Particle and

Nuclear Physics

Handout #1

Introduction
Problem Sheets
Appendices

Lent/Easter Terms 2022

Prof. Tina Potter
 1. Introduction
Particle and Nuclear Physics

Prof. Tina Potter

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 1

In this section...

Course content
Practical information
Matter
Forces

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 2

 Course content
These lectures will cover the core topics of Particle and Nuclear physics.
Particle Physics is the study of Nuclear Physics is the study of
Matter: Elementary particles Matter: Complex nuclei
(protons & neutrons)
Forces: Basic forces in nature
Electroweak (EM & weak) Forces: Strong “nuclear” force
Strong (underlying strong force)
+ weak & EM decays
Current understanding is embodied
in the Complex many-body problem,
Standard Model requires semi-empirical approach.
which successfully describes all
current data∗. Many models of Nuclear Physics.
Historically, Nuclear Physics preceded and led to Particle Physics.
Our course will discuss Particle Physics first, and then Nuclear Physics.
∗
with some interesting exceptions!
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 3

Practical information
Website holds course information, notes, appendices and problem sheets
www.hep.phy.cam.ac.uk/~chpotter/particleandnuclearphysics/mainpage.html

Books
Introduction to High Energy Physics, Perkins
Introductory Nuclear Physics, Krane

Lecturing material provided as three handouts.

Lectures will cover additional examples – please attend!!
Problem sets in 4 parts
Part 1: Chapter 1-2
Part 2: Chapter 3-8
Part 3: Chapter 9-12
Part 4: Chapter 13-16

My availability: before/after lectures, via email (cp594@cam.ac.uk), in-person chats are

always welcome

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 4

 Zooming into matter
Atom Binding energy ∼ Rydberg ∼ 10 eV
Electrons bound to atoms by EM force
Size: Atom ∼ 10−10m, e − < 10−19m
Charge: Atom is neutral, electron −e
Mass: Atom mass ∼ nucleus, me = 0.511MeV /c 2
Chemical properties depend of Atomic Number, Z

Nucleus Binding energy ∼ 10 MeV/nucleon

Nuclei held together by strong “nuclear” force
Size: Nucleus (medium Z ) ∼ 5 fm (1 fm= 10−15 m)

Nucleon Binding energy ∼ 1 GeV

Protons & neutrons held together by the strong force
Size: p, n ∼ 1 fm
Charge: proton +e, neutron is neutral
Mass: p, n = 939.57 MeV/c 2 ∼ 1836 me

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 5

Matter
1
In the Standard Model, all matter is made of spin 2 fundamental particles.
There are two types, each with 3 generations:

Consequence of relativity and quantum mechanics (Dirac equation)

Antiparticle for every existing particle: identical mass, spin, energy,
momentum, but has the opposite sign of interaction (e.g. electric charge).
Particles and antiparticles
electron e − & positron e +
up quark u (Q = + 23 ) & antiup ū (Q = − 23 )
proton udu & antiproton ū d¯ū
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 6
 Matter The first generation
Almost all the matter in the universe is made up from just four of the fermions.

Particle Symbol Type Charge [e]

Electron e− lepton −1
Neutrino νe lepton 0
Up quark u quark + 23
Down quark d quark − 13

The proton and neutron are simply the lowest energy bound states of a system
of three quarks: essentially all an atomic or nuclear physicist needs.

Proton Neutron
(p) (n)

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 7

Matter Three generations

Nature is not so simple.
There are 3 generations/families of fundamental fermions (and only 3).
1st generation 2nd generation 3rd generation

Electron e − Muon µ− Tau τ−

Electron Neutrino νe Muon Neutrino νµ Tau Neutrino ντ
Up quark u Charm quark c Top quark t
Down quark d Strange quark s Bottom quark b

Each generation is a replica of (e −, νe , u, d ).

The mass of the particles increases with each generation:
the first generation is lightest and the third generation is the heaviest.
The generations are distinct
i.e. µ is not an excited e, or µ− → e −γ would be allowed – this is not seen.
There is a symmetry between the generations,
but the origin of 3 generations is not understood!
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 8
 Matter Leptons

Leptons are fermions which do not interact via the strong interaction.
Flavour Charge [e] Mass Strong Weak EM
1st generation
Spin 12 fermions
e− −1 0.511 MeV/c 2 7 3 3
νe 0 < 2 eV/c 2 7 3 7 6 distinct flavours
2nd generation 3 charged leptons: e −, µ−, τ −.
µ− −1 105.7 MeV/c 2 7 3 3 3 neutral leptons: νe , νµ, ντ .
νµ 0 < 0.19 MeV/c 2 7 3 7 Antimatter particles e +, ν¯e etc
3rd generation e is stable,
τ− −1 1777.0 MeV/c 2 7 3 3 µ and τ are unstable.
ντ 0 < 18.2 MeV/c 2 7 3 7

Neutrinos are stable and almost massless. Only know limits on ν masses, but have
measured mass differences to be < 1 eV/c 2. Not completely true, see later...
Charged leptons experience only the electromagnetic & weak forces.
Neutrinos experience only the weak force.

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 9

Matter Quarks

Quarks experience all the forces (strong, electromagnetic, weak).

Flavour Charge [e] Mass Strong Weak EM

1st generation Spin 12 fermions

u + 23 2.3 MeV/c 2 3 3 3 6 distinct flavours
d − 13 4.8 MeV/c 2 3 3 3 Fractional charge leptons:
2nd generation      2 
u c t +3
c + 23 1.3 GeV/c 2 3 3 3
d s b − 31
s − 13 95 MeV/c 2 3 3 3
Antiquarks ū, d¯ etc
3rd generation
t + 23 173 GeV/c 2 3 3 3 Quarks are confined within hadrons,
b − 13 4.7 GeV/c 2 3 3 3 e.g. p=(uud ), π +=(u d¯)

Quarks come in three colours (colour charge) Red, Green, Blue.

Colour is a label for the charge of the strong interaction.
Unlike the electric charge (+−), the strong charge has three orthogonal colours (RGB).

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 10

 Matter Hadrons

Single, free quarks have never been observed. They are always confined in
bound states called hadrons.
Macroscopically, hadrons behave as almost point-like composite particles.
Hadrons have two types:
Mesons (q q̄): Bound states of a quark and an antiquark.
Mesons have integer spin 0, 1, 2... bosons.
e.g. π + ≡ (u d¯), charge = (+ 32 + + 13 )e = +1e
π − ≡ (ūd ), charge = (− 23 + − 13 )e = −1e; antiparticle of π +
√
π 0 ≡ (u ū − d d¯)/ 2, charge = 0; is its own antiparticle.
Baryons (qqq): Bound states of three quarks.
Baryons have half-integer spin 12 , 32 ... fermions.
e.g. p ≡ (udu), charge = (+ 32 + − 13 + + 23 )e = +1e
n ≡ (dud ), charge = (− 13 + + 23 + − 13 )e = 0
Antibaryons e.g. p̄ ≡ (ū d¯ū), n̄ ≡ (d¯ū d¯)

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 11

Matter Nuclei

A nucleus is a bound state of Z protons and N neutrons.

Protons and neutrons are generically referred to as nucleons.
A (mass number) = Z (atomic number) + N (neutron number).
A nuclide is a specific nucleus, characterised by Z , N.

Notation: Nuclide AZ X.
e.g. 11H or p: Z =1, N=0, A=1
2
1H or d : Z =1, N=1, A=2
4
2He or α: Z =2, N=2, A=4
208
82 Pb: Z =82, N=126, A=208

In principle, antinuclei and antiatoms can be made from antiprotons,

antineutrons and positrons – experimentally challenging!

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 12

 Matter The Periodic Table
Periodic table classifies elements according to their chemical properties.

Only hydrogen, helium and lithium were formed in the Big Bang.
All other elements are formed in stars.
Natural elements, H(Z =1) to U(Z =92).
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 13

Matter Chart of the nuclides

Many more
nuclides
than
elements.

Colour
coded
according
to decay
mode.

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 14

 Forces Classical Picture

A force is ’something’ which pushes matter around and causes objects to

change their motion.
In classical physics, the electromagnetic forces arise via action at a distance
through the electric and magnetic fields, E~ and B.~

~ q1q2~r
F = 2
r
Newton: “...that one body should act upon another at a distance, through a vacuum,
without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their force may be conveyed
from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity that I believe no man who has, in
philosophical matters, a competent faculty of thinking, can ever fall into it. Gravity must be
caused by an agent, acting constantly according to certain laws, but whether this agent be
material or immaterial, I leave to the consideration of my reader.”

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 15

Forces Quantum Mechanics

Matter particles are quantised in QM, and the electromagnetic field should also
be quantised (as photons).
Forces arise through the exchange of virtual field quanta called Gauge
Bosons.
This process is called
“second quantisation”.

This process violates energy/momentum conservation (more later).

However, this is permissible for sufficiently short times owing to the
Uncertainty Principle
The exchanged particle is “virtual” – meaning it doesn’t satisfy
E 2 = p 2c 2 + m2c 4.
Uncertainty principle: ∆E ∆t ∼ ~ ⇒ range R ∼ c∆t ∼ ~c/∆E
i.e. larger energy transfer (larger force) ↔ smaller range.
Prob(emission of a quantum)∝ q1, Prob(absorption of a quanta)∝ q2
Coulomb’s law can be regarded as the resultant effect of all virtual exchanges.
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 16
 Forces The four forces

All known particle interactions can be explained by four fundamental forces.

Carried by the gluon. Carried by the W and

Holds atomic nuclei Z bosons. Responsible
together. for radioactive decay.

Carried by the photon. Carried by the graviton.

Acts between charged Acts between massive
particles. particles.

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 17

Forces Gauge bosons

Gauge bosons mediate the fundamental forces

Spin 1 particles i.e. Vector Bosons
Interact in a similar way with all fermion generations
The exact way in which the Gauge Bosons interact with each type of
lepton or quark determines the nature of the fundamental forces.
This defines the Standard Model.
Force Boson Spin Strength Mass
Strong 8 gluons g 1 1 massless
Electromagnetic photon γ 1 10−2 massless
Weak W and Z W , W −, Z
+
1 10−7 80, 91 GeV
Gravity graviton ? 2 10−39 massless

Gravity is not included in the Standard Model. The others are.

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 18

 Forces Range of forces
The maximum range of a force is inversely related to the mass of the
exchanged bosons.

∆E ∆t ∼ ~, E = mc 2
~ ~c ~
⇒ mc 2 ∼ ∼ ⇒r ∼
∆t r mc

Force Range [m]

Strong inf
Strong (nuclear) 10−15
Electromagnetic inf
Weak 10−18
Gravity inf

Due to quark confinement, nucleons start to experience the strong interaction

at ∼2 fm.
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 19

Summary

Particle vs nuclear physics

Matter: generations, quarks, leptons, hadrons, nuclei
Forces: classical vs QM, fundamental forces, gauge bosons, range

Up next...
Section 2: Kinematics, Decays and Reactions.

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 20

Glossary
Strong force - force which binds quarks into hadrons; mediated by gluons.
Electromagnetic Force - force between charged particles, mediated by photons.
Weak force - force responsible for β-decay. Mediated by W and Z bosons.
Gauge boson - particle which mediates a force.
Lepton - fermion which does not feel the strong interaction.
Neutrino - uncharged lepton which experiences only weak interactions.
Quark - fundamental fermion which experiences all forces.
Hadron - bound state of quarks and/or antiquarks.
Baryon - hadron formed from three quarks.
Meson - hadron formed from quark+antiquark.
Generations/Families - three replicas of the fundamental fermions.
Nucleus - massive bound state of neutrons and protons at centre of an atom.
Strong nuclear force - strong force between nucleons which binds atomic nucleus. Mediated by mesons,
such as the pion.
Nucleon - proton or neutron.
Nuclide - specific nuclear species with N neutrons and Z protons.
Mass number - total number of nucleons in nucleus, A.
Atomic Number - number of protons in nucleus, Z .
Neutron Number - number of neutrons in nucleus, N.
Isobars - nuclides with the same Mass Number A.
Isotopes - nuclides with the same Atomic Number Z .
Isotones - nuclides with the same Neutron Number N.
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 21
 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions
Particle and Nuclear Physics

Prof. Tina Potter

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 1

In this section...

