
events produced a series of sedimentary sequences that range from
Cambrian to Eocene in age (Stockli and Bosworth, 2019). The sedi-
ments range from marine to fluvial sequences and are currently found
in downfaulted grabens and half-grabens that formed as a result of the
extensional stress that formed the RSR. Fig. 2 shows the composite
stratigraphic column within the RSR (Bosworth and Burke, 2005;
Bosworth, 2015).
The onset of RSR rifting is a controversial subject due to the lack of
deep drillholes throughout the RSR (Bosworth et al., 2005; Stockli and
Bosworth, 2019). The initial onset is evidenced by normal faulting and
syn-rift sedimentation in half-grabens that occurred in the Gulf of Suez
and Egypt approximately 23 Ma (Bosworth et al., 2005). This extension
occurred basically at the same time (23 Ma) within the central and
northern RSR (Bosworth et al., 2005) and occurred over a wide area
(over 1000 km) before becoming localized along the main rift axis be-
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Fig. 3. Total intensity magnetic map of the RSR showing the locations of selected profiles. The profiles are labeled from P1 to P4 (axial trough profiles), aa’ to cc’ (in-
ter-trough profiles) and 1–10 (northern profiles).

tween 14 and 20 Ma ago (Augustin et al., 2019). During the Early
Miocene (~14 Ma), extension caused the exhumation and faulting
along the RSR margins, and rift margin uplift (Bosworth et al., 2005).
This extensional event has been linked to the onset of strike-slip fault-
ing of the Aqaba transform fault and a change from rift normal to
oblique extensions within the RSR (Stockli and Bosworth, 2019). This
extension also led to detachment faulting and rising of lower crustal
rocks along the rift margins where mylonites became exposed in Saudi
Arabia (Gaulier et al., 1988).
The Miocene extension was widespread in the northern and central
RSR and the high amounts of extension led to the deposition of thick se-
quences of evaporitic deposits (Garfunkel and Ben-Avraham, 1996). De-
spite the large amount of extension, evidence of rift related basaltic
magmatism is limited in the northern and central parts (Martinez and

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Fig. 4. Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the RSR showing the selected profiles used to compare bathymetry, gravity, magnetic, and heat flow. The profiles are la-
beled from P1 to P4 (axial trough profiles), aa’ to cc’ (inter-trough profiles) and 1–10 (northern profiles).

Cochran, 1988). This lack of basaltic magmatism has been provided as
evidence for the lack of sea-floor spreading in the northern and central
RSR (Ligi et al., 2019). However, there is sea-floor spreading and
basaltic magmatism in the southern RSR which is thought to have start
after the formation of the Aqaba-Dead Sea transform fault system and
may serve as evidence of Late Miocene extension and possible continen-
tal breakup (Augustin et al., 2019).
3. Data and methodology
3.1. Data
Magnetic anomaly data (Fig. 3) were obtained from the CIRES (Co-
operative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences) EMAG2
(Earth Magnetic Anomaly Grid) 2-arc-minute resolution dataset, com-
piled from a combination of airborne, marine, and satellite magnetic
data (Maus et al., 2009). Longer wavelength magnetic data (i.e., >

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Fig. 5. Topographic-bathymetry map of the Red Sea area using the ETOPO1 Global Relief model (Amante and Eakins, 2009). Also shown are the locations of profiles
(numbered) that were modeled along the deeps of the AxT (P1–P4), and along the inter-trough areas (aa'- cc’), as well as the northern profiles (1–10). (For interpreta-
tion of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
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300 km) were acquired by the low-Earth orbit satellite CHAMP for the
production of the MF6 model, which has a length-scale resolution of
333 km (Maus et al., 2009). We employed the CIRES-compiled data set
consisting of all available wavelength data for this study.
The gravity data used were the Bouguer gravity anomalies extracted
from the World Gravity Model 2012 (WGM, 2012) (Bonvalot et al.,
2012). These data, which began as the Earth Geopotential Model 2008
(EGM, 2008) are provided by the Bureau Gravimetrique International
(BGI). The initial EGM 2008 was created by merging available land,
marine, and airborne gravity data worldwide, as well as satellite gravity
data from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE). Up-
dated Arctic gravity data, global gravity field of the Denmark Technical
University 10 (DTU 10) and the 1 arc minute (1 km spatial resolution)
Earth Topography (ETOPO 1) are used to generate the Bouguer gravity
anomalies from the WGM 2012 model. The World Geodetic System 84
(WGS 84) was used as a datum and an average density of 2.67 g/cm3
was used as a reference density for crustal rocks. This resulted in the de-
velopment of Bouguer gravity anomalies with ~9 km spatial resolution
from the WGM 2012. Fig. 4 shows the Bouguer gravity anomaly map of
the RSR area.
Bathymetry data were obtained from the ETOPO1 global relief
model that integrates all available land topography, bathymetry data
into a 1 arc minute grid (Amante and Eakins, 2009). The data were
gridded and shown as a bathymetry map of the RSR (Fig. 5). There are

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Fig. 6. a: The radial averaged power spectrum of the Bouguer gravity anomaly data used to create residual and regional gravity anomaly maps. b: Low-pass fil-
tered gravity (regional) anomaly map of the RSR where wavenumbers lower than 0.005 rad/m were removed. c: High-pass gravity (residual) anomaly map of the
RSR where wavenumbers higher than 0.005 rad/m were removed.

