02 The Physical Layer

Revision no.
: PPT/2K403/02
The Physical Layer

Revision no.: PPT/2K403/02
ISO
• In 1977, the International Organization for standardization (ISO)
created the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference
Model.
• The reference model serves seven OSI layers they are as
follows :-
© CMS INSTITUTE, 2004. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced, stored or emailed without the prior permission of Programme Director, CMS Institute
OSI reference model
Application
Application Layer
Layer
Presentation
Presentation Layer
Layer
Session
Session Layer
Layer
Transport
Transport Layer
Layer
Network
Network Layer
Layer
Data
Data Link
Link Layer
Layer
Physical
Physical Layer
Layer
The OSI reference model
Headers and the OSI Reference Mode
• Each layer adds its own control information, called a header,
which contains that layer’s requests or information. This
header is read and processed by the peer layer.
Headers and the OSI Reference Mode (contd.)
Data Package Names and the OSI Reference Model
OSI Reference Model as a Conceptual Framework
Physical Layer
• The Physical layer protocol coordinates the rules
• for transmitting bits.The layer defines :-
• Physical network structures .
• Mechanical and electrical specifications for using the
transmission medium.
• Bit transmission encoding and timing rules.
Physical Layer (contd.)
• Network connectivity hardware devices associated with the

Physical layer:
• Concentrators, hubs, and repeaters, which regenerate
electrical signals
• Transmission media connectors, which provide the
mechanical interface to interconnect devices to the
transmission media .
• Modems and codecs, which perform digital and analog
conversions
The OSI Physical Layer
The OSI Physical Layer (contd.)
Connection Type Methods
• Point-to-point
• Multipoint
Connection Type Methods (contd.)
Point-to-Point Connections
• A point-to-point connection is a direct link between two
devices. When you attach a personal computer directly to a
printer, you have created a point-to-point link. Another
example is the link between two microwave antennas.
• A direct connection between a computer and a printer is a
common example of a point-to-point connection.
Point-to-Point Connections (contd.)
Multipoint Connections
• A multipoint connection is a link between three or more
devices.Historically, multipoint connections were used to
connect one master computer with a series of slave
terminals.
• Multipoint connections share the same bandwidth so the
overall capacity is divided among every device connected
to the media.
Multipoint Connections (contd.)
Physical Topology Methods
Physical Topology
• All computer networks rely upon point-to-point and multipoint
connections. However, the complete physical structure of the
transmission media is called Physical topology.
• For example, the physical topology refers to the actual layout
of the pieces of cable.
Common Physical Topologies
Physical Bus Topology (contd.)
• A physical bus topology typically uses one long cable, called a
backbone, to which network devices are either directly
attached or are attached using short drop cables.
Physical Bus Topology (contd.)
Physical Bus Topology LAN
• Bus topologies allow electric or electromagnetic signals to
travel in both directions. However, when a unidirectional bus is
used, the signal only passes to downstream devices.
• To complete the path, special terminators are used to send the
signal in the opposite direction.
Typical Physical Bus Topology LAN
Physical Ring Topology
• A physical ring is a circular topology. Each device connects
directly to the ring or indirectly through an interface device
and drop cable.
Physical Ring Topology (contd.)
Physical Ring Topology LAN
• Star topologies can be nested within other stars to form tree or
hierarchical network topologies.
• In star topologies, electric or electromagnetic signals travel
from the networked device, up its drop cable, to the hub. From
there the signal is sent to other networked devices.
Typical Physical Ring Topology LAN
Physical Star Topology
A star physical topology
• A star topology uses a central device with drop cables
extending in all directions. Each networked device is
connected via a point-to-point link to a hub.
• Physical star topologies use a central device with drop cables
extending in all directions. Each networked device is
connected by a point-to-point link to the central device, which
is called a hub, multiport repeater, or concentrator.
Typical Physical Star Topology LAN
Mesh Topology
• A mesh network has point-to-point connections between every

device in the network.
• Each device requires an interface for every other device on the

network, a true mesh topology is not usually considered
practical.
• Unless each workstation frequently sends signals to all other

workstations, an excessive amount of network bandwidth is
wasted.
Physical Mesh Topology
Typical Physical Mesh Topology LAN
A cellular topology
• A cellular topology combines wireless point-to-point and
multipoint strategies to divide a geographic area into cells.
Each cell represents the portion of the total network area in
which a specific connection operates.
• Cellular topologies exhibit qualities that are very different from
cable topologies. For example, devices can roam from cell to
cell while maintaining a connection to the network.
Physical Cellular Topology
Physical Cellular Topology LAN
• As a wireless structure, the topology does not depend on the
interconnection of cable. Cellular topology relies on the
location of wireless media hubs.
• Devices within the cell communicate with a central station or
hub. Hubs are interconnected so that they route data across
the network and provide the complete network infrastructure.
Typical Physical Cellular Topology LAN
Digital Signaling Methods
Digital signals
• Digital signals represent data using a finite number of states. A
digital clock is an example of a device that registers discrete
states. It indicates time in whole numbers representing hours,
minutes, and seconds.
Typical Representation Digital Signal
• In computer networks, digital signaling is produced by pulses