Natural units
Symmetries and conservation laws
Relativistic kinematics
Particle properties
Decays
Cross-sections
Scattering
Resonances

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 2

 Units
The usual practice in particle and nuclear physics is to use Natural Units.
Energies are measured in units of eV:
Nuclear keV(103 eV), MeV(106 eV)
Particle GeV(109 eV), TeV(1012 eV)
Masses are quoted in units of MeV/c 2 or GeV/c 2 (using E = mc 2)
e.g. electron mass me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg = (9.11 × 10−31)(3 × 108)2 J/c 2
= 8.20 × 10−14/1.602 × 19−19 eV/c 2 = 5.11 × 105 eV/c 2 = 0.511 MeV/c 2

Atomic/nuclear masses are often quoted in unified (or atomic) mass units
1 unified mass unit (u) = (mass of a 12
6 C atom) / 12
1 u = 1 g/NA = 1.66 × 10−27kg = 931.5 MeV/c 2

Cross-sections are usually quoted in barns: 1b = 10−28 m2.

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 3

Units Natural Units

Choose energy as the basic ...and simplify by

unit of measurement... choosing ~ = c = 1

Energy GeV GeV

Momentum GeV/c GeV
Mass GeV/c 2 GeV
Time ( GeV/~)−1 GeV−1
Length ( GeV/~c)−1 GeV−1
Cross-section ( GeV/~c)−2 GeV−2

Reintroduce “missing” factors of ~ and c to convert back to SI units.

~c = 0.197 GeV fm = 1 Energy ←→ Length
~ = 6.6 × 10−25 GeV s = 1 Energy ←→ Time
c = 3.0 × 108 ms−1 = 1 Length ←→ Time

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 4

 Units Examples
1 cross-section σ = 2 × 10−6 GeV−2 change into standard units
Need to change units of energy to length. Use ~c = 0.197 GeVfm = 1.
GeV−1 = 0.197 fm
σ = 2 × 10−6 × (3.89 × 10−32 m2) GeV−1 = 0.197 × 10−15 m
= 7.76 × 10−38 m2 GeV−2 = 3.89 × 10−32 m2
And using 1 b = 10−28 m2, σ = 0.776 nb

2 lifetime τ = 1/Γ = 0.5 GeV−1 change into standard units

Need to change units of energy−1 to time. Use ~ = 6.6 × 10−25 GeV s = 1.
GeV−1 = 6.6 × 10−25 s
τ = 0.5 × (6.6 × 10−25 s) = 3.3 × 10−25 s

Also, can have Natural Units involving electric charge: 0 = µ0 = ~ = c = 1

3 Fine structure constant (dimensionless)
2
1 e2 1
α = 4πe0~c ∼ 137 becomes α = 4π ∼ 137 i.e. e ∼ 0.30(n.u.)
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 5

Symmetries and conservation laws

The most elegant and powerful idea in physics
Noether’s theorem:
every differentiable symmetry of the action of a
physical system has a corresponding conservation law.

Symmetry Conserved current

Time, t Energy, E
Translational, x Linear momentum, p
Rotational, θ Angular momentum, L
Probability Total probability always 1
Lorentz invariance Charge Parity Time (CPT)
Gauge charge (e.g. electric, colour, weak)

Lorentz invariance: laws of physics stay the same for all frames moving with a uniform velocity.
Gauge invariance: observable quantities unchanged (charge, E , v ) when a field is transformed.
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 6
 Relativistic Kinematics Special Relativity

Nuclear reactions
Low energy, typically K.E. O(10 MeV)  nucleon rest energies.
⇒ non-relativistic formulae ok
Exception: always treat β-decay relativistically
(me ∼ 0.5 MeV < 1.3 MeV ∼ mn − mp )

Particle physics
High energy, typically K.E. O(100 GeV)  rest mass energies.
⇒ relativistic formulae usually essential.

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 7

Relativistic Kinematics Special Relativity

Recall the energy E and momentum p of a particle with mass m

E = γm, |~
p | = γβm 1 v
γ=p , β= =v
1 − β2 c
E |~
p|
or γ= , β= and these are related by E 2 = p
~ 2 + m2
m E

Interesting cases
when a particle is at rest, p~ = 0, E = m,
when a particle is massless, m = 0, E = |~ p |,
when a particle is ultra-relativistic E  m, E ∼ |~
p |.
Kinetic energy (K.E., or T ) is the extra energy due to motion
T = E − m = (γ − 1)m
in the non-relativistic limit β  1, T = 21 mv 2

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 8

 Relativistic Kinematics Four-Vectors
The kinematics of a particle can be expressed as a four-vector, e.g.
p ), p µ = (E , p~)
pµ = (E , −~ and xµ = (t, −~x ), x µ = (t, ~x )
  µ:0→3
multiply by a metric tensor to raise/lower indices 1 0 0 0
 0 −1 0 0 
pµ = gµv p v , p µ = g µv pv gµv = g µv = 
0 0 −1 0 


0 0 0 −1

~ B µ = (B 0, B)
Scalar product of two four-vectors Aµ = (A0, A), ~ is invariant:

AµBµ = A.B = A0B 0 − A. ~B ~

X X
or p µpµ = p µgµv p v = p µgµv p v = g00p02 + g11p12 + g22p22 + g33p32
µ=0,3 v =0,3
2 2 2
= E − |~
p| = m invariant mass
(t, ~x ) and (E , p~) transform between frames of reference, but
d 2 = t 2 − ~x 2 Invariant interval is constant
m2 = E 2 − p~2 Invariant mass is constant
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 9

Relativistic Kinematics Invariant Mass

A common technique to identify particles is to form the invariant mass from
their decay products.
Remember, for a single particle m2 = E 2 − p~2.
For a system of particles, where X → 1 + 2 + 3...n:
n
!2 n
!2
X X
MX2 = ((E1, p~1) + (E2, p~2) + ...)2 = Ei − p~i
i=1 i=1

In the specific (and common) case of a two-body

decay, X → 1 + 2, this reduces to
MX2 = m12 + m22 + 2 (E1E2 − |~
p1||~
p2| cos θ)

n.b. sometimes invariant mass M is called “centre-of-mass

√
energy” ECM , or s

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 10

 Relativistic Kinematics Decay Example
Consider a charged pion decaying at rest in the lab frame π − → µ−ν̄µ
Find the momenta of the decay products

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 11

How do we study particles and forces?

Static Properties
What particles/states exist?
Mass, spin and parity (J P ), magnetic moments, bound states
Particle Decays
Most particles and nuclei are unstable.
Allowed/forbidden decays → Conservation Laws.
Particle Scattering
Direct production of new massive particles in matter-antimatter
annihilation.
Study of particle interaction cross-sections.
Use high-energies to study forces at short distances.
Force Typical Lifetime [s] Typical cross-section [mb]
Strong 10−23 10
Electromagnetic 10−20 10−2
Weak 10−8 10−13

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 12

 Particle Decays Reminder
Most particles are transient states – only a few live forever (e −, p, ν, γ...).
Number of particles remaining at time t
N(t) = N(0)p(t) = N(0)e−λt
where N(0) is the number at time t = 0.

Rate of decays dN
= −λN(0)e−λt = −λN(t)
dt
Assuming the nuclei only decay. More complicated if they are also being created.
 
 dN 
Activity A(t) =   = λN(t)
dt 
It’s rather common in nuclear physics to use the half-life (i.e. the time
over which 50% of the particles decay). In particle physics, we usually
quote the mean life. They are simply related:
N(0) ln 2
N(τ1/2) = = N(0)e−λτ1/2 ⇒ τ1/2 = = 0.693τ
2 λ
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 13

Particle Decays Multiple Particle Decay

Decay Chains frequently occur in nuclear physics
N1 λ 1 N2 λ N3 − ...
→
− −2
→ →
Parent Daughter Granddaughter
235
e.g. U → 231Th → 231Pa
τ1/2(235U) = 7.1 × 108 years
τ1/2(231Th) = 26 hours
Activity (i.e. rate of decay) of the daughter is λ2N2(t).
Rate of change of population of the daughter
dN2(t)
= λ1N1(t) − λ2N2(t)
dt
Units of Radioactivity are defined as the number of decays per unit time.
Becquerel (Bq) = 1 decay per second
Curie (Ci) = 3.7 × 1010 decays per second.
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 14
 Particle Decays

A decay is the transition from one quantum state (initial state) to another
(final or daughter).
The transition rate is given by Fermi’s Golden Rule:

Γ(i → f ) = λ = 2π |Mfi |2 ρ(Ef ) ~=1

where λ is the number of transitions per unit time

Mfi is the transition matrix element
ρ(Ef ) is the density of final states.
⇒ λ dt is the (constant) probability a particle will decay in time dt.

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 15

Particle Decays Single Particle Decay

Let p(t) be the probability that a particle still exists at time t, given that it
was known to exist at t = 0.
Probability for particle decay in the next time interval dt is = p(t)λ dt
Probability that particle survives the next is = p(t + dt) = p(t)(1 − λ dt)
dp
p(t)(1 − λ dt) = p(t + dt) = p(t) + dt
dt
dp
= −p(t)λ
dt
Z p Z t
dp
=− λ dt
1 p 0

⇒ p(t) = e−λt Exponential Decay Law

Probability that a particle lives until time t and then decays in time dt is
p(t)λ dt = λe−λt dt
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 16
 Particle Decays Single Particle Decay

The average lifetime of the particle

Z ∞ Z ∞  ∞
−λt
 
−λt ∞ 1 1
τ = hti = tλe dt = −te 0
+ e−λt dt = − e−λt =
0 0 λ 0 λ
1
τ= p(t) = e−t/τ
λ
Finite lifetime ⇒ uncertain energy ∆E , (c.f. Resonances, Breit-Wigner)
Decaying states do not correspond to a single energy – they have a width
∆E ~
∆E .τ ∼ ~ ⇒ ∆E ∼ = ~λ ~ = 1 (n.u.)
τ
The width, ∆E , of a particle state is therefore
Inversely proportional to the lifetime τ
Proportional to the decay rate λ (or equal in natural units)

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 17

Decay of Resonances
QM description of decaying states
Consider a state formed at t = 0 with energy E0 and mean lifetime τ
ψ(t) = ψ(0)e−iE0t e−t/2τ |ψ(t)|2 = |ψ(0)|2 e−t/τ
i.e. the probability density decays exponentially (as required).
The frequencies (i.e. energies, since E = ω if ~ = 1) present in the
wavefunction are given by the Fourier transform of ψ(t), i.e.
Z ∞ Z ∞
1
f (ω) = f (E ) = ψ(t)eiEt dt = ψ(0)e−t(iE0+ 2τ )eiEt dt
0 0
Z ∞
1 iψ(0)
= ψ(0)e−t(i(E0−E )+ 2τ ) dt =
0 (E0 − E ) − 2τi

Probability of finding state with |ψ(0)|2

2
energy E = f (E ) ∗ f (E ) is P(E ) = |f (E )| =
(E0 − E )2 + 4τ1 2
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 18
 Decay of Resonances Breit-Wigner

Probability for producing the decaying state has

this energy dependence, i.e. resonant when E = E0
1
P(E ) ∝
(E0 − E )2 + 1/4τ 2

Consider full-width at half-maximum Γ

P(E = E0) ∝ 4τ 2
1 1 1
P(E = E0 ± Γ) ∝ =
2 (E0 − E0 ∓ 21 Γ)2 + 1/4τ 2 Γ2
4 + 4τ1 2
1 1 1 2
P(E = E0 ± Γ) = P(E = E0), ⇒ Γ2 1
= 2τ
2 2 4 + 4τ 2
1
Total width (using natural units) Γ = =λ
τ
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 19

Partial Decay Widths

Particles can often decay with more than one decay mode
e.g. Z → e +e −, or µ+µ−, or q q̄ etc, each with its own transition rate,
i.e. from initial state i to final state f : λf = 2π |Mfi |2 ρ(Ef )

P
The total decay rate is given by λ= f λf
1
This determines the average lifetime τ= λ
P
The total width of a particle state Γ=λ= f λf

is defined by the partial widths Γf = λf

The proportion of decays to a particular P
Γf
decay mode is called the branching fraction Bf = Γ, f Bf = 1
or branching ratio

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 20

 Reactions and Cross-sections
The strength of a particular reaction between two particles is specified by the
interaction cross-section.
Cross-section σ – the effective target area presented to the incoming particle
for it to cause the reaction.
Units: σ 1 barn (b) = 10−28m2 Area

σ is defined as the reaction rate per target particle Γ, per unit incident flux Φ
Γ = Φσ
where the flux Φ is the number of beam particles passing through unit area per
second.
Γ is given by Fermi’s Golden Rule (previously used λ).