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Fig. 7. a TDR map of the Bouguer gravity anomaly data. Black lines represent boundaries of the middle portion of the Red Sea. b The combined tilt derivative
(TDR + TDX) map of the Bouguer gravity anomaly data. Black lines represent boundaries of the middle portion of the Red Sea. (For interpretation of the refer-
ences to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

three main bathymetric regions: (i) shallow shelves (less than 50 m), units. In this study, derivatives, wavelength and phase match filtering
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(ii) deep shelves (500–1000 m), and (iii) the main trough
(1000–3000 m) containing the AxT.
3.2. Gravity and magnetic data processing
3.2.1. Regional and residual gravity anomalies
To use the above data to study the nature of the RSR crust, gravity
and magnetic anomalies due to crustal density/magnetic susceptibility
sources must be isolated using regional-residual anomaly separation
techniques (Mickus et al., 1991). This is usually a difficult task due to
the small density/magnetic susceptibility contrast between most crustal
were used to estimate the residual anomalies.
The Bouguer gravity anomaly map (Fig. 4) shows anomalies that
contain longer and shorter wavelengths. These longer wavelength
anomalies are commonly caused by deeper and wider density sources
and the short wavelength anomalies are usually caused by local and
shallower density sources. To emphasize on the short wavelength
anomalies that might be caused by upper crustal sources, a high-pass
filter was determined using a phase match filter (a type of Fourier
Transformed based wavelength filter) and applied to the Bouguer grav-
ity anomaly data (Phillips, 2001). Phase match filtering separates the
data into different wavelength components by modelling the observed
anomalies from distinct source layers at increasing depths determined

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Fig. 8. Total intensity magnetic map of the RSR showing the 227 overlapping squared areas (centered by black dots) used for estimating the CPD and HF.

by the spectral properties of the data (Phillips, 2001). The radial aver- weighting in order to image the sources at their correct depths (Fedi
age power spectrum of the Bouguer gravity anomaly data (Fig. 6a) dis- and Pilkington, 2012). Thus, the residual gravity anomaly anomalies
plays a threshold wavenumber value of 0.005 radians/meter, which is only represent shallow (upper crustal) density sources. The regional
equivalent to source layer with a depth of 11.0 km. The lower and residual gravity anomaly maps are given in Fig. 6b and c, respec-
wavenumbers (<0.005 radians/meter) represent the deeper or regional tively.
gravity anomalies whereas, the higher wavenumbers (>0.005 radians/
meter) reflect the shallower or residual gravity anomalies. However,
the depth of 11.0 km is just an approximation to all the source depths,
where the automated depth determination methods must have depth-

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S.A. Saada et al.
Fig. 9. Examples of the power spectrum analysis to estimate the depth to the base of magnetic sources (CDP) for areas a.) 28 and b.) 121 (Fig. 8). Zt-depth to the
top of the magnetic body, Z0-depth to the centroid of the magnetic body, Zb-depth to the bottom of the magnetic body.
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3.2.2. Edge detection using tilt derivative filters
The accurate delineation of the lateral locations of the geological
contacts associated with the magmatic intrusions along RSR is a manda-
tory task in the interpretation of Bouguer gravity anomalies. Thus, the
derivative based techniques are useful in this regard. A tilt derivative
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(TDR) filter is defined as the arctangent of the ratio of the vertical and
total horizontal derivatives of the gravity field (Miller and Singh, 1994;
Salem et al., 2008). The inverse version of the TDR is called the hori-
zontal tilt derivative (TDX) filter, where the amplitude of the total hori-
zontal derivative was normalized using the modulus of the vertical de-
rivative values. According to Cooper and Cowan (2006), the TDX filter
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resolves the shallow and deep sources simultaneously as it equalizes the
signal amplitudes. Castro et al. (2018) proposed a new edge detection
technique by combining TDR and TDX filters. The combined tilt deriva-
tive filter is superior, as it can produce constant values (a plateau), over
the entire source, in contrast to other derivative based techniques
where the sources are delineated by peaks that could be confused with
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noise. Additionally, its response away from the source edge is flattened
and consequently, the location of the source can be is easily recognized.
In this work, both the TDR and the combined tilt derivative
(TDR + TDX) filters were applied to the Bouguer gravity anomaly data
as auxiliary interpretation tools to image the near-surface geometry of
the RSR crust and the surrounding Precambrian basement structures
(Fig. 7a and b). The local phase filters (TDR and TDX) were computed
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using Grid Math Expression” section of “Grid and Image” menu in Oasis
Montaj software (Geosoft™).
3.3. Calculation of the Curie point depth and heat flow
Spectral methods have routinely been used in the analysis of mag-
netic data to determine the CPD by analyzing magnetic data over large
regions (Shuey et al., 1977; Blakely, 1988). The main problem with
spectral methods is that small scale CPD variations are difficult to deter-
mine and the determination of the depth to the bottom of a magnetic
source is a function of the region analyzed (Hussein et al., 2012). In
general, the width of the area analyzed must be at least three to four
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times the actual depth to the bottom of a magnetic source in order to be
confident of the determined depth.
The spectral method of Tanaka et al. (1999) which was based on the
method of Bhattacharyya and Leu (1975) and Okubo et al. (1985) was
used to estimate the bottom of magnetic sources. Tanaka et al. (1999)
showed that determining the radially averaged power density spectra of
the magnetic anomalies over a region, a depth to the bottom of a mag-
netic source can be estimated. The top of a magnetic source is estimated
by fitting a straight line through the lower wavenumber portions
(0.03–0.2 radians/km) portions of the radially averaged power density
spectra (ln [ΦΔT (|k|)1/2]) curve. Likewise, the depth to the centroid of a
magnetic source is also determined, where the quantity (ln [ΦΔT
(|k|)1/2]/|k) is plotted and a straight line is fit through the higher wave
numbers (0.5–0.8 rad/km). The basal depth of the magnetic source is
then calculated from Zb = 2Z0 –Zt, where Zt is the top bound and Z0 is
the centroid.
One byproduct of estimating the CPD is that the HF can be estimated
for a large region. The estimate of the HF is dependent on the tempera-
ture used for the most common magnetic mineral, magnetite which is
estimated to be 580 °C (Haggerty, 1978). To roughly estimate the HF
from CPDs, the one-dimensional conductive heat flow equation was
used where the temperature gradient is constant. The equation
(Fournier's law) is
(1)
where q is the heat flux, dT/dz is the temperature gradient and k is the
thermal conductivity. Tanaka et a.l (1999) showed the Curie tempera-
ture, C can be defined as
(2)
where D is the CPD, provided that there are no heat sources or sinks be-
tween the earth's surface and the CPD. Then, the CPD becomes
(3)
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Fig. 10. CPD map estimated from the power spectrum analysis of the magnetic data.