of light or electric voltages. The state of the pulse (on or off,
high or low) is changed to represent binary bits of data. The
following figure shows a typical representation of a digital
signal.
• Digital signaling systems can use more than one or two signal
levels to represent multiple bits. However, this course presents
only binary encoding principles, which might also apply to
multilevel digital signaling.
Time
Measurement of Digital Signals
• Using the state transition method of encoding, a transition
from one state to another would indicate a binary 0 or 1.
• In this case, a voltage transition indicates a binary 1, while the
absence of a transition represents a binary 0.
Measurement of Digital Signals (contd.)
Analog signals
• Analog signals are constantly changing, registering an infinite
number of states. A clock with a second hand constantly
changes its representation of time. The second hand is
constantly moving, never stopping on an exact number,
registering an infinite number of fractions of seconds.
• Analog signals rely on the continuously variable states of
waves. Electromagnetic waves, used in analog signals, are
often represented by a single wave.
Typical Representation of Analog Signals
Analog Wave Amplitude Modulation
• The amplitude of a wave is the signal strength compared to a
reference value. Analog signals are based upon amplitude, or
strength, shifts that vary constantly from positive to negative
values.
• The amplitude of an analog signal can be changed, or
modulated, during transmission.
Analog Wave Amplitude Modulation
Analog Wave Frequency Modulation
• The frequency of a wave is the number of cycles completed by

the wave within a specified unit of time. Frequency is typically
measured in hertz (Hz) or cycles per second.
• The frequency of an analog signal can be modulated during

transmission.
• Cycles per second are commonly measured in hertz, kilohertz,

or megahertz.
Analog Wave Frequency Modulation (contd.)
Phase of Periodic Analog Signals
• The phase of a signal refers to the relative state of the wave

when timing began.
• For example, in the following figure, Signal B crosses zero at a

slightly different time than Signal A. Signal phase is measured
in degrees, so Signal B is shifted 90° from Signal A and Signal
C is 270° out of phase with Signal A.
Phase of Periodic Analog Signals (contd.)
Analog Wave Phase Modulation
• The phase of an analog signal can be modulated during

transmission.
Analog Wave Phase Modulation (contd.)
Amplitude-shift keying
• Amplitude-shift keying encodes binary data by varying the
signal’s amplitude between two or more levels.
• For example, a binary 0 might be one volt and a binary 1 might
be three volts.
Frequency-shift keying
• Frequency-shift keying encodes binary data by varying the

signal’s frequency between two or more values.
• For example, a binary 0 would be one frequency or group of

frequencies, and a binary 1 would be some other frequency or
group of frequencies.
Current State Measurement of Analog Signals
Phase-shift keying (PSK).
• Transitions from one analog phase to another can also encode

data on an analog signal.
• The method of analog signaling that uses a state transition

method is called phase-shift keying (PSK).
State Transition Measurement of Analog Signals
Bit Synchronization Methods
• Data bits are encoded on the analog or digital signal by

changing the state of a specific signal characteristic.
• The receiver interprets the signal by taking a measurement of

the characteristic.
• The receiver must use a clock or a timing method to determine

the correct time to measure and decode the signal and extract
the data bits.
Bit Synchronization Methods (contd.)
• The control of measurement timing clocks can be called bit
synchronization. Two types of bit synchronization are used:
• Asynchronous
• Synchronous
Bit Synchronization Methods (contd.)
Bandwidth Use Methods
Bandwidth Use Methods (contd.)
• Bandwidth refers to the amount of data that can be carried on
a given transmission media. Larger bandwidth means greater
data transmission capabilities.
• Bandwidth use schemes are based upon the availability and
utilization of channels.
Bandwidth Use Methods (contd.)
• The transmission capacity your network’s transmission media
can provide depends on the bandwidth use method you
employ. The following bandwidth use are as follows :-
• Baseband
• Broadband
Broadband
• Broadband systems use the transmission medium’s capacity
to provide multiple channels. Multiple channels are created by
dividing up the medium’s bandwidth by using frequency
modulation to implement a technology called frequency-
division multiplexing (discussed in the following subsection).
• Using analog signals, broadband networks can directly
support multiple simultaneous conversations.
Baseband
• Baseband systems use the transmission medium’s entire