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 21

Scattering with a beam

Consider a beam of particles incident upon a target:

Target of n nuclei per

Beam of N particles per unit volume
unit time in an area A Target thickness dx is
small

Number of target particles in area A, NT = nA dx

Effective area for absorption = σNT = σnA dx
Incident flux Φ = N/A
Number of particles scattered per unit time
= −dN = ΦσNT = NA σnA dx
−dN
σ=
nN dx
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 22
 Attenuation of a beam
Beam attenuation in a target of thickness L:
Thick target σnL  1: Z N dN Z L
− = σn dx
N0 N 0

N = N0e−σnL This is exact.

i.e. the beam attenuates exponentially.
Thin target σnL << 1, e−σnL ∼ 1 − σnL
N = N0(1 − σnL)
Useful approximation for thin targets.
Or, the number scattered = N0 − N = N0σnL
Mean free path between interactions = 1/nσ
often referred to as “interaction length”.
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 23

Differential Cross-section
The angular distribution of the scattered
particles is not necessarily uniform
** n.b. dΩ can be considered in position space, or
momentum space **

Number of particles scattered per unit time into dΩ is dN dΩ = dσ ΦNT

Differential cross-section dσ dN dΩ
=
units: area/steradian dΩ (Φ × NT × dΩ)
The differential cross-section is the number of particles scattered per unit time and solid angle,
divided by the incident flux and by the number of target nuclei, NT , defined by the beam area.

Most experiments do not cover 4π solid angle, and in general we measure

dσ/ dΩ.
Angular distributions provide more information than the total cross-section
about the mechanism of the interaction, e.g. angular momentum.
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 24
 Partial Cross-section

Different types of interaction can occur between particles

e.g. e +e − → γ, or e +e − → Z ... X
σtot = σi
i

where the σi are called partial cross-sections for different final states.

Types of interaction
Elastic scattering: a + b → a + b
only the momenta of a and b change
Inelastic scattering: a + b → c + d
final state is not the same as initial state

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 25

Scattering in QM
Consider a beam of particles scattering from a fixed potential V (r ):

q~ = p~f − p~i
“momentum transfer”

NOTE: using natural units p~ = ~~k → p~ = ~k etc

The scattering rate is characterised by the interaction cross-section

Γ Number of particles scattered per unit time
σ= =
Φ Incident flux
How can we calculate the cross-section?
Use Fermi’s Golden Rule to get the transition rate
Γ = 2π|Mfi |2ρ(Ef )
where Mfi is the matrix element and ρ(Ef ) is the density of final states.
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 26
 Scattering in QM
1st order Perturbation Theory using plane wave solutions of form
ψ = Ne−i(Et−~p.~r )
Require:
1 Wave-function normalisation
2 Matrix element in perturbation theory Mfi
3 Expression for incident flux Φ
4 Expression for density of states ρ(Ef )

1 Normalisation
Normalise wave-functions to one particle in a box of side L:
|ψ|2 = N 2 = 1/L3

N = (1/L)3/2

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 27

Scattering in QM
2 Matrix Element
This contains the interesting physics of the interaction:
Z Z
Mfi = hψf |Ĥ|ψi i = ψf∗Ĥψi d3~r = Ne−i p~f .~r V (~r )Nei p~i .~r d3~r
Z
1
Mfi = 3 e−i~q .~r V (~r ) d3~r where q~ = p~f − p~i
L
3 Incident Flux
Consider a “target” of area A and a beam of particles travelling at velocity
vi towards the target. Any incident particle within a volume vi A will cross
the target area every second. vi A
Φ= n = vi n
A
where n is the number density of incident particles = 1 per L3
Flux = number of incident particles crossing unit area per second
Φ = vi /L3
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 28
 Scattering in QM
4 Density of States also known as “phase space”
For a box of side L, states are given by the periodic boundary conditions:
2π
p~ = (px , py , pz ) = (nx , ny , nz )
L
Each state occupies a volume (2π/L)3 in p space (neglecting spin).
Number of states
 between
 p and
  p + dp in solid angle dΩ
3 3
L 3 L
dN = d p~ = p 2 dp dΩ ( d3p~ = p 2 dp dΩ)
2π 2π  3
dN L
∴ ρ(p) = = p 2 dΩ
dp 2π
dE p
Density of states in energy E 2 = p 2 + m2 ⇒ 2E dE = 2p dp ⇒ dp = E
 3
dN dN dp L E
ρ(E ) = = = p 2 dΩ
dE dp dE 2π p
 3
L
For relativistic scattering (E ∼ p) ρ(E ) = E 2 dΩ
2π
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 29

Scattering in QM
Putting all the parts together:
 Z  2  3
1 L3  1  L
dσ = 2π |Mfi |2 ρ(Ef ) = 2π  3 e−i~q .~r V (~r ) d3~r  pf Ef dΩ
Φ vi L 2π
Z 2
dσ 1  −i~q .~r 3 

= e V (~
r ) d r
~  pf Ef
dΩ (2π)2vi 

For relativistic scattering, vi = c = 1 and p ∼ E

Born approximation for the differential cross-section
Z 2
dσ E 2  −i~q .~r 3 

= e V (~r ) d ~r 
dΩ (2π)2 
n.b. may have seen the non-relativistic version, using m2 instead of E 2

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 30

 Rutherford Scattering
Consider relativistic elastic scattering in a Coulomb potential
Z e2 Zα
V (~r ) = − =−
4π0r r
Special case of Yukawa potential V = g e−mr /r 2 16π 2Z 2α2
|Mif | =
with g = Z α and m = 0 (see Appendix C) q4

q~ = p~f − p~i

|~q |2 = |~
pi |2 + |~
pf |2 − 2~
pi .~
pf
elastic scattering, |~
pi | = |~
pf | = |~
p|
θ
p |2(1 − cos θ) = 4E 2 sin2
= 2|~
2
dσ 4E 2Z 2α2 4E 2Z 2α2 Z 2 α2
= = =
dΩ q4 16E 4 sin4 θ2 4E 2 sin4 θ2
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 31

Cross-section for Resonant Scattering

Some particle interactions take
place via an intermediate
resonant state which then
decays
a + b → Z∗ → c + d

Two-stage picture: (Bohr Model)

Formation a + b → Z∗ Decay Z∗ → c + d
Occurs when the collision energy The decay of the resonance Z ∗ is
ECM ∼ the natural frequency (i.e. independent of the mode of
mass) of a resonant state. formation and depends only on the
properties of the Z ∗.
May be multiple decay modes.
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 32
 Resonance Cross-Section
The resonance cross-section is given by
Γ
σ= with Γ = 2π |Mfi |2 ρ(Ef ) ** same as Born Approx.
Φ vi
incident flux Φ =
1 L3
dσ = 2π |Mfi |2 ρ(Ef ) ∗∗ density of states ρ(p) =
dN
=

L
3
p 2 dΩ
Φ dp 2π
L3 2 pf L
2 3
 3
= 2π |Mfi | dΩ → ρ(E ) =
dN dp
=
L E
p 2 dΩ
vi vf (2π)3 dp dE 2π p
 3
L 1
dσ pf2 = p 2 dΩ
= 2
|Mfi |2 factors of L cancel
as before, M ∝ L3
2π v
dΩ (2π) vi vf
The matrix element Mfi is given by 2nd order Perturbation Theory
X MiZ MZf
Mfi = n.b. 2nd order effects are large since
E − EZ E − EZ is small → large perturbation
Z
where the sum runs over all intermediate states.
Near resonance, effectively only one state Z contributes.
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 33

Resonance Cross-Section
Consider one intermediate state described by
ψ(t) = ψ(0)eiE0t e−t/2τ = ψ(0)e−i (E0−i 2 )t
Γ

this describes a states with energy = E0 − iΓ/2

2 |MiZ |2 |MZf |2
|Mfi | =
(E − E0)2 + Γ4
2

Rate of decay of Z :
2 2 4πpf2
pf2 2
ΓZ →f = 2π |MZf | ρ(Ef ) = 2π |MZf | = |MZf |
(2π)3 vf πvf
Rate of formation of Z :
2 2 4πpi2
pi2 2
Γi→Z = 2π |MiZ | ρ(Ei ) = 2π |MiZ | = |MiZ |
(2π)3 vi πvi
nb. |MZi |2 = |MiZ |2.
Hence MiZ and MZf can be expressed in terms of partial widths.
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 34
 Resonance Cross-Section

dσ pf2 2
Putting everything together: = |M fi |
dΩ (2π)2 vi vf

4πpf2 πvf πvi ΓZ →i ΓZ →f π ΓZ →i ΓZ →f

⇒σ= =
(2π)2 vi vf pf2 pi2 (E − E0)2 + Γ4 pi2 (E − E0)2 + Γ42
2

We need to include one more piece of information to account for spin...

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 35

Resonance Cross-Section
πg ΓZ →i ΓZ →f
Breit-Wigner Cross-Section σ= .
pi2 (E − E0)2 + Γ42
The g factor takes into account the spin
2JZ + 1
a + b → Z∗ → c + d, g=
(2Ja + 1)(2Jb + 1)
and is the ratio of the number of spin states for the resonant state to the total number of spin
states for the a+b system,
i.e. the probability that a+b collide in the correct spin state to form Z∗.

Useful points to remember:

pi is calculated in the centre-of-mass frame (σ is independent of frame of reference!)
pi ∼ lab momentum if the target is heavy (often true in nuclear physics, but not in
particle physics).
E is the total energy (if two particles colliding, E = E1 + E2)
Γ is the total decay rate
ΓZ →i and ΓZ →f are the partial decay rates
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 36
 Resonance Cross-Section Notes
X
Total cross-section σtot = σ(i → f ) πg ΓZ →i ΓZ →f
σ=
pi2 (E − E0)2 + Γ42
f
Replace Γf by Γ in the Breit-Wigner formula

Elastic cross-section σel = σ(i → i)

so, Γf = Γi
4πg Γi Γf
On peak of resonance (E = E0) σpeak =
pi2Γ2
4πgBi2 4πgBi Γi σel
Thus σel = , σtot = , Bi = =
pi2 pi2 Γ σtot
By measuring σtot and σel, can cancel Bi and infer g and hence the spin of the
resonant state.

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 37

Resonances Nuclear Physics Example

Can produce the same resonance from

different initial states, decaying into
various final states, e.g.

σ[60Ni(α, n)63Zn] ∼ σ[63Cu(p, n)63Zn]

n.b. common notation for nuclear

reactions:
a+A → b+B ≡ A(a,b)B
Energy of p selected to give same
c.m. energy as for α interaction.
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 38
 Resonances Particle Physics Example

The Z boson

ΓZ ∼ 2.5 GeV

1
τ= = 0.4 GeV−1
ΓZ
= 0.4 × ~

= 2.5 × 10−25 s

(~ = 6.6×10−25 GeV s)

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 39

Resonances π −p scattering example

Resonance observed at pπ ∼ 0.3 GeV, ECM ∼ 1.25 GeV

σtotal = σ(π −p → R → anything) ∼ 72 mb

σelastic = σ(π −p → R → π −p) ∼ 28 mb
Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 40
 Resonances π −p scattering example

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 41

Summary

Units: MeV, GeV, barns

Natural units: ~ = c = 1
Relativistic kinematics: most particle physics calculations require this!
Revision of scattering theory: cross-section, Born Approximation.
Resonant scattering
Breit-Wigner formula (important in both nuclear and particle physics):
πg ΓZ →i ΓZ →f
σ= 2
pi (E − E0)2 + Γ42
Measure total and elastic σ to measure spin of resonance.