An additional variable that affects the estimated HF is thermal con-
ductivity of the rocks in the region. Thermal conductivity values nor-
mally range between 1.3 and 3.3 W m−1 K−1 for granites to
2.5–5.0 W m−1 K−1 for metamorphic rocks (Lillie, 1999). Tanaka et al.
(1999) used a range of kC (1000–2500 W m−1) to show that HF values
(>150 mW/m2) in spatially small areas (individual composite volca-
noes) the power density spectrum method cannot image local CPDs.
3.4. Basement depth estimation
The local wavenumber or source parameter imaging (SPI) approach
was applied to the gravity data using a grid-spacing of 1000 m to esti-
mate the depth to the basement rocks. The theory behind this technique
was discussed by several authors (e.g., Thurston and Smith, 1997;
Smith et al., 1998 and Bello et al., 2017).

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Fig. 11. Heat flow of the RSR as estimated from the CDP analysis. Also, shown are the location of axial trough (P1 to P4) and inter-trough (aa’ to cc’) profiles.

4. Results The Arabian-Nubian Shield Mountains surround the RSR depression

4.1. Bathymetry and topography
One can obtain a general idea about the structure of the RSR by ex-
amining the topography-bathymetry map of RSR and its vicinity (Fig.
5). The most distinct geomorphologic features are the Deeps along the
basin axes and the high elevations of the rifted shoulder (Figs. 1 and 5).
with a maximum elevation of 4300 m above mean sea level (a.s.l) in the
southernmost region. A continuous main axial trough runs southeast-
ward, from south of Ras Mohammed in the southern Sinai to the prox-
imity of the Zubayr Islands offshore Yemen. The RSR main trough is
about 1000 m in depth and has separated Deeps that exceed 2000 m in
depth (Monin et al., 1981). These Deeps have an intimate relationship
to the evolution of oceanic spreading centers in the southern portion of
the RSR (Martinez and Cochran, 1988; Cochran and Martinez, 1988).

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Fig. 12. Basement relief map estimated using SPI method on the gravity data.

4.2. Magnetics which are related to the Aqaba trend and Nubian fault system, respec-
tively (Fig. 3). The central portion of the RSR is characterized by high
The total magnetic intensity anomaly map of the RSR (Fig. 3) shows frequency maxima and minima. The eastern portion has large ampli-
values ranging from −237 to 211 nT. Also, alternating positive and neg- tude maxima that are caused by the Proterozoic metamorphic and ig-
ative anomalies trending mainly in a NW direction are parallel to the neous lithologies within the Arabian-Nubian massive.
shoreline and the rift axis becoming more pronounced in the southern
part of the RSR. Local anomalies that trend WNW are observed in the
northeastern portion and are associated with Najd strike-slip faults. Ad-
ditionally, there are linear anomalies that trend NNE and ENE to NE

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Fig. 13. Comparison between bathymetry, gravity, magnetic and HF data of the RSR along profiles P1 through P4.

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Fig. 14. Correlation between bathymetry, gravity, magnetic and HF data of the RSR along profiles aa’, bb’ and cc’.