capacity for a single channel. Baseband networks can use
either analog or digital signaling, but digital is much more
common.
• Baseband signals can be more reliably interpreted and

regenerated than broadband signals.
Baseband and Broadband Transmission
Multiplexing Methods
Multiplexing
• Multiple channels can be created on a single medium segment
through multiplexing. Multiplexing refers to several
technologies that allow multiple devices to communicate
simultaneously over a single transmission medium segment.
• If the bandwidth of the installed medium is sufficient,
multiplexing allows new channels to be used without having to
install new media.
Multiplexing (contd.)
Multiplexer
• The equipment that multiplexes and demultiplexes is

sometimes called a multiplexer or mux.
Types of Multiplexing
• Multiplexers use the following methods to allow multiple
devices to communicate concurrently :
• Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
• Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (StatTDM)
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
• Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) uses separate

frequencies to establish multiple channels within a broadband
medium. To do this, the mux creates special broadband carrier
signals that operate on different frequencies. Data signals are
added to the carrier signals and are removed, at the opposite
end of the media segment, by another mux.
• FDM is used in broadband LANs to separate different-direction
traffic on the cable and to provide special services like
dedicated connections between machines.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing(TDM)
• Time-division multiplexing (TDM) systems divide a single
channel into short time slots. Bits, blocks of bits, bytes, or
frames can be placed into each time slot as long as the
predetermined time interval is not exceeded.
• Time-division is a multiplexing technique that you can use on
baseband systems. You can also use it on an individual
channel of a broadband FDM system.
Time-Division Multiplexing
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
• Conventional synchronous TDM systems waste bandwidth if
many time slots are unused. Statistical time-division
multiplexing (StatTDM) solves this problem by dynamically
allocating time slots to active devices on a first-come, first-
served or priority basis.
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (contd.)
Design & Published by:

CMS Institute, Design & Development Centre, CMS House, Plot No. 91, Street No.7,
MIDC, Marol, Andheri (E), Mumbai –400093, Tel: 91-22-28216511, 28329198
Email: courseware.inst@cmail.cms.co.in
www.cmsinstitute.co.in

02 The Physical Layer

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02 The Physical Layer

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Revision no.

The Physical Layer

• In 1977, the International Organization for standardization (ISO)

created the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference

• The reference model serves seven OSI layers they are as

OSI reference model

The OSI reference model

Headers and the OSI Reference Mode

• Each layer adds its own control information, called a header,

which contains that layer’s requests or information. This

header is read and processed by the peer layer.

Headers and the OSI Reference Mode (contd.)

Data Package Names and the OSI Reference Model

OSI Reference Model as a Conceptual Framework

• The Physical layer protocol coordinates the rules

• for transmitting bits.The layer defines :-

• Physical network structures .

• Mechanical and electrical specifications for using the

• Bit transmission encoding and timing rules.

Physical Layer (contd.)

• Network connectivity hardware devices associated with the

The OSI Physical Layer

The OSI Physical Layer (contd.)

Connection Type Methods

Connection Type Methods (contd.)

• A point-to-point connection is a direct link between two

devices. When you attach a personal computer directly to a

printer, you have created a point-to-point link. Another

example is the link between two microwave antennas.

• A direct connection between a computer and a printer is a

common example of a point-to-point connection.

Point-to-Point Connections (contd.)

• A multipoint connection is a link between three or more

devices.Historically, multipoint connections were used to

connect one master computer with a series of slave

• Multipoint connections share the same bandwidth so the

overall capacity is divided among every device connected

Multipoint Connections (contd.)

Physical Topology Methods

• All computer networks rely upon point-to-point and multipoint

connections. However, the complete physical structure of the

transmission media is called Physical topology.

• For example, the physical topology refers to the actual layout

of the pieces of cable.

Common Physical Topologies

Physical Bus Topology (contd.)

• A physical bus topology typically uses one long cable, called a

backbone, to which network devices are either directly

attached or are attached using short drop cables.

Physical Bus Topology (contd.)

Physical Bus Topology LAN

• Bus topologies allow electric or electromagnetic signals to

travel in both directions. However, when a unidirectional bus is

used, the signal only passes to downstream devices.

• To complete the path, special terminators are used to send the

signal in the opposite direction.

Typical Physical Bus Topology LAN

Physical Ring Topology

• A physical ring is a circular topology. Each device connects

directly to the ring or indirectly through an interface device

and drop cable.

Physical Ring Topology (contd.)

Physical Ring Topology LAN