Up next...
Section 3: Colliders and Detectors

Prof. Tina Potter 2. Kinematics, Decays and Reactions 42

 T. Potter
Lent/Easter Terms 2022

Part II Particle and Nuclear Physics

Examples Sheet 1

Matter and Forces

1. Particles, Tripos A-style question.

Explain the meaning of the terms quark, lepton, hadron, nucleus and boson as used in the
classification of particles.

Relativistic kinematics
2. Natural Units, Tripos A-style question.
Explain what is meant by natural units and the Heaviside-Lorentz system.
(a) The reduced Compton wavelength of a particle can be written in natural units as
1
λ̄ =
m
where m is the mass of the particle. Estimate λ̄ for a pion (mπ = 139.6 MeV/c2 ). Quote
your answer in natural units and then convert to SI units.
(b) The total cross-section for e+ e− annihilation can be written in natural units as
4 πα2
σ=
3 s
1 √
where α = 137 is the fine structure constant and s is the centre-of-mass energy. Estimate
σ at a centre-of-mass energy equal to the Z mass (mZ = 91.2 GeV/c2 ). Calculate your
answer in natural units and then convert to barns.
(c) Use dimensional analysis to add the appropriate factors of ~, 0 and c in the formulae for
λ in (a) and for σ in (b), and then do the calculations directly in SI units.
[Note that ~c = 197 MeV fm; 1 barn = 10−28 m2 ]
3. Relativistic Kinematics, Tripos B-style question.
Consider the decay of a particle X into two particles a and b.
(a) Show that, in the rest frame of X, the energy of particle a can be written in natural units
as
m2 + m2a − m2b
Ea = X
2mX
where mi is the mass of particle i. What is the equivalent expression for the energy of
particle b ? What is the energy if the final state particles are the same (or antiparticles
of each other)?

1
 (b) Show that the magnitude of the momentum of particle a can be written in natural units
as p
m4X + m4a + m4b − 2m2X m2a − 2m2X m2b − 2m2a m2b
pa = .
2mX
What is the equivalent expression for the momentum of particle b ? What is the value of
the momentum if the final state particles are the same (or antiparticles of each other) ?
Show that if one of the final state particles is massless, e.g. mb = 0, then the expression
for the momentum simplifies to
m2 − m2a
pa = X
2mX
√
[Note: replacing mX by the centre-of-mass energy, s, in the above gives the equivalent
expressions for collision processes.]
(c) The HERA collider at DESY provided head-on collisions between an electron beam of
27.5 GeV and a proton beam of 920 GeV. What energy of electron beam colliding with a
fixed target would be required to obtain the same centre-of-mass energy? Would HERA
have had sufficient energy to have produced a Higgs boson of mass 125 GeV?

4. Ω Decay, Tripos A-style question.

The figure shows a photograph and line diagram of the event corresponding to the first obser-
vation of the Ω− baryon (Ω− → Ξ0 π − , Ξ0 → Λ0 π 0 ) in a K − p interaction in a liquid hydrogen
bubble chamber (from Barnes et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 12 (1964) 204):

2
 (a) The two photons from the π 0 → γγ decay are both seen to convert to e+ e− pairs. Show
that the process γ → e+ e− is kinematically forbidden in vacuo. Explain why the con-
version process can take place in the presence of matter, and draw a Feynman diagram
representing photon conversion in material, as seen in the figure.
(b) The π − and Ξ0 from the Ω− decay have momenta of 281 MeV/c and 1906 MeV/c respec-
tively. Their spatial opening angle is 71◦ . Calculate the mass of the Ω− and compute its
momentum.
(c) The length of the Ω− flight path is 2.5 cm. Calculate the proper lifetime of the Ω− .

[m(π − )=139.6 MeV/c2 , m(Ξ0 )=1315 MeV/c2 ]

Decays and Reactions

5. Radioactive Decay, Tripos B-style question.

A sample of gold is exposed to a neutron beam of constant intensity such that 1010 neutrons
per second are absorbed in the reaction

n + 197 Au → 198 Au + γ
198 198
The nuclide Au undergoes β decay to Hg with a mean lifetime of 4 days.
198
(a) How many atoms of Au will be present after 6 days of irradiation?
198
(b) How many atoms of Hg will be present after 6 days assuming that the neutron beam
has no effect on the Hg?
198
(c) What is the equilibrium number of Au nuclei?

6. Caesium Decay, Tripos B-style question.

The decay chain 139 Cs→139 Ba→139 La is observed for an initially pure sample of 1mCi of 139 Cs.
The half life of 139 Cs is 9.5 minutes and that of 139 Ba is 82.9 minutes; 139 La is stable. Write
down the rate equations for this system, and show that the number of Ba atoms present at
time t is given by
λCs NCs (0)  −λCs t 
NBa (t) = e − e−λBa t
λBa − λCs
in an obvious notation, where the λ values represent the corresponding decay rates. What is
the maximium 139 Ba activity (i.e. rate of 139 Ba decay), and at what time does it occur?
[1 Ci= 3.7x1010 disintegrations per second.]

7. Kaon Decay, Tripos A-style question.

(a) Calculate the branching fraction for the decay K+ → π + π 0 , given that the partial width
for this decay is 1.2 × 10−8 eV and the mean lifetime of the K+ meson is 1.2 × 10−8 s.
(b) A beam of K+ mesons of momentum 10 GeV is produced. What fraction of them will
remain undecayed 100 m downstream?

3
 (c) When the K+ mesons decay to π + π 0 , what are the minimum and maximum laboratory
energies of the produced π + mesons?

8. Cross-sections, Tripos B-style question.

Define the terms total cross-section and differential cross-section for scattering processes.
A beam of neutrons with an intensity 105 particles per second traverses a thin foil of 235 U with
a ”thickness” of 10−1 kg m−2 .1
There are three possible outcomes when a neutron interacts with a 235 U nucleus:
(i) elastic scattering of the neutron, with a cross-section 10−2 b ;
(ii) the capture of the neutron followed by the emission of a γ-ray., with cross-section 70 b;
(iii) the capture of the neutron, followed by the resulting nucleus undergoing fission with cross-
section 200 b.
Using this information, determine:

(a) the intensity of the neutron beam transmitted by the foil;

(b) the rate of fission reactions occurring in the foil induced by the incident beam;
(c) the flux of neutrons elastically scattered out of the beam at a point 10 m from the foil,
assuming that the neutrons are scattered isotropically.

9. Breit-Wigner Formula, Tripos A-style question.

The Breit-Wigner formula for a reaction cross-section is given by
πg Γi Γf
σ(E) = 2
.
pi (E − E0 )2 + Γ2 /4

Explain the meaning of the symbols in this equation, and outline its derivation.
The maximum value of the cross-section for radiative capture of neutrons in 123 Te (i.e. the
process n +123 Te −→124 Te + γ) is 75 kb and is reached at a neutron energy of 2.2 eV, where
the elastic width Γn is 0.0104 eV and the radiative width Γγ is 0.105 eV. The spin of 123 Te in
its ground state is J = 21 . What is the elastic cross-section at resonance and what is the spin
of the compound nucleus formed?

1
To determine the number of particles that interact one must know the density of target particles and the thickness
of the target. Instead of giving two numbers which simply have to be multiplied, it is common practice to quote the
target thickness multiplied by the target density. This gives a target “thickness” in units of mass/area.

4
Numerical answers
2. (a) 7.16 × 10−3 MeV−1 , 1.41 fm; (b) 2.68 × 10−8 GeV−2 , 0.0104 nb
√
3. (c) s = 318 GeV; 54 TeV.
4. (b) 1689 MeV/c2 , 2015 MeV/c ; (c) 70 ps
5. (a) 2.7x1015 ; (b) 2.5x1015 ; (c) 3.46x1015
6. (a) 0.087 mCi; (b) 33.5 minutes
7. (a) 21.8% (b) 0.25, [0.88, 9.18] GeV.
8. (a) 99,311 particles s−1 ; (b) 510 s−1 ; (c) 2.03x10−5 particles m−2 s−1
9. 7.4 kb; J = 1

Suggested Tripos Questions

Relativistic Kinematics: 2017 1(a), 2014 3, 2004 (3) C12(b)

Breit-Wigner resonances, production and decay rates: 2018 A1(a), 2015 3, 2005 (3) A3

5
 T. Potter
Lent/Easter Terms 2022

Part II Particle and Nuclear Physics

Examples Sheet 2

Colliders and Detectors

10. Detector Signatures, Tripos A-style question.

For each e+ e− process below, sketch the signature in a typical cylindrical detector e.g.

Muon
Spectrometer magnet

HCAL

ECAL

Tracker

(a) e+ e− → µ+ µ− e+ e−
(b) e+ e− → µ+ µ− γ
(c) e+ e− → ν ν̄γ
(d) e+ e− → τ + τ − , where the taus decay as τ − → e− ν̄e ντ and τ + → π + π 0 ν̄τ
(e) e+ e− → π + np̄π 0 K + K −

Draw the lowest order Feynman diagram for (a)-(d).

11. Detector Resolution, Tripos A-style question.

(a) In an experiment, the momentum measurement accuracy of the tracking detector is 1% for
1 GeV muons. What is the momentum accuracy for 20 GeV muons in the same apparatus?

1
 (b) The energy resolution for 1 GeV electrons in the electromagetic calorimeter is 0.5%. What
is the energy resolution for 10 GeV electrons?

Feynman Diagrams and QED

12. QED Feynman Diagrams, Tripos A-style question.

Draw the lowest order Feynman diagram(s) for each of the following processes:

(a) γ → e+ e− (in matter)

(b) e− + e− → e− + e−
(c) e+ + e− → e+ + e−
(d) e+ + e− → µ+ + µ−
(e) e+ + e− → γ + γ
(f) γ + γ → γ + γ (“Delbruck scattering” – forbidden classically)

13. π 0 Decay, Tripos A-style question.

(a) The π 0 (JP = 0− ) decays predominantly to γγ but is also seen to decay to e+ e− γ (“Dalitz
decay”), to e+ e− e+ e− and to e+ e− with branching fractions of 1.2%, 3.2×10−5 and 2×10−7
respectively. Draw the leading order Feynman diagrams for each of these decays. Based
on the coupling constants involved (ignoring propagator effects etc.), give rough estimates
of the branching fractions for each decay.
(b) The ρ0 (JP = 1− ) decays to e+ e− with a branching fraction of 4×10−5 . Draw the Feynman
diagram for this decay and comment on the difference between the π 0 → e+ e− and ρ0 →
e+ e− partial widths.

[The π 0 and ρ0 lifetimes are 8.4 × 10−17 s and 4.4 × 10−24 s respectively.]

14. Drell-Yan, Tripos A-style question.

The Drell-Yan process, which is the production of charged lepton pairs in hadron-hadron in-
teractions (πN→ µ+ µ− + anything, for example), proceeds via quark-antiquark annihilation
into a single virtual photon. Draw a typical Feynman diagram for this process. Show that the
Drell-Yan cross-sections in π + p, π + n, π − p and π − n interactions would be expected to be in
the ratio 1 : 2 : 8 : 4.
What would you expect to be the Drell-Yan cross-sections for pp and p̄p collisions compared
with the Drell-Yan cross-section for π + p interactions ?

QCD and the Quark Model

15. Spin and Parity, Tripos A-style question.

When π − mesons are stopped in deuterium they form “pionic atoms” (π − d) which usually
undergo transitions to an atomic s-state (` = 0), whereupon the capture reaction π − d→nn

2
 occurs and destroys them. (The fact that capture normally occurs in an s-state is established
from studies of the X-rays emitted in the transitions before capture). Given that the deuteron
has spin-parity J P = 1+ and the pion has spin 0, show that these observations imply that the
pion has negative intrinsic parity.

16. Hadron Masses, Tripos A-style question.

(a) Verify the quark model predictions given in the lectures for the following meson masses:
Meson Calculated Observed
(MeV) (MeV)
π 140 138
K 484 496
η 559 549
ρ 780 776
ω 780 783
K∗ 896 892
φ 1032 1020
[Assume mu =md =310 MeV, ms =483 MeV and that the spin-spin interaction coefficient
A= 0.0615 GeV3 in this case.]