4.3. Gravity
The Bouguer gravity anomaly map (Fig. 4) has a gravity maximum
over the whole RSR in a similar fashion of that at oceanic areas. In gen-
eral, the gravity anomalies exhibit two different fields: a long wave-
length pattern and a series of higher frequency anomalies. However, the
high frequency anomalies, especially on land, should be ignored, since
it is an after fact of how the Bouguer gravity anomalies were calculated
from the satellite data. The majority of the anomalies are parallel to the
RSR axis and there is an increase in anomaly amplitude toward the AxT
in the central portion of the RSR. These maximum gravity values are
aligned in a well-defined region along the AxT with a width of about
30 km which decreases northward in width to 15–20 km from the cen-
tral RSR. The linear nature of these central anomalies disappears north
of 23 N and the gravity anomaly pattern is broken into a series of high
frequency anomalies that in general trends toward the NW.
The regional gravity anomaly map (Fig. 6b) shows the high ampli-
tude gravity values (75–211mGal) that extend along the AxT including
a higher density region beneath the RSR crust and the Gulf of Aden that
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Fig. 15. The association of bathymetry, gravity, and magnetic data along the northern RSR profiles (1 through 10).
map (Fig. 6c) depicts three distinguishable gravity maxima regions
aligned in parallel and interspersed successively by two negative re-
gions were imaged in the southern part. The middle high residual grav-
ity anomaly of amplitude ranging from ~27 to 98 mGal and 20–40 km
wide is continuous between latitudes 15ᴼ-20ᴼN. The continuity of the
UN
central maxima is laterally displaced in the central region which ex-
tends from latitudes 20ᴼ- 23ᴼN, and displays discontinuous residual
gravity anomalies with a width of 10–15 km that average N16ᴼW trend
over a distance of ~346 km. Further to the north, the anomaly pattern
is broken into a series of short wavelength maxima associated with lo-
calized extension in the region and the anomaly amplitudes are lower
due to the thick evaporite layer in the region (Augustin et al., 2019).
The northern RSR, as evidenced from the bathymetry and the residual
gravity anomaly maps (Figs. 5 and 6c), indicates that the main trough
has three trends: (i) N47ᴼW between latitudes 23ᴼ-24ᴼN, (ii) N7ᴼW be-
tween latitudes 24ᴼ-25.5ᴼN, and (iii) N41ᴼW that extends from lati-
tudes 25.5ᴼ-27.5ᴼN.
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From the TDR and TDR + TDX maps (Fig. 7a and b, respectively),
the RSR can be divided into three anomaly regions (separated by the
black lines on Fig. 7a and b) from south to north according to the tex-
ture of the derivative anomalies. The southern part has positive TDR
values (Fig. 7a) that are located on the AxT. The zero values can be
identified by a light yellow color, which separate positive and negative
values (violet and blue colors respectively), are coincident to edges/
contact of the AxT. In the TDR + TDX map (Fig. 7b), the contact re-
lated to the AxT is sharper and more centered, while the anomaly is flat-
tened out in areas where there are no structures of interest. The central
part contains positive TDR values intersected by parallel segments
aligned in a NE direction with a limited spatial extent. Such segments
are best identified in the TDR + TDX map and could be interpreted as
rift-associated transform faults. The response of tilt and combined tilt
derivative filters (Fig. 7a and b) in the northern part of the RSR exhibits
a similar pattern, where, the alternated anomalies with NNW to NW
trends are clearly noticed.
S.A. Saada et al.
Fig. 16. Crustal 2D gravity model along profile P2.
TE
4.4. Curie point depth and heat flow
The CPD, GG, and HF along the RSR were estimated in sequential
steps. First, the magnetic map was divided into 227 overlapped square
windows with dimensions 150 × 150 km and overlapping 75 km (Fig.
EC
8). This was done to insure we image deep enough to determine the
CDP (Hussein et al., 2012). Then, a spectral analysis of the magnetic
data was performed on each window to estimate the CPD. The slope of
the second-highest wavenumbers of intermediate radial averaged
power spectrum represents the depth to the top of magnetized source Zt
and the slope of the lower wavenumbers was used to calculate the
RR
depth to centroid (Zb). Fig. 9a and b are examples of the spectral analy-
sis technique for blocks 28 and 121. Then, the GG (dT/dZ) for each win-
dow was determined by dividing the Curie isothermal point (580ᴼC) by
the CPD. Lastly, the HF was calculated using equation (3) using an aver-
aged suitable thermal conductivity (2.93 W/mᵒC) (Makris et al., 1991).
The CPD map (Fig. 10) displays a general decrease in depth toward
CO
the AxT of the RSR and the Gulf of Aden with the minimum value
(7 km) in the southern part. The CPD away from the AxT increased to a
maximum of 21 km in the eastern onshore parts. The maximum CPD
values are located between latitudes 18ᴼ and 22ᴼ N eastward within
Saudi Arabia. These two contrasting zones find good correlation with
the bathymetry and topographic maps within the RSR, where, the shal-
lower CPD is located in the RSR deeps.
UN
The GG results depict higher GGs in the Red Sea and vary between
38 and 81 °C/km, while in the onshore regions with values between 26
and 50 °C/km. The subsequent HF map (Fig. 11) is characterized by
high values along the depression. The HF map has higher values along
the RSR AxT which is supported by the close agreement with high GGs.
4.5. Basement depth estimation using source parameter imaging technique
The local wavenumber or source parameter imaging (SPI) approach
was applied to the gravity data using a grid-spacing of 1000 m to esti-
mate the depth to the basement rocks. The theory behind this technique
was discussed by several authors (e.g. Thurston and Smith, 1997; Smith
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et al., 1998 and Bello et al., 2017). The SPI depth map is given in Fig.
(13), with the pink areas indicating the shallowest parts and the blue
areas highlighting the deep laying basement complex. The depth solu-
tions along RSR range from 1000 m to 5000 m. On the other hand, the
coastal areas of continental crust (the African and Arabian plates) the
depth to the basement is shallow as expected on the edge of the conti-
nental rift. Towards the stretched continental margin, the asymmetric
intermittent spikes (represented by the yellow, magenta, green and or-
ange colors) highlight shallow seated basement rocks or intrusion activ-
ity. Further to the central zone of the RS, long spikes (represented by
blue color) correspond to the rift axis and well correlated with the area
of deepest bathymetry (Fig. 5).
4.6. Comparison of bathymetry, gravity, magnetic and heat flow
To further interpret the structural pattern of the RSR, seventeen pro-
files of bathymetry, gravity, magnetics, and HF were constructed per-
pendicular to the main trough (Fig. 5) and can be classified into three
different sets. The first and second sets (P1 through P4 and aa’ through