What would the model predict for the mass of the η 0 meson (measured mass 958 MeV)?
+
(b) What must be the total spin of any pair of quarks in the baryons in the JP = 32 decuplet?
Hence predict the masses of the decuplet baryons and compare your predictions with the
measured values.

[Assume in this case mu =md =360 MeV, ms =540 MeV and the spin-spin interaction coefficient
A= 0.026 GeV3 .]

17. p and n Moments, Tripos B-style question.

Derive the magnetic moments of the proton and neutron in the quark model as follows:

(a) Assuming all the quarks are in `=0 states what must be the total spin of the two u quarks
in the proton? (Give reasons for your answer).
(b) Hence show that the wave function for a proton in the sz =+ 12 state can be written as

1
√ (2u ↑u ↑d ↓ − u ↑u ↓d ↑ − u ↓u ↑d ↑)
6

and derive a similar expression for the neutron.

(c) Assuming u and d quarks have equal mass, write their magnetic moments in terms of this
quark mass.
(d) Hence predict the ratio of the proton and neutron magnetic moments. Compare with the
observed values: µp = 2.79µN , µn = −1.91µN . What value for the quark mass is needed
to give these values? Is this sensible?

3
 (e) Consider now the magnetic moments of the Σ+ (uus) and Σ− (dds) baryons, which are
also members of the spin- 21 octet. Show that

4
µΣ+ − µΣ− = [µp − µn ] .
5
Test using measured values: µΣ+ = 2.458 ± 0.010µN , µΣ− = −1.160 ± 0.025µN .

18. ρ0 Decay, Tripos B-style question.

Consider the decay of the ρ0 meson (J P = 1− ) in the following decay modes:

(a) ρ0 → π 0 γ
(b) ρ0 → π + π −
(c) ρ0 → π 0 π 0
(d) ρ0 → e+ e−

In each case, draw an appropriate Feynman diagram and determine whether the process is
allowed or forbidden. By considering the strength of the forces involved, list the decay modes
in order of expected rate.
The ratio of partial widths Γ(ρ0 → π 0 γ)/Γ(ω 0 → π 0 γ) is approximately 0.1 while the ratio
Γ(ρ0 → e+ e− )/Γ(ω 0 → e+ e− ) is approximately 10. Suggest an explanation for these observa-
tions.
¯ for both π 0 and ρ0 , and √1 [uū + dd]
[The quark wavefunctions for the mesons are √1 [uū − dd] ¯
2 2
for ω 0 .]

19. J/ψ Meson, Tripos B-style question.

The figure shown below (from Boyarski et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 34 (1975) 1357) shows the orig-
inal e+ e− annihilation cross-section measurements from the Mark II Collaboration which con-
tributed to the discovery of the J/ψ meson. The measurements were made during a fine scan
of the e± beam energies at the SPEAR storage ring at SLAC which consisted of oppositely
circulating e+ and e− beams of equal energy. Figure (a) shows the cross-section for the process
e+ e− →hadrons, (b) shows the cross-section for e+ e− → µ+ µ− and (c) shows the cross-section
for e+ e− →e+ e− . The latter two were measured in a limited acceptance | cos θ| < 0.6, where θ
is the polar angle of the produced leptons.

4
The observed width (a few MeV) of the J/ψ resonance peak is predominantly caused by the
energy spread inherent in the e+ , e− beams at each measured point. The relative centre-of-
mass energy between measurement points is however known very precisely (to about 1 part in
104 ). The actual J/ψ width is much smaller than the observed width, but can be extracted
from the data as follows:

(a) The Breit-Wigner formula for the scattering of two particles of spin s1 and s2 in the region
of a resonance of spin J is:
λ2 (2J + 1) Γi Γf
σ(E) =
4π (2s1 + 1)(2s2 + 1) [(E − E0 )2 + Γ2 /4]
where λ is the de Broglie wavelength of the incoming particles in the centre of mass frame,
E is the centre of mass energy, E0 is the resonance energy, Γ is the total width of the

5
 resonance and Γi (Γf ) is the partial width for decay into the initial (final) state. Show
that, for the production of the J/ψ resonance in e+ e− collisions, the integrated elastic
cross-section under the resonance peak is given by
Z
3
σ 0 ≡ σel (E)dE ≈ λ2 B 2 Γ
8

where B is the branching fraction for the decay J/ψ → e+ e− .

(b) Assume that, at each scan point, the beam energy spread produces a spread of centre of
mass energies E 0 distributed about the average centre of mass energy E according to a
probability
R distribution f (E 0 − E). Show that the measured Rarea under the resonance
peak, σmeas (E)dE, is equal to the true area under the peak, σ(E)dE.
(c) Given that the differential cross-section dσ/dΩ for the process e+ e− → J/ψ → e+ e− is
proportional to 1+cos2 θ where θ is the angle between the final e− and the beam direction,
calculate the fraction of J/ψ decays contained within the acceptance region | cos θ| < 0.6
imposed for the e+ e− and µ− µ+ channels.
(d) Use the data in the figure to estimate the quantities σ 0 and B defined above1 . You should
obtain σ 0 ∼ 500 nb MeV and B ∼ 0.065 for the leptonic decays, after correcting for the
limited acceptance. Hence estimate Γ and Γee for the J/ψ.
(e) The corresponding widths for the φ meson are Γ=4.4 MeV and Γee =1.37 keV. Discuss
why the J/ψ and φ mesons have similar leptonic widths Γee but very different total widths
Γ.

1
Note that the measured cross-sections contain a significant non-resonant contribution which must be subtracted.
Note also that the scales of the graphs are logarithmic.

6
Numerical answers
11. (a)20%; (b)0.16%.
13. (a) 1, 0.028, 5 × 10−5 , 5 × 10−5 (just counting powers of α); (b) 1.56 µeV, 6 keV
14. σ(pp̄) = 17σ(π + p)
16. (a) m(η 0 ) = 349 MeV/c2 ; (b) S=1, m(∆) = 1.230 GeV/c2 , m(Σ∗ ) = 1.383 GeV/c2 , m(Ξ) =
1.535 GeV/c2 , m(Ω− ) = 1.687 GeV/c2
17. (a) S=1; (d) µp /µn = −1.5, Mass of quark = 330 MeV/c2
19. (c) 50.4%; (d) using σ 0 ≈ 500 nb MeV, B ≈ 0.065 should obtain Γ ≈ 70 keV, Γee ≈ 4.6 keV

Suggested Tripos Questions

Feynman Diagrams: 2016 3(a), 2010 3, 2008 A4 2008 (3) A4, 2009 (3) A1(b), 2010 (3) A1(c)

QCD: 2018 B3 last part, 2014 3, 2013 1(b)

Hadron physics and quark model: 2018 B3, 2017 4, 2016 1(b)

7
 T. Potter
Lent/Easter Terms 2022

Part II Particle and Nuclear Physics

Examples Sheet 3

Weak Interactions

20. Tau Decay, Tripos A-style question.

Draw a Feynman diagram for each of the principal decay modes of the τ − . Show that the τ
lepton decay branching fractions should be approximately in the ratios

(τ − → e− ντ ν̄e ) : (τ − → µ− ντ ν̄µ ) : (τ − → hadrons) = 1 : 1 : 3

The actual ratios are approximately 1.02 : 1 : 3.5. Suggest a possible explanation.
Estimate the mean lifetime of the τ lepton, given that the branching fraction for τ − → e− ν¯e ντ
is 18%. You may assume the decay rate for X → e− ν¯e νX is given by Sargent’s Rule

G2F E05
Γ=
60π 3
.
[You may use mτ = 1.777 GeV/c2 , mµ = 0.106 GeV/c2 and take the mean µ lifetime to be
2.197 × 10−6 s. ]

21. Threshold Energy, Tripos A-style question.

In a beam of antineutrinos, it is proposed to search for ν̄τ via their interactions on nucleons in
a stationary target to produce τ -leptons.

(a) Draw the Feynman diagram for the simplest such production process.
(b) Calculate the minimum energy of the ν̄τ which would permit τ -lepton production.
(c) What is the energy of the produced τ -lepton when the ν̄τ has this threshold energy ?
(d) How far will the τ -lepton travel on average before decaying, given that its mean lifetime
is 290 fs ?

[The masses of τ + , proton and neutron are 1.777 GeV/c2 , 0.938 GeV/c2 and 0.940 GeV/c2
respectively.]

22. Omega Decay, Tripos A-style question.

The Ω− baryon (sss), produced in the event shown in Q.4 is seen to decay weakly through the
decay chain Ω− → Ξ0 π − , Ξ0 → Λ0 π 0 and Λ0 → pπ − . Draw the Feynman diagrams for the
decays of the Ω− , the Ξ0 and the Λ0 .
Draw a Feynman diagram for the strong decay Ω− → Ξ− K0 and explain why the decay is not
observed. With the aid of a Feynman diagram explain why the weak decay Ω− → Λ0 π − is
strongly suppressed.

1
 [ The strange hadrons have quark compositions and masses Ω− (sss) 1.67 GeV, Ξ0 (uss) 1.31 GeV,
¯ 498 MeV, Λ0 (uds) 1.12 GeV]
Ξ− (dss) 1.32 GeV, K0 (sd)

Electroweak Unification

23. Z Mass Peak, Tripos B-style question.

(a) In lectures we deduced that the couplings of the Z boson to fermions should be of the
form:
e
gZ [I3 − Q sin2 θW ] where gZ = .
sin θW cos θW
In this expression, Q is the electric charge (in units of e), I3 is the weak isospin of the
fermion species and helicity state being considered and the weak mixing angle is given
by sin2 θW ≈ 0.23. The decay rate into f f¯ (assumed massless compared with the Z) is
proportional to (gL2 + gR2 ) where gL and gR are the couplings to left-handed and right-
handed fermions respectively. Compare the Z decay rates to pairs of charged lepton pairs
of each species, neutrino-antineutrino pairs, and to u-like and d-like quark-antiquark pairs.
Hence predict the branching fractions for Z decay to τ + τ − , to neutrinos and to hadrons.
(b) In the OPAL experiment at LEP the cross-section for e+ e− → τ + τ − was measured at
various centre-of-mass energies. Some of the results are shown below. Plot these data

Ecm /GeV σ(e+ e− → τ + τ − )/nb

88.481 0.2769 ± 0.0235
89.442 0.4892 ± 0.0091
90.223 0.8331 ± 0.0368
91.283 1.4988 ± 0.0213
91.969 1.1892 ± 0.0235
92.971 0.7089 ± 0.0105
93.717 0.4989 ± 0.0276

and make estimates of the Z boson mass, mZ , the total width of the Z boson, ΓZ , and
the partial decay width to τ + τ − , Γτ , (assuming lepton universality of the Neutral Cur-
rent). Compare the branching fraction for Z → τ + τ − with your predictions from (a), and
comment.
Why is the measured resonance curve asymmetric? Indicate what other effects need to be
taken into account when accurately determining mZ , ΓZ and Γτ
(c) Estimate the total decay width, ΓZ , and the lifetime of the Z boson using the resonant
cross-section ratio,
σ(e+ e− → Z → hadrons)
= 20.7,
σ(e+ e− → Z → µ+ µ− )
and the measured values of the Z partial decay widths, Γ(Z → µ+ µ− ) = 83.3 MeV and
Γ(Z → νµ ν¯µ ) = 166.5 MeV. Make clear any assumptions you make.

2
24. W Width, Tripos A-style question.
The number of neutrino species can be estimated from the total width of the W boson. Using
the Standard Model prediction of the partial width for W− → e− ν̄e decays,
GF M3W
Γ(W− → e− ν̄e ) = √ ,
2 6π
the mass of the W boson, MW = 80.385 ± 0.015 GeV/c2 and the total width, ΓW = 2.085 ±
0.042 GeV, estimate the number of light neutrino species. Make clear your assumptions.
[GF = 1.2 × 10−5 GeV−2 . ]

25. ν Scattering, Tripos A-style question.