cc’, respectively) were used to examine the deeps and inter-trough re-
gions (Figs. 13 and 14). Whereas, the third set (profiles 1 through 10)
was selected to focus on the northern part of RSR (Fig. 15).
Profile P1 (Fig. 13a) extends from Eritrea to Saudi Arabia. The ba-
thymetry shows that the depth to the main trough exceeds 500 m while
ranging from 1000 m to 1500 m within the AxT. The elevation of the
Arabo-Nubian Mountains along the western margin has a maximum el-
evation of about 1700 m but reaches 2500 m along the eastern margin.
The Bouguer gravity anomalies range from −50 mGal on the western
margin to +200 mGal along the AxT. The main trough has a maximum
Bouguer gravity anomaly between 150 and 200 mGal. The magnetic
field varies from about −60 nT along the eastern margin to +20 nT
within the offshore parts. Three anomalies mark the main trough. The
HF values indicate that the high values are located within the AxT and
decrease gradually to both margins.
Profile P2 (Fig. 13b) indicates that the bathymetry has a depths
ranging from 1000 to 2800 m within the AxT. The Arabian-Nubian
S.A. Saada et al.
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Fig. 17. Crustal 2D gravity model along profile P4.
shield on both sides has high elevations ranging from 1000 to 1500 m
(a.s.l) at the western and the eastern sides, respectively. The Bouguer
gravity anomalies range from zero mGal on the eastern margin to more
than 250 mGal along the AxT. The magnetic anomalies varies from
EC
about −120nT within the main trough to +110 nT in the eastern mar-
gin. The HF curve shows high values (110–130 mW/m2) within the AxT
and decreases towards the margins.
Profile P3 (Fig. 13c) indicates a narrow AxT (about 10 km width)
that is associated with a high Bouguer gravity anomaly (about 250
mGal). The main trough has a high HF (140 mW/m2). Profile P4 (Fig.
13d) lies within the northern RSR and spans a distance of 410 km from
RR
Egypt to Saudi Arabia. It shows an axial depth of about 2400 m. The
AxT is located near to the eastern coast of the RSR. The gravity, mag-
netic and HF values exhibit the same patterns as Fig. 13a and b.
To examine the nature of the RSR in those areas with no AxT, three
profiles (Fig. 14a, b, and c) were constructed. These profiles exhibit
high gravity values low magnetic anomalies along the center of the
CO
RSR. The main trough along these profiles has also high HF values.
To further examine the northern portion of the RSR, ten profiles
(Fig. 15) were constructed perpendicular to the main trough. These pro-
files indicate that the main trough has depths ranges from 1250 m (Pro-
file 10) to 2250 m (Profile P4). The maximum gravity values are not al-
ways within the main trough (e.g., profiles 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) but show
positive gravity anomalies on both sides of the main trough. The depth
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and the width of the northern RSR reveal different values and there is
no definite pattern from one profile to another. The magnetic field
along these profiles exhibits a different anomaly pattern from one pro-
file to another. Occasionally, the gravitational field can be correlated
with high magnetic anomalies within the AxT (Profile 1) but in other
parts, the anomalies have low gravity values.
4.7. Gravity modelling
To further determine the crustal structure across the RSR, four 2D
gravity models were constructed along profiles P2, P4, aa, and cc (Figs.
16–19) using the GM-SYS modelling software (Geosoft™). The models
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were constructed using constraints from seismic refraction, reflection
and receiver function models (Mooney et al., 1985; Voggenreiter et al.,
1988; Hansen et al., 2007; Prutkin and Saleh, 2009; Hosny and
Nyblade, 2014). Model P2 (Fig. 16) crosses the central RSR and has
high amplitude gravity anomalies (up to 261 mGal) with the gravity
values increasing towards the central part. The model indicates a rela-
tively low-density portion (ρ = 3120 kg/m3) that is interpreted as up-
welling asthenosphere. This density is equivalent to a seismic velocity
of 7.5 km/s that was found along the AxT (Gaulier et al., 1988). Saleh et
al. (2006) indicated that this body appears to cover large portions of the
central Red Sea AxT. The high-density layer (oceanic crust) of density
3050 kg/m3 was modeled above the upwelling magma in the axial part.
The sedimentary sequence is thin along the axial area but becomes
thicker toward the continental shelf areas. The thickness of the crust de-
creases gradually towards the central part and decreases sharply close
to the AxT. Both the upper and lower crust disappeared at the edges of
the AxT and is characterized by high amplitude gravity gradient.
Model P4 (Fig. 17) is modeled by the same low-density upwelling
magma (ρ = 3120 kg/m3) as seen on model P2 (Fig. 16). It has a small
region of oceanic crust under the AxT. The depth to both the lower and
upper crust increases abruptly at the edges of the central axis and grad-
ually increases towards both margins. The upper and lower crusts, as
well as the upper mantle, are intersected by the upwelling magma dis-
similar to model P2 (Fig. 16) where they both become thinner at the
AxT. The sedimentary layer like model P2 (Fig. 16) is thinnest at the
AxT and becomes thicker toward the continental margins.
Model aa’ (Fig. 18) also has upwelling magma beneath the main
trough. However, an oceanic crust was not required in the model. The
depth to upper mantle ranges from 23 to 31 km. The model has intru-
sive rocks from the asthenosphere in the central portions and the conti-
nental crust is thicker than that of model P4 (Fig. 17). Unlike models P2
and P4, the sedimentary layers have a maximum thickness at the AxT
area and become thinner towards the coastal areas.
Gravity model cc’ (Fig. 19) is similar to model aa’ (Fig. 18) in which
it has no oceanic crust but has deeper depths to the upper mantle which
ranges from 34 to 28 km. The intrusive rocks of the asthenosphere were
S.A. Saada et al.
TE
Fig. 18. Crustal 2D gravity model along profile aa’.
EC
modeled in the central-western parts. Parallel to profile aa’, the conti-
nental crust is has a minimum thickness in the central parts of about
14 km. The sedimentary rocks increase in thickness toward the AxT and
become thinner towards the rift margins.
5. Discussion
RR
The above analysis of bathymetry, gravity and magnetic data pro-
vided constraints on the tectonic styles along the RSR. Bathymetry pro-
files P1 through P4 (Fig. 13) indicate that the AxT has a small scale
ridge within the central trough. The calculation of the HF from the CDP
analysis indicates that the maximum HF values occur within the AxT.
However, these values seem to be low as compared to the measured val-
CO
ues (Cochran and Martinez, 1988). This observation can be explained
by the fact that the CPD only has one data point every 150 × 150 km
area. However, the HF results are consistent with studies by Saleh et al.
(2013), Saada (2016) and Saada and Kharbish (2019). In addition, the
results are consistent with the global HF map that was published by