Draw all possible lowest order Feynman diagrams for the following neutrino scattering or an-
nihilation processes:

(a) νe e− → νe e−
(b) ν̄e e− → ν̄e e−
(c) νµ e− → νµ e−
(d) ν̄µ e− → ν̄µ e−
(e) νe n → e− p

26. Weak Force & Conservation, Tripos A-style question.

Consider each of the groups of processes given below. In each group, with the aid of Feynman
diagrams using the Standard Model vertices, determine which processes are allowed and which
are forbidden. By considering the strength of the forces involved, rank the processes in each
group in order of expected rate.
(a) π 0 → γγ π 0 → π − e+ νe and π 0 → ν ν̄;
(b) e+ e− → τ + τ − ν̄µ + τ − → τ − + ν̄µ and ντ + p → τ + + n;
(c) B0 (bd) → D− (cd)π + B0 → π + π − and B0 → J/ψK0
(d) D0 (cu) → K− π + D0 → π + π − and D0 → K+ π − .

Neutrino Oscillations

27. ν Oscillations, Tripos B-style question.

(a) Show that if there are two neutrino mass eigenstates ν2 and ν3 with masses m2 and m3
and energies E2 and E3 , mixed so that

νµ = ν2 cos θ + ν3 sin θ
ντ = −ν2 sin θ + ν3 cos θ

then the number of muon neutrinos observed at a distance L from the muon source is
   
2 2 2 2 E3 − E2 L
|νµ (L)| = |νµ (L = 0)| × 1 − sin (2θ) sin .
2~ c

3
(b) If m2 and m3 are very much less than the neutrino momentum, p, show that
   2 
2 2 2 2 (m2 − m23 )L
|νµ (L)| ≈ |νµ (L = 0)| × 1 − sin (2θ) sin A
p

where A is a constant.
(c) In 2005 the MINOS experiment started to study neutrino oscillations by pointing a beam of
1-5 GeV/c muon neutrinos from Fermilab, Illinois, at the 5400 ton MINOS far dectector
in the SOUDAN mine in Minnesota, 730 km away. The experiment aimed to make a
precise measurement of m23 − m22 .
Sketch the expected energy spectrum of muon neutrinos at the MINOS far detector if
sin2 (2θ) = 0.90 and m23 − m22 = 2.5 × 10−3 (eV/c2 )2 . Assume that the energy spectum of
neutrinos produced by the beam at Fermilab is of uniform intensity in the range 1-5 GeV
and zero elsewhere (i.e. a top-hat function).
(d) If muon neutrinos oscillate into tau neutrinos, will any τ leptons (produced by charged
current interactions) be observed in the MINOS far detector ?
Hint: You may find the result of qu.21 useful.
[A = 1.27 s−1 if m2 and m3 are measured in eV/c2 , p in GeV/c and L in km. The mass
of the τ − is 1.777 GeV/c2 .]

4
Numerical answers
20. 0.3 ps
21. (b) 3.47 GeV; (c) 2.88 GeV; (d) 110 µm; (e) ∼ 20%
23. (a) 0.034 (e± , µ± , τ ± ); 0.068 (for each neutrino flavour); 0.118 (each up-type quark); 0.152 (each
down-type quark); 0.692 (all hadrons) ; (c) 2.47 GeV, 2.66 × 10−25 s
24. 3

Suggested Tripos Questions

Weak interaction: 2018 B4, 2017 1(c), 2011 3

Electroweak unification: 2018 A1(b), 2015 3, 2013 1(a)

Neutrino Oscillation: 2009 (3) A4

5
 T. Potter
Lent/Easter Terms 2022

Part II Particle and Nuclear Physics

Examples Sheet 4

Basic Nuclear Properties

28. SEMF, Tripos B-style question.

The Semi-Empirical mass formula (SEMF) for nuclear masses may be written in the form

2 Z2 (A − 2Z)2
M (A, Z) = Zmp + (A − Z)mn − aV A + aS A 3 + aC 1 + aA + δ(A, Z)
A 3 A
where mp and mn are the masses of the proton and neutron respectively. Fitted values for the
coefficients are given at the end of the question.

(a) Explain the physical significance and functional form of the various terms.
(b) Treating the nucleus as a sphere of uniform charge density, show that the constant

3e2
aC = = 0.72 MeV .
20π0 R0

(c) By reference to the SEMF explain in physical terms why nuclear fission and fusion are
possible.
(d) Use the Semi-Empirical mass formula to predict that the value of Z of the most stable
isobar of mass number A is
mn − mp + 4aA
Z= 1 .
2aC A− 3 + 8aA /A
Predict the Z for the most stable nuclei with A = 101 and A = 191. Compare with
nuclear data, which you can find on the web (e.g. http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/).
Predict the most stable super-heavy nucleus with mass number 300.
(e) Show that the effect of gravitational binding in the nucleus may be accounted for by adding
5
a term −aG A 3 to the SEMF (neglecting the proton-neutron mass difference). Show that
aG is given by
3Gm2n
aG = ≈ 5.8 × 10−37 MeV.
5R0
Use the SEMF, so modified, to estimate that the lightest “nucleus” consisting entirely of
neutrons (i.e. a neutron star) has a mass approximately 10% that of the sun. Amazingly
enough, this reckless extrapolation over more than 50 orders of magnitude turns out to
give more or less the right answer!
[Take the mass of the sun to be 2 ×1030 kg]

1
 [Use the following data:
mp = 938.3 MeV, mn = 939.6 MeV, me = 0.511 MeV; aV = 15.8 MeV, aS = 18.0 MeV, aA =
23.5 MeV. Nuclear radius R = R0 A1/3 with R0 = 1.2 fm]

29. The Fermi Gas model, Tripos B-style question.

We can predict the form of the asymmetry term, and estimate its magnitude, using the Fermi
Gas model. This involves treating the N neutrons and Z protons as free fermions of mass m
moving in a box of volume V = 43 πR03 A. The model therefore only accounts for the kinetic
energy of the nucleons, and not their potential energy.
A standard calculation, which you have done before (at least for a cubic box), gives the density
of states for each species (including spin degeneracy) as
√ 3
1 4 2m 2 R03
g() = BA 2 where B = .
3π~3
You need not prove this unless you want to practice. Show that the Fermi energy for the
neutrons is  2
3N 3
F = .
2BA
Calculate the Fermi energy F and the corresponding nucleon momentum for the symmetric
case N = Z = 12 A.
Show that the total kinetic energy of the nucleons is given by
  23  
3 3 5 5
N3 +Z3 .
5 2BA

Expand about the symmetric point N = Z = 12 A by writing N = 12 A(1 + α) and Z = 21 A(1 − α)

to show that the asymmetry energy has the form:

(N − Z)2 1
aA where aA = F .
A 3
Note that this underestimates the empirical value, because this model does not take account
of the potential energy, which also depends on (N − Z).
One contribution to the pairing energy can also be estimated from this model, reflecting the
stepwise increase of the kinetic energy resulting from the exclusion principle. This would be
expected to be approximately equal to the energy spacing of levels at the Fermi level, i.e.
1/g(F ). Show that this is, for the N = Z = 12 A case:

4¯F
.
3A
Evaluate and compare with the fitted value in the SEMF for a typical value of A. Note that
the Fermi Gas model again gives an underestimate because it does not take account of the
additional potential energy arising from the spatial overlap of two nucleons in the same energy
level.

2
30. Nuclear size, Tripos B-style question.
A
R spherically symmetric nucleus has a radial charge density ρ(r) which is normalised such that
ρ(r)d3 r = 1. Show that in this case the form factor is given by:
Z
2 4π ∞
F (q ) = r sin qrρ(r)dr
q 0
which can then be approximated by
1
F (q 2 ) ' 1 − q 2 R2 + . . .
6
in natural units, where R2 is the mean square radius of the charge distribution. When elastic
scattering of 200 MeV electrons from a gold foil is observed at 11◦ , it is found that the scattered
intensity is 70% of that expected for a point nucleus. Calculate the r.m.s. radius of the gold
nucleus.
For larger scattering angles (> 50◦ ) it is found that the scattered intensity, instead of falling
off monotonically with angle, exhibits definite (oscillatory) structure. What does this suggest
about the form of ρ(r) ?

31. Mirror Nuclei, Tripos B-style question.

One method of estimating nuclear radii is from the mass difference between a pair of odd-A
mirror nuclei (A, Z) and (A, Z + 1) for which Z = (A ± 1)/2. Use the Semi-Empirical mass
formula to show that the difference in Coulomb energies between these nuclides, ∆EC , can be
written as
3 Aα
∆EC =
5 R
where the fine structure constant α = e2 /4π0 in natural units and R is the nuclear radius.
The atomic mass difference between two mirror nuclei can be determined from the β + spectra
of the (A, Z + 1) member of the pair,

M (A, Z + 1) − M (A, Z) = 2me + Emax

where me is the mass of an electron and Emax is the maximum kinetic energy of the positron.
Calculate the radius of the (A, Z + 1) member of each of the following pairs of mirror nuclei

(a) (11
5 B,
11
6 C), Emax = 0.98 MeV;

(b) (11 Na, 23

23
12 Mg), Emax = 2.95 MeV;

(c) (39 39
19 K, 20 Ca); Emax = 5.49 MeV;

and comment on the results.

Be careful when using atomic mass vs nuclear mass.

32. Deuteron, Tripos A-style question

The deuteron has spin-parity J P = 1+ . Assuming that the deuteron is dominated by the orbital
angular momentum state ` = 0, and noting that no excited states exist, what can be concluded
about the nature of the n − p force and about the existence of nn and pp bound states?

3
 The Nuclear Shell Model

33. Spin & Parity, Tripos A-style question.

What are magic numbers ? Outline the basis of the Nuclear Shell Model and show how it
accounts for magic numbers. How can the shell model be used to predict the spins and parities
of nuclear ground states ?
Using the shell model determine the spins and parities of the ground states of the nuclides listed
below and compare them with the experimental values given. Comment on any discrepancies
you find.

3 9 7 12 13 15 17 23 131 207
2 He 4 Be 3 Li 6C 6C 7N 8O 11 Na 54 Xe 82 Pb
1+ 3− 3− + 1− 1− 5+ 3+ 3+ 1−
2 2 2
0 2 2 2 2 2 2

Assume the following ordering of levels:

1s 12 1p 32 1p 12 1d 25 1d 32 2s 21 1f 72 1f 52 2p 23 2p 12 1g 29 1g 72 2d 52 2d 32 1h 11
2
3s 12 1h 92 2f 72 3p 32 1i 13
2
3p 12 2f 25 · · ·

34. Energy Levels, Tripos A-style question.

The diagram below shows the low-lying energy levels for the nuclides:

18 166 18 208 18
10 Ne 68 Er 9F 82 Pb 8O

The schemes are drawn to the same scale, with energies (in MeV) with respect to the ground
state and the spin and parity (J P ) values given for each level. Identify which scheme corresponds
to each nuclide and explain as fully as you can which features of the levels support your choices.

4
 Nuclear Decay

35. Alpha Decay, Tripos B-style question.

Discuss the factors which affect the lifetimes of nuclei decaying by α-decay. You should include
a description of the Geiger-Nuttall law.

(a) A nucleus with A=200 can decay by the emission of α particles. The α particles are
observed with two different energies, 4.687 MeV and 4.650 MeV. Neither of these decays
populates the ground state of the daughter nucleus, but each is followed by the emission
of a γ ray, whose energies are 266 and 305 keV respectively. No other γ rays are seen.
• From this information construct an energy level diagram for the states involved, and
indicate on it the decay scheme.
• The decaying parent state has JP = 1− and the daughter has ground state JP = 0− .
Explain why there is no direct α decay to the ground state.
(b) The values of the energy release, Q, and the measured α-decay half-lives of some isotopes
of Thorium are as follows:
Isotope Q / MeV Half-life / s
220
90 Th 8.95 1.0 × 10−5
222
90 Th 8.13 2.8 × 10−3
226
90 Th 6.45 1.9 × 103
228
90 Th 5.52 6.0 × 107
230
90 Th 4.77 2.5 × 1012
232
90 Th 4.08 4.4 × 1017
Estimate the α-decay half-life of 224
90 Th, given that the Q-value for this decay is 7.31 MeV.
What is the approximate uncertainty in your estimate?
(Part II 1995)

36. Beta Decay, Tripos A-style question.

Outline the Fermi theory of β decay and explain the principal assumptions made.
Explain the difference between Fermi and Gamow-Teller transitions and between super-allowed,
allowed and forbidden decays. Explain the significance of f t values.
Classify each of the following examples of β decay according to whether the decay is super-
allowed, allowed, 1st forbidden etc., and whether Fermi or Gamow-Teller matrix elements are
involved.

5
 (i) n→p

6 +
(ii) 2 He(0 ) → 63 Li(1+ ) (f t=830s)

(iii) 14 +
6 C(0 ) → 147 N∗ (0+ ) (f t=3300s)

35 3+ 3+
(iv) 16 S( 2 ) → 35
17 Cl( 2 ) (f t=1x105 s)

36 −
(v) 17 Cl(2 ) → 36 +
18 Ar(0 )

76 −
(vi) 35 Br(1 ) → 76 +
34 Se(0 )

137 7+ 3 +
(vii) 55 Cs( 2 ) → 137
56 Ba( 2 )

37. Fermi Theory, Tripos A-style question.

Show that the electron momentum spectrum in β-decay using Fermi theory can be written as

dΓ G2
= F3 (E0 − Ee )2 p2e
dpe 2π
where GF is the Fermi constant, Ee and pe are the energy and momentum of the electron and
E0 is the total energy released. You may treat the electron and neutrino as massless.
Show that the average kinetic energy carried off by the electron in β decay is E0 /2 when the
electron is highly relativistic, and E0 /3 when the electron is non-relativistic.
When the electron is highly relativistic, show that the total decay rate is given approximately
by
G2 E 5
Γ = F 30
60π
5
The E0 dependence is sometimes known as Sargent’s Rule.

38. Gamma Decay, Tripos B-style question.

A nucleus in an excited state at 2.51 MeV can decay by emission of three γ rays as shown below.
The transitions labelled γ1 , γ2 and γ3 are known to proceed via magnetic dipole, electric dipole
and electric quadrupole transitions respectively. No other transitions to the ground state, of
+
comparable intensities, are observed. Given that the ground state has a spin of 32 what are
the most probable spins and parities of these three excited states?

6
 Fission and Fusion

39. Fission, Tripos B-style question.

(a) Graphite (i.e. 12 C) is sometimes used as a moderator in nuclear reactors. Compute the
maximum fractional energy loss which a non-relativistic neutron can undergo in a single
elastic collision with a 12 C nucleus. Hence calculate the minimum number of collisions
which would be required in order to bring a 2.5 MeV fission neutron down to a thermal
energy of 0.025 eV.
(b) Experiments are being performed using a mixture of 235 U and graphite. The graphite
contains a fraction of 10−6 by weight of 10 B. The neutron absorption cross-sections for
12
C, 10 B, and 235 U at thermal energies are 0.04 b, 3800 b and 700 b respectively, where
fission accounts for 580 b of the cross-section in 235 U. What is the maximum fraction by
weight of 235 U which could be allowed in the mixture if the multiplication factor at infinite
volume is not to exceed unity? Assume that 2.5 neutrons are produced per fission, and
that all reactions take place at thermal energies.

40. Fusion, Tripos A-style question.

Estimate the size of the Coulomb barrier between two 16
8 O nuclei which needs to be overcome
before they can undergo fusion, and thus estimate the temperature needed to bring about
fusion in this case.

7
Numerical answers
28. (b) 0.7 MeV; (d) 44 (101 191
44 Ru is stable); 77 (77 Ir is stable); 114 ; (e) 150 MeV.

30. 5 fm.
31. (a) 3.4 fm; (b)4.2 fm; (c)4.6 fm.
35. ∼ 10 s
36. (i) superallowed, F/GT; (ii) superallowed GT; (iii) superallowed F; (iv) allowed F/GT; (v) 1st
forbidden GT; (vi) 1st forbidden F/GT; (vii) 2nd forbidden F/GT.
7+ 9+ 9− 7−
38. From the highest level downwards: 2
, 2 , 2 or 2
.

Suggested Tripos Questions

Semi-Empirical Mass Formula: 2018 B2, 2010 A1(a)

Nuclear Forces & Scattering: 2016 4, 2012 1(a)

Shell Model: 2017 1(b), 2016 1(a)

Nuclear excitations: 2017 3 (last part), 2015 1(a)

Nuclear decay: 2017 3, 2013 1(c)

α-decay: 2010 A1(b), 2007 A3

β-decay: 2016 3(b)(c)(d), 2015 4

γ-decay: 2015 A1(b), 2014 4

Fission and Fusion: 2018 B2 (last part), 2011 4

8
 APPENDIX A: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
Summary of the physical constants and conversion factors used in this course:

Electron charge, e = 1.602 × 10−19 C

h̄c = 0.197 GeV fm
h̄ = 6.58 × 10−25 GeV s
Fine structure constant, α = 1/137.04
Bohr magneton, µB = 9.3 × 10−24 JT−1
Nuclear magneton, µN = 5.1 × 10−27 JT−1

1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J, 1 MeV = 106 eV, 1 GeV = 109 eV

1 fermi(fm) = 10−15 m
1 barn(b) = 10−28 m2
1 Curie(Ci) = 3.7 × 1010 decays s−1

Atomic masses are often given in unified (or atomic) mass units:
1 unified mass unit(u) = Mass of an atom of 12
6 C/12
1u = 1g/NA = 1.66 × 10−27 kg = 931.5 MeV/c2
 APPENDIX B: PARTICLE PROPERTIES
From the Review of Particle Physics, C. Amsler et al., Phys. Lett. B667 1 (2008)
http://pdg.lbl.gov/

Quarks (spin 1/2)

Name Flavour Mass Charge (e)

(GeV/c2 )
up u ≈ 0.35 +2/3
down d md ≈ mu −1/3
charm c 1.5 +2/3
strange s 0.5 −1/3
top t 171.2(2.1) +2/3
bottom b 4.5 −1/3

Leptons (spin 1/2)

Lepton Charge Mass Mean life (s) Lepton Branching

(MeV/c2 ) Decay Mode Fraction (%)
νe 0 < 2 eV/c2 stable
νµ 0 < 0.19 stable
ντ 0 < 18.2 stable
e ±1 0.511a stable
c
µ ±1 105.658b 2.197 × 10−6 e− ν¯e νµ ≈ 100
τ ±1 1776.8(2) 291(1) × 10−15 µ− ν¯µ ντ 17.36(5)
e− ν¯e ντ 17.85(5)
hadrons +ντ ≈ 65
a
The error on the e mass is 1.3 × 10−8 MeV/c2 .
b
The error on the µ mass is 4 × 10−6 MeV/c2 .
c
The error on the µ lifetime is 2 × 10−11 s.

N.B. Numbers given in brackets correspond to the error in the last digit(s).
For example, mτ = 1776.8(2)MeV/c2 ≡ (1776.8 ± 0.2)MeV/c2 .
 Gauge Bosons (J P = 1− )

Force Gauge Charge (e) Mass Full Width Decay Mode Branching
Boson (GeV/c2 ) (GeV) Fraction (%)

E-M γ < 5 × 10−30 < 10−18 eV/c2 stable

Weak W± ±1 80.40(3) 2.14(4) eνe 10.7(2)

(Charged) µνµ 10.6(2)
τ ντ 11.2(2)
hadrons 67.6(3)

Weak Z0 0 91.188(2) 2.495(2) ee 3.363(4)

(Neutral) µµ 3.366(7)
ττ 3.370(8)
νν 20.00(6)
hadrons 69.91(6)

Strong g 0 0 stable
 Pseudoscalar Mesons (J P = 0− )

Particle Quark Mass Mean Life (s) or Decay Mode Branching

Content (MeV/c2 ) Width (keV) Fraction (%)

π± ud̄, dū √ 139.5702(4) 2.6033(5) × 10−8 s µ− ν¯µ ≈ 100

π0 (uū − dd̄)/ 2 134.9766(6) 8.4(6) × 10−17 s γγ 98.80(3)
η see note a 547.85(2) 1.30(7) keV γγ 39.3(2)
π0π0π0 32.6(2)
π+π−π0 22.7(3)
π+π−γ 4.6(2)
η0 see note a 957.7(2) 0.20(2) MeV π+π−η 45(2)
ρ0 γ 29(1)
π0π0η 21(1)
K± us̄, sū 493.677(16) 1.238(2) × 10−8 s µ− ν¯µ 63.5(1)
π−π0 20.7(1)
π+π−π− 5.59(4)
π 0 µ− ν¯µ 3.35(4)
π 0 e− ν¯e 5.08(5)
K0 , K0 ds̄, sd̄ 497.61(2) K0S : 0.8953(5) × 10−10 s π+π− 69.2(1)
π0π0 30.7(1)
K0L : 5.12(2) × 10−8 s π0π0π0 19.5(1)
π+π−π0 12.5(1)
π ± µ∓ νµ 27.0(1)
π ± e∓ νe 40.5(1)
D± cd̄, dc̄ 1869.3(4) 1.040(7) × 10−12 s e− + anyb 16.0(4)
K− + any 26(1)
K+ + any 5.9(8)
K0 + any
plus
K0 + any 61(5)
−12
D 0
, D0 uc̄, cū 1864.8(2) 0.410(2) × 10 s K− + anyc 55(3)
K+ + any 3.4(4)
e+ + any 6.5(2)
µ+ + any 6.7(6)
K0 + any
plus
K0 + any 47(4)
D±s cs̄, sc̄ 1968.5(3) 0.500(7) × 10−12 s seen
B± ub̄, bū 5279.1(3) 1.64(1) × 10−12 s many
B0 , B0 db̄, bd̄ 5279.5(3) 1.53(1) × 10−12 s many
B0s , B0s sb̄, bs̄ 5366.3(6) 1.47(3) × 10−12 s many
B±c cb̄, bc̄ 6276(4) 0.46(18) × 10−12 s many
ηc cc̄ 2980(1) 27(3) MeV hadrons
√
a
η and η 0 are linear combinations of the quark state (uū + dd̄)/ 2 and ss̄ (see lectures).
b
D− decay modes; c D0 decay modes.
 Vector Mesons (J P = 1− )

Particle Quark Mass Full Width (MeV) Decay Mode Branching

Content (MeV/c2 ) Fraction (%)

ρ± ud̄, dū √ 775.5(4) 149(1) ππ 100

ρ0 (uū − dd̄)/√2
ω (uū + dd̄)/ 2 782.6(1) 8.49(8) π+π−π0 89.2(7)
π0γ 8.9(2)
π+π− 1.5(1)
φ ss̄ 1019.46(2) 4.26(4) K+ K− 49.2(6)
K0L K0S 34.0(5)
K∗± us̄, sū 891.7(3) 50.8(9) Kπ ≈ 100
K∗0 , K∗0 ds̄, sd̄ 896.0(3) 50.3(6) Kπ ≈ 100
D∗± cd̄, dc̄ 2010.3(2) 0.096(22) D0 π −a 67.7(5)
D− π 0 30.7(5)
D∗0 , D∗0 uc̄, cū 2007.0(2) < 2.1 D0 π 0b 62(3)
D0 γ 38(3)
D∗±
s cs̄, sc̄ 2112.3(5) < 1.9 D±
s γ 94(1)
D±
s π
0
6(1)
B∗ ub̄, bū, db̄, bd̄, 5325.1(5) Bγ dominant
sb̄, bs̄
J/ψ cc̄ 3096.92(1) 93(2) keV hadrons 87.7(5)
e+ e− 5.9(1)
µ+ µ− 5.9(1)
Υ(1s) bb̄ 9460.3(3) 54(1) keV τ +τ − 2.6(1)
e+ e− 2.4(1)
µ+ µ− 2.48(5)

a
D∗− decay modes; b
D∗0 decay modes.
 Baryons (J P = 1/2+ )