Davies (2013) who indicated that the young ocean crust includes active
back-arc basins with a high HF.
UN
Profiles P1 through P4 (Fig. 13) show a gravity maxima and short
wavelength magnetic maxima anomaly pattern that are associated with
the AxT, while the minima are located on the sides. The distribution of
the RSR deeps parallel to the AxT can provide proof for seafloor spread-
ing along this part as they are also associated with high HF values.
Anderson et al. (1968) deduced that the low P-wave velocities and at-
tenuation of the P-waves under the AxT is due to partial melting at shal-
low depths. The regional gravity anomaly map (Fig. 6b) indicates a
gravity maximum along the AxT which is caused by shallow oceanic
crust and the partially molten material intruding less dense crust as val-
idated by models P2 and P4 (Figs. 16 and 17, respectively). Thus, the
partially melted region continues into the central region and a portion
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of the northern region of the RSR beneath the main trough. Mitchell
and Park (2014) indicate that the P-wave velocities (6.6–6.9 km/s) are
analogous to the measured velocities of unaltered gabbro which had
been detected from a deep refracting layer beneath Miocene evaporites.
The high amplitude residual gravity anomalies in the southern part
(Fig. 6c) is coincident with the AxT and interpreted to be caused by true
seafloor spreading with oceanic crust that occur coincident with short
wavelength magnetic anomalies, maximum depths along the axial de-
pression and high HF values (Fig. 13). Whereas, the central RSR is inter-
preted to be a transition zone where the oceanic crust is not continuous
due to the existence of inter-troughs and the width of the residual grav-
ity maximum (10–15 km) is smaller than that of the southern RSR
(20–40 km). The northern RSR can be interpreted as a second mag-
matic intrusion phase or the first stage of seafloor spreading due to the
existence of disseminated deeps that are associated with short wave-
length magnetic anomalies and the high amplitude residual gravity
anomalies. This interpretation is conformable with the study by Haase
et al. (2000) and Ligi et al. (2018) who proposed that the northern RSR
had a stretched and thinned continental crust intruded by MORB-
magma type. Additionally, the partially melted region under the Thetis
Deep (Fig. 1), which can be considered to be initial stage in the forma-
tion of oceanic crust support the interpretation. The lowering of the
magnetic anomaly amplitudes in this region can be related to the thick
evaporites over the RSR depression (Girdler and Styles, 1974). Our re-
sults indicate that the bathymetry of the northern RSR, especially
within the isolated deeps, shows uplifted ridges with about 200–400 m
height characterized by high frequency topography highs on deep pro-
files on P1–P4 (Fig. 13).
Positive gravity TDR values (Fig. 7a) may be interpreted as uplifted
blocks or intrusion of higher density material. The first interpretation is
not realistic due to the sharp escarpment that denotes the AxT (Figs. 5
and 12). There is a close agreement between anomaly patterns of the
S.A. Saada et al.
TE
Fig. 19. Crustal 2D gravity model along profile cc’.
residual gravity anomaly and tilt derivative (TDR and TDR + TDX)
maps (Figs. 6c and 7, respectively).
Two-dimensional gravity modelling indicates that the best fit be-
EC
tween the calculated and the observed gravity data as constrained by
seismic data can be explained by a true oceanic crust in the southern
RSR (profile P2) (Fig. 16). However, the deeps of the northern RSR can
be considered to be incipient seafloor spreading regions. This interpre-
tation is supported by the discrete normal faulting of the southern part
of RSR along the AxT parallel to bathymetric lineation and volcanism
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that is observed at other oceanic spreading centers (Gurvich, 2006). In
addition, Cochran (2005) and Ligi et al. (2012) indicated that oceanic
volcanic rocks crop out in the central deeps that are separated large
basins. Pautot et al. (1984) and Guennoc et al. (1988) reported that the
northern deeps are widely spaced and some contain basalt (e.g., Ban-
nock, Mabahiss and Shaban deeps). Essien et al. (1989) indicated that
the floor of the rift axis basically contains little to no sediments. In con-
CO
trast, the continental shelf has a thick sedimentary cover and character-
ized by the presence of normal faulting that forms step-like and uplifted
blocks.
6. Conclusions
Bathymetry, magnetic and gravity data were used to study the tec-
UN
tonic origin of the RSR. The integration of these data sets indicates that
the southern RSR is the site of seafloor spreading and it has a true
oceanic crust. This is supported by a wide width of a continuous AxT
that has short wavelength magnetic anomalies and a continuous intru-
sion and formation of high density rocks underneath the AxT.
The central part of the RSR is a transition zone composed mainly of
disconnected oceanic crust that contains a narrow strip of the AxT,
which has inter-trough topographic highs. The association of high fre-
quency magnetic maxima and minima combined with gravity maxima
along the AxT supports this interpretation. The regional gravity anom-
aly map indicates that high-density material underline the central part
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of the RSR depression which can be interpreted as a partially molten re-
gion intruding into lower density crustal material.
The northern RSR based on the analysis of bathymetry, gravity and
magnetic data is within the last stage of the rift-related magmatic intru-
sion or the first stage of the seafloor spreading where, oceanic rocks ex-
ist under the discontinuous deeps of the AxT. Continental crust still ex-
ists in the inter-trough zones but has been thinned and is undergoing
breaking due to rifting and the magma has been intruded through these
weak fault planes.
Authorship statement
All persons who meet authorship criteria are listed as authors, and
all authors certify that they have participated sufficiently in the work to
take public responsibility for the content, including participation in the
concept, design, analysis, writing, or revision of the manuscript. Fur-
thermore, each author certifies that this material or similar material has
not been and will not be submitted to or published in any other publica-
tion before its appearance in the Hong Kong Journal of Occupational
Therapy.
Conception and design of study: S.A. Saada, A. Ibrahim, K. Mickus,
A.M. Eldosouky, Acquisition of data: -Analysis and/or interpretation of
data: S.A. Saada, K. Mickus, A. Ibrahim, A.M. Eldosouky, Drafting the
manuscript: K. Mickus, S.A. Saada, A. Ibrahim, A.M. Eldosouky, Revis-
ing the manuscript critically for important intellectual content: S.A.
Saada, K. Mickus, A. Ibrahim, Approval of the version of the manuscript
to be published (the names of all authors must be listed): S.A. Saada, K.
Mickus, A. Ibrahim, A.M. Eldosouky.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
S.A. Saada et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (xxxx) 105253

7. Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank BGI for providing the WGM 2012
gravity data as well as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration (NOAA) for providing the most recent EMAG2-V3 magnetic
data. The authors also are grateful to the Associate Editor Jonathan
Craig and the anonymous reviewers whose thorough critical and con-
structive comments have greatly improved our manuscript.

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Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2021.105253.

Table 1

O
Results of estimating CDP, geothermal gradient (GG) and heat flow (HF) for each squared area
Area No Zt (km) Z0 (km) CDP (Zb) GG HF

1 6.10 7.79 9 58 168

PR
2 6.87 8.17 9 58 168
3 5.97 8.40 11 51 148
4 6.73 7.95 9 60 174
5 6.03 9.93 14 40 116
6 5.30 9.28 13 41 119
7 5.15 8.13 11 49 142
8 5.62 8.80 12 46 133
9 6.07 8.75 11 48 139
10 5.92 9.03 12 45 131

D
11 6.52 9.27 12 46 133
12 6.68 8.32 10 55 160
13 5.69 9.73 14 40 116
14 7.03 7.70 8 66 191
TE
15 5.60 9.58 14 41 119
16 5.61 9.71 14 40 116
17 4.82 9.81 15 37 107
18 6.26 9.09 12 46 133
19 6.96 7.70 8 65 189
20 6.63 8.03 9 58 168
21 5.17 7.48 10 56 162
EC

22 6.32 8.92 12 48 139

23 4.38 8.11 12 46 133
24 4.31 7.76 11 49 142
25 3.94 8.91 14 40 116
26 4.12 8.69 13 42 122
27 8.58 7.66 7 82 238
28 4.06 9.23 14 38 110
RR

29 4.82 7.62 10 53 154

30 4.69 8.38 12 46 133
31 3.85 9.70 16 35 102
32 4.43 7.86 11 49 142
33 4.32 8.53 13 43 125
34 3.51 7.90 12 45 131
35 4.83 6.73 9 64 186
36 3.92 7.08 10 54 157
CO

37 4.61 7.59 11 52 151

38 4.98 8.58 12 45 131
39 4.45 7.67 11 51 148
40 4.92 7.66 10 53 154
41 6.16 7.02 8 70 203
42 5.32 7.52 10 57 165
43 4.46 8.19 12 46 133
44 4.18 8.64 13 42 122
UN

45 4.43 9.66 15 37 107

46 3.97 8.45 13 43 125
47 4.94 7.42 10 56 162
48 5.00 7.47 10 55 160
49 3.80 8.84 14 40 116
50 3.89 8.62 13 41 119
51 3.27 9.29 15 36 104
52 4.61 8.64 13 43 125
53 3.98 7.95 12 46 133
54 4.64 7.31 10 55 160
55 3.86 7.81 12 47 136
56 3.53 8.55 14 41 119
57 3.90 9.90 16 35 102

19
S.A. Saada et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (xxxx) 105253

Area No Zt (km) Z0 (km) CDP (Zb) GG HF

58 3.97 8.76 14 41 119

59 4.89 6.94 9 61 177
60 4.60 6.69 9 63 183
61 5.89 7.79 10 57 165
62 4.61 8.75 13 43 125
63 5.93 8.16 10 53 154

OF
64 4.86 7.29 10 57 165
65 5.11 7.02 9 62 180
66 4.13 6.05 8 69 200
67 5.26 7.88 11 52 151
68 3.28 9.25 15 36 104
69 3.15 8.66 14 39 113
70 3.17 8.43 14 40 116

O
71 3.67 8.79 14 40 116
72 4.03 8.26 12 44 128
73 4.43 8.33 12 45 131
74 4.94 7.39 10 56 162
75 4.33 6.45 9 64 186

PR
76 4.17 6.37 9 64 186
77 4.99 7.60 10 54 157
78 4.35 9.59 15 37 107
79 3.60 10.41 17 32 93
80 4.13 9.01 14 40 116
81 4.70 7.53 10 53 154
82 5.22 8.01 11 51 148
83 4.13 7.81 11 48 139
84 5.69 8.48 11 49 142

D
85 4.41 7.40 10 53 154
86 5.02 8.48 12 46 133
87 3.33 10.43 18 31 90
88 3.21 10.80 18 30 87
TE
89 3.73 9.34 15 37 107
90 4.70 8.18 12 47 136
91 4.29 7.89 11 48 139
92 4.16 7.79 11 48 139
93 4.52 7.71 11 50 145
94 4.27 7.86 11 48 139
95 4.52 9.37 14 39 113
EC

96 3.44 10.26 17 32 93
97 3.52 10.30 17 32 93
98 4.21 8.44 13 43 125
99 4.33 7.69 11 50 145
100 3.70 7.73 12 47 136
101 4.39 7.76 11 49 142
102 3.81 7.99 12 45 131
RR

103 2.90 10.67 18 30 87

104 3.16 9.97 17 33 96
105 3.55 10.07 17 33 96
106 3.07 10.07 17 32 93
107 5.00 7.65 10 53 154
108 4.38 7.33 10 53 154
109 4.64 6.92 9 60 174
110 5.51 7.58 10 57 165
CO

111 4.04 6.81 10 57 165

112 3.26 10.11 17 32 93
113 3.08 11.06 19 29 84
114 3.52 10.45 17 32 93
115 3.31 10.52 18 31 90
116 4.03 8.26 12 44 128
117 5.38 8.31 11 49 142
118 4.33 7.87 11 48 139
UN

119 4.29 8.06 12 47 136

120 3.54 8.20 13 43 125
121 2.53 11.65 21 26 75
122 3.31 10.50 18 31 90
123 3.07 10.92 19 29 84
124 3.18 10.62 18 30 87
125 4.76 8.12 11 48 139
126 4.08 9.53 15 37 107
127 4.16 8.19 12 45 131
128 4.14 8.95 14 40 116
129 4.26 7.48 11 51 148
130 5.27 7.97 11 52 151
131 4.06 7.70 11 49 142
132 4.69 7.49 10 53 154

20
S.A. Saada et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (xxxx) 105253

Area No Zt (km) Z0 (km) CDP (Zb) GG HF

133 3.34 9.96 17 33 96

134 4.93 9.30 14 40 116
135 4.71 7.78 11 51 148
136 4.46 9.00 14 41 119
137 5.16 8.59 12 46 133
138 5.47 7.82 10 54 157

OF
139 3.95 6.90 10 56 162
140 4.78 7.81 11 51 148
141 4.37 8.40 12 44 128
142 3.76 9.20 15 38 110
143 5.44 7.67 10 55 160
144 6.49 8.69 11 50 145
145 4.97 7.59 10 54 157

O
146 5.26 7.83 10 53 154
147 4.81 8.21 12 47 136
148 5.62 7.69 10 56 162
149 4.63 7.66 11 51 148
150 4.58 9.29 14 39 113

PR
151 3.57 10.11 17 33 96
152 4.43 8.11 12 47 136
153 5.32 7.64 10 55 160
154 6.45 8.72 11 50 145
155 5.98 8.05 10 54 157
156 5.48 7.80 10 54 157
157 4.90 8.13 11 48 139
158 4.25 8.55 13 43 125
159 4.01 9.61 15 36 104

D
160 3.73 9.10 14 38 110
161 5.20 7.64 10 55 160
162 4.73 8.60 12 44 128
163 6.43 7.80 9 60 174
TE
164 4.76 6.25 8 71 206
165 5.85 7.55 9 59 171
166 4.23 8.43 13 44 128
167 3.90 9.77 16 35 102
168 3.64 10.13 17 33 96
169 3.56 9.90 16 34 99
170 6.25 8.59 11 50 145
EC

171 5.93 7.67 9 58 168

172 6.14 6.71 7 75 218
173 5.33 7.46 10 57 165
174 5.15 7.87 11 52 151
175 4.89 8.65 12 44 128
176 4.83 8.89 13 42 122
177 4.52 9.78 15 37 107
RR

178 5.27 9.67 14 39 113

179 5.23 7.93 11 52 151
180 7.45 9.15 11 51 148
181 7.06 9.34 12 47 136
182 6.38 7.44 9 65 189
183 6.26 6.98 8 71 206
184 5.96 8.14 10 53 154
185 5.14 8.13 11 50 145
CO

186 4.63 8.98 13 41 119

187 4.74 9.48 14 39 113
188 5.14 8.07 11 50 145
189 5.78 8.06 10 53 154
190 6.00 8.06 10 54 157
191 6.37 7.37 8 66 191
192 6.38 7.25 8 68 197
193 5.20 7.49 10 56 162
UN

194 4.21 8.87 14 41 119

195 4.55 9.18 14 40 116
196 4.58 10.04 15 35 102
197 7.17 9.37 12 48 139
198 6.55 9.42 12 45 131
199 6.29 7.62 9 61 177
200 6.18 9.34 13 44 128
201 5.99 9.61 13 42 122
202 4.69 9.29 14 40 116
203 4.75 9.17 14 41 119
204 5.37 10.17 15 37 107
205 5.07 10.23 15 36 104
206 6.98 9.14 11 49 142
207 6.61 8.93 11 49 142

21
S.A. Saada et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (xxxx) 105253

Area No Zt (km) Z0 (km) CDP (Zb) GG HF

208 6.13 8.27 10 53 154

209 6.30 9.76 13 42 122
210 6.05 9.94 14 40 116
211 5.66 11.04 16 34 99
212 5.31 10.44 16 35 102
213 5.77 9.24 13 43 125

OF
214 5.63 8.73 12 46 133
215 5.43 8.27 11 50 145
216 6.51 8.51 11 52 151
217 6.16 9.88 14 40 116
218 6.08 9.66 13 42 122
219 5.92 9.94 14 39 113
220 6.53 8.88 11 49 142

O
221 4.94 10.18 15 36 104
222 6.24 9.81 13 41 119
223 5.49 7.69 10 56 162
224 6.10 8.32 11 52 151
225 6.35 9.06 12 47 136

PR
226 4.93 11.11 17 32 93
227 5.69 10.08 14 38 110
Minimum 7 26 75
Maximum 21 82 238
Average 12.25 47 136

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