Particle Quark Mass Mean Life (s) or Decay Mode Branching

Content (MeV/c2 ) Full Width (MeV) Fraction (%)

p uud 938.27203(8) > 2.1 × 1029 years

n udd 939.56536(8) 885.7(8) s pe− ν¯e 100
Λ0 uds 1115.683(6) 2.63(2) × 10−10 s pπ − 63.9(5)
nπ 0 35.8(5)
Σ+ uus 1189.37(7) 0.802(3) × 10−10 s pπ 0 51.6(3)
nπ + 48.3(3)
Σ0 uds 1192.64(2) 7.4(7) × 10−20 s Λ0 γ 100
Σ− dds 1197.45(3) 1.48(1) × 10−10 s nπ − 99.848(5)
Ξ0 uss 1314.8(2) 2.90(9) × 10−10 s Λ0 π 0 99.52(1)
Ξ− dss 1321.7(1) 1.64(2) × 10−10 s Λ0 π − 99.89(4)
Λ+
c udc 2286.5(1) 2.00(6) × 10−13 s many
Λb udb 5620(2) 1.38(5) × 10−12 s many

Baryons (J P = 3/2+ )

∆ uuu, uud ≈ 1232 ≈ 118 MeV Nπ > 99

udd, ddd
Σ∗ uus, uds, dds ≈ 1385 ≈ 36 MeV Λ0 π 87(2)
Σπ 12(2)
Ξ∗ uss, dss ≈ 1533 ≈ 9 MeV Ξπ 100
Ω− sss 1672.5(3) 0.82(1) × 10−10 s Λ0 K− 67.8(7)
Ξ0 π − 23.6(7)
Ξ− π 0 8.6(4)
 APPENDIX C: Scattering from a Yukawa potential
Consider relativistc elastic scattering from a Yukawa potential

g e−mr
V (~r) =
r
The matrix element is given by
Z 2
 
2 
|Mif | =  e −i~
q .~
r 3 
V (~r) d ~r

In order to perform the integral, choose the z axis to lie along ~r. Then ~q.~r = −qr cos θ
and
Z Z ∞ Z 2π Z π
−i~
q .~
r 3
e V (~r) d ~r = V (r) eiqr cos θ r2 sin θ dθ dφ dr
0 0 0
Z ∞ Z +1
= 2πV (r) eiqr cos θ r2 d(cos θ) dr
0 −1
Z ∞  iqr 
e − e−iqr
= 2πV (r) r2 dr
iqr
Z0 ∞  
e−mr eiqr − e−iqr
= 2πg r2 dr
r iqr
Z0 ∞  iqr 
−mr e − e−iqr
= 2πg e dr
iq
Z0 ∞
2πg −r(m−iq)

= e − e−r(m+iq) dr
0 iq
 
2πg 1 1 2πg 2iq
= − =
iq m − iq m + iq iq m2 + q 2
4πg
= 2
m + q2

The matrix element is then

16π 2 g 2
|Mif |2 =
(m2 + q 2 )2

The Yukawa potential is a general potential, and can be extended to other potentials, e.g.
for the Coulomb potential
Zα
V (~r) = −
r
using g = Zα and m = 0, the matrix element for Rutherford Scattering is

16π 2 Z 2 α2
|Mif |2 =
q4
 Appendix D: Interaction via Particle Exchange
We need to evaluate the following integral in order to determine the energy shift when in
state i when a particle of mass m is exchanged between particle 1 and particle 2,
Z ∞
1→2 g2 p2 eipr − e−ipr
∆Ei =− dp
2(2π)2 0 p2 + m2 ipr
Start by rewriting
Z ∞
1 g2 p eipr − e−ipr
∆Ei1→2 = − dp
2 2(2π)2 −∞ p2 + m2 ir
using the fact that the integrand is even in p. The integrand has poles at p = ±im (see
the figure). The integrals with the eipr and e−ipr terms are performed separately. This is
because one chooses an infinite semi-circular contour to do the integration over, in such
a way that on the circular piece the contribution from infinity vanishes. This happens if
the integrand contains a decaying exponential in |p|. For eipr , this happens for p = +i|p|
and so one closes the contour in the upper half plane (C1 in the figure). For e−ipr , we
want p = −i|p|, and so close the contour in the lower half plane (C2 in the figure).

The whole integral is thus:

I I 
g2 p eipr p e−ipr
− dp − dp .
2(2π)2 C1 p2 + m2 ir C2 p2 + m2 ir
The residue of the pole at p = im in the first integrand is:
(p − im) p ipr 1 −mr
lim e = e
p→im (p − im)(p + im) ir 2ir
and the residue of the pole at p = −im in the second integrand is:
(p + im) −p e−ipr 1 −mr
lim =− e .
p→−im (p − im)(p + im) ir 2ir
Cauchy’s residue theorem tells us that the contour integral over an anti-clockwise contour
is 2πi multiplied by the sum of the residues of the poles enclosed by the contour. For
a clockwise contour, there is an additional minus sign. Noting that C1 is anti-clockwise,
and C2 is clockwise, one has:
 −mr 
1→2 g2 e e−mr
∆Ei =− 2πi +
2(2π)2 2ir 2ir
2 −mr
g e
=−
8π r
as given in the notes.
APPENDIX E: LOCAL GAUGE INVARIANCE IN
QED
Consider a non-relativistic charged particle in an electromagnetic field:

F = q (E + v × B)

where E and B can be written in terms of the vector and scalar potentials, A and φ:
∂A
B = ∇ × A and E = −∇φ − .
∂t
The classical Hamiltonian,
1
2
H= p − qA + qφ,
2m
can be used along with Schrödinger’s equation to obtain
 
1 2 ∂ψ
Hψ = (−i∇ − qA) + qφ ψ(x, t) = i (x, t). (1)
2m ∂t

where we have substituted p → −i∇. We now need to show that Schrödinger’s equation
is invariant under the local guage transformation

ψ → ψ 0 = eiqα(x,t) ψ
A → A0 = A + ∇α
∂α
φ → φ0 = φ −
∂t
Substituting for ψ 0 , A0 and φ0 in equation (1):
 
1 ∂α ∂
(−i∇ − q(A + ∇α))2 + q(φ − ) eiqα ψ = i (eiqα ψ)
2m ∂t ∂t
   
1 2 ∂α iqα iqα ∂ψ ∂α iqα
(−i∇ − qA − q∇α) + qφ − q e ψ=i e + iqψ e .
2m ∂t ∂t ∂t

The last terms on either side of the above equation cancel.

Now consider the (−i∇ − qA − q∇α)2 term. In order to show local gauge invariance, we
need to show that

(−i∇ − qA − q∇α)2 eiqα ψ = (−i∇ − qA)2 eiqα ψ

or, equivalently,
2
(−i∇ − qA0 ) ψ 0 = (−i∇ − qA)2 eiqα ψ.
Now,

(−i∇ − qA − q∇α)2 eiqα ψ = (−i∇ − qA − q∇α) · (−i∇ − qA − q∇α) eiqα ψ

and

∇ eiqα ψ = eiqα (∇ + iq∇α) ψ.
Therefore,

(−i∇ − qA − q∇α) eiqα ψ = eiqα (−i∇ + q∇α − qA − q∇α) ψ

= eiqα (−i∇ − qA) ψ

and

(−i∇ − qA − q∇α)2 ψ 0 = (−i∇ − qA − q∇α) eiqα (−i∇ − qA) ψ

= eiqα (−i∇ − qA)2 ψ.

Hence,
2
(−i∇ − qA0 ) ψ 0 = eiqα (−i∇ − qA)2 ψ
and Schrödinger’s equation is invariant under a local gauge transformation.
 APPENDIX F: NEUTRINO SCATTERING IN
FERMI THEORY
Calculation of the cross-section for νe + n → p + e− using Fermi theory. The cross-section
is given by Fermi’s Golden Rule

Γ = 2π |Mf i |2 ρ (Ef )

where the matrix element, Mf i , is given by the 4-point interaction with a strength equal
to the Fermi constant, GF ;
|Mf i |2 ≈ G2F .
There are a total of 4 possible spin states for the spin- 21 e and ν. These correspond to
a singlet state S = 0 (Fermi transition) and three triplet states S = 1 (Gamow-Teller
transition). Therefore, the matrix element becomes

|Mf i |2 ≈ 4G2F .

The differential cross-section is then given by,

Ee2
dσ = 2π4G2F dΩ
(2π)3

where Ee is the energy of the electron in the zero-momentum frame. It follows that

dσ G2 E 2
= F2 e .
dΩ π
√
The total energy in the zero-momentum frame, s = 2Ee . Hence, the total cross-section
can be written as Z
dσ 4G2F Ee2 G2 s
σ= dΩ = = F .
dΩ π π
APPENDIX G: NEUTRINO SCATTERING WITH
A MASSIVE W BOSON
From Appendix F, the differential cross-section in Fermi theory is

dσ G2 E 2
= F2 e .
dΩ π
The correct theory involves exchange of a massive vector boson of mass MW , which leads
to a propagator in the matrix element
1
2
.
q2 − MW

Fermi theory is equivalent to neglecting the q 2 term in the denominator. Hence, treating
W-boson exchange correctly, we have
 2
dσ G2 E 2 MW2
= F2 e 2
.
dΩ π MW − q 2

Now, for elastic scattering, q 2 = 0 − |q|2 , where

 2
2 θ 1
|q| = 2Ee sin = s(1 − cos θ) ≡ u
2 2

and so
1 s
du = s sin θ dθ = dΩ .
2 4π
We can thus integrate the differential cross-section in terms of u:
Z  2
G2F s MW 2
σ = dΩ 2
4π 2 MW +u
2 4 Z s
GF MW 1
= du 2 2
π 0 (M W + u)
  s
G2F MW 4
−1
=
π M2 + u 0
2 4
 W 
GF MW 1 1
= 2
− 2
π MW MW + s
G2F MW 2
s
= 2
π(MW + s)
2
At small values of s this reduces to the Fermi theory result, while for s  MW the
cross-section tends towards the constant value
G2F MW
2
σ=
π

and is no longer divergent.

 APPENDIX H: GAMOW FACTOR IN ALPHA
DECAY
The probability for an α particle to tunnel through the Coulomb barrier can be written
as Y
P = exp{−2G}
i
where G is the Gamow Factor,
Z R0
[2m (V (r) − E0 )]1/2
G= dr.
R h̄
R is the radius of the nucleus of mass number Z, R0 is the radius at which the α particle
escapes, m is the mass of the α particle, V (r) = 2 (Z − 2) e2 /4π0 r ≡ B/r is the Coulomb
potential, and E0 is the energy release in the decay.
The α particle escapes the nucleus when r = R0 . Hence, the potential V (R0 ) = E0 and
R0 = B/E0 . Therefore,
 1/2 Z R0  1/2
2m B
G= − E0 dr
h̄2 R r
 1/2 Z R0  1/2
2mB 1 1
= − dr
h̄2 R r R0
In order to perform the integration, let r = R0 cos2 θ and dr = −2R0 cos θ sin θ dθ. Then
Z  1/2 Z  1/2
1 1 1 1
− 0 dr = − (−2R0 cos θ sin θ) dθ
r R R0 cos2 θ R0
Z
= −2R01/2 sin2 θ dθ

= R01/2 [sin 2θ − θ]

Now, using cos θ = (r/R0 )1/2 , sin θ = (1 − r/R0 )1/2 and sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ, then
0
h iR 0
0 1/2 0 1/2 0 1/2
R01/2 [sin 2θ − θ]R
R = R 01/2
2 (1 − r/R ) (r/R ) − cos−1
(r/R )
R
h i
01/2 −1 0 1/2 0 0 1/2
=R cos (R/R ) − 2{(1 − R/R ) (R/R )}

Hence, the Gamow factor

 1/2 h i
2mB 01/2 −1 0 1/2 0 0 1/2
G= R cos (R/R ) − 2{(1 − R/R ) (R/R )}
h̄2
or  1/2 h
2m B i
1/2
G= cos−1 (R/R0 ) − 2{(1 − R/R0 ) (R/R0 )}1/2
E0 h̄
For most practical cases, R  R0 , so the term in square brackets is ≈ π/2 and G becomes
 1/2
2m Bπ
G≈
E0 h̄ 2