Unit 2

Air Transportation and Operation BANED1-721
UNIT – II
Airspace Classification and Communication: Airspace classification, controlled versus uncontrolled
airspace, Instrument Flying Rules (IFR) & Visual Flying Rules (VFR) in controlled & uncontrolled airspace,
Airspace classes, Radio communication, Air Traffic Control (ATC) communication procedures, clearance,
aircraft identification, destination airport, departure instructions, route of flight, altitude assignment, required
reports, holding instructions.
Airspace classification
The space lying above the earth or above a certain area of land or water especially: the space lying above a
nation and coming under its jurisdiction.
Control Zones (CTZ). Aerodrome Control Zones afford protection to aircraft within the immediate vicinity
of aerodromes.
Control Areas (CTA). Control Areas are situated above the Aerodrome Traffic Zone (ATZ) and afford
protection over a larger area to a specified upper limit.
Terminal Control Areas are normally established at the junction of airways in the vicinity of one or more
major aerodromes.
The London Terminal Control Area is an example of this and deals with air traffic arriving and departing
from London Heathrow, Gatwick, Luton, Stansted, London City, Northolt, Biggin Hill, Southend,
Farnborough and other minor airfields in the London area.
Airways. Airways are corridors of airspace connecting the Control Areas and link up with airways in other
countries too. Airways are normally 10 miles wide and have bases usually between 5,000 feet and 7,000 feet
and they extend upward to a height of 24,500 feet.
Upper Air Routes. Upper air routes (UARs) sit above airways. Their vertical limits are usually FL 250
(25,000 feet) – FL 460 (46,000 feet). Civil and military aircraft operating above FL 245 (24,500 feet) are
subject to a full and mandatory Air Traffic Control Service. All airspace above 24,500 feet is Class C
controlled airspace.
Restricted. Restricted areas (sometimes called ‘Danger areas’) prevent aircraft straying into dangerous
places. Danger can come from airborne activities, such as military aircraft training or air-to-air refuelling. It
can also come from the ground, such as from weapons testing ranges. To ensure efficient use of the airspace,
ishwarishu2012@gmail.com Module 2
most restricted areas can be deactivated when they are not in use, allowing other aircraft to then use the
airpsace.
Controlled and Uncontrolled Airspaces
Types of Airspace Classes

Controlled and uncontrolled airspaces are the ones you will spend most of your time flying within as a pilot.
Controlled airspace consists of five tiers beginning with most restrictive to least restrictive: Class Alpha
(A), Class Bravo (B), Class Charlie (C), Class Delta (D), and Class Echo (E).
Class A Airspace
Class A airspace generally begins from 18,000 feet mean sea level up to and including 60,000 feet.
Operations in Class A are generally conducted under Instrument Flight Rules and primarily used by higher
performance aircraft, airline and cargo operators, etc.
Class B Airspace
Class B airspace utilizes the space surrounding the nation’s busiest airports and begins from the surface to
10,000 feet MSL. Class B is made up of several layers of varying sizes and shapes, is individually tailored
for the needs of the airspace, and often resembles an upside-down wedding cake, with the airspace widening
as altitude is increased. All aircraft are required to obtain a clearance from Air Traffic Control (ATC) and
follow their guidance to operate within or through Class B airspace.
Class C Airspace
Class C surrounds busy airports that are not quite as busy as Class B airports. It is also made up of layers
tailored to the needs of the airspace but is not as elaborate as Class B. In Class C you will generally find a 5
nautical mile inner ring from the surface to 4,000 feet, and a 10 nautical mile outer ring from 1,200 to 4,000
feet above the airport elevation. An aircraft does not need specific clearance into the Charlie airspace, but
two-way radio communications with the ATC facility and their provision of air traffic services must be
obtained prior to entering, and maintained while inside the airspace.
Class D Airspace
Moving on to lesser and lesser restricted airspace, the Class D airspace exists around airports that still have
an operating control tower but are not as busy as the Class C airports. Generally beginning from the surface
to 2,500 feet above airport elevation, the shape of Class D airspace is individually tailored but exists as just
one layer, rather than having varying shapes stacked on top of each other. Two-way communication must be
made and maintained prior to entering and while operating within the Class D airspace.
Class E Airspace
Class E airspace is any controlled airspace not classified as the aforementioned airspaces surrounding
airports. Most of the airspace in the United States is designated Class E airspace. The level of control
within Class E airspace is meant for air traffic operating on Instrument Flight Rules, while aircraft flying
under Visual Flight Rules usually have the freedom to move throughout the airspace as they wish. Where
Class E begins and ends can be complex, but in most areas, Class E airspace begins at 1,200, while others
may have Class E beginning at the surface or at 700 above ground level (AGL). The airspace extends up to
but not including 18,000 feet MSL, and also excluding any other overlying airspace. Class E begins again
above 60,000 feet. There are areas where the base of Class E is depicted on the sectional as starting at
different altitudes than standard, such as offshore surrounding the contiguous United States.
Class G Airspace
Uncontrolled airspace is known as Class Golf (G), and is the portion of airspace not designated as any of the
previous airspaces. Class G extends from the surface to the base of the overlying Class E airspace. Pilots can
operate as they choose, barring any regulatory requirements restricting their movement, such as low altitude
aerobatics or conducting activities that may pose a hazard to people or objects on the ground. Most of the
airports in the United States are uncontrolled, meaning they have no control tower and pilots must
coordinate their own airport operations by utilizing onboard radio if equipped.
Special Use Airspace

Some areas of the National Airspace System have been designated as Special Use Airspace. Certain
activities must be confined to special use airspace and limitations may be imposed on aircraft that are not
part of those activities. These areas are Prohibited, Restricted, Warning, Military Operations Areas (MOAs),
Alert areas, and Controlled Firing Areas (CFAs). Most of these areas are depicted on pilot sectional charts
with Controlled Firing Areas being the exception.
 Prohibited areas are off limits to aircraft and are heavily protected for security and national welfare reasons.
 Restricted areas may contain operations that are hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft, such as artillery
firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles. It may be possible to transit restricted areas that are not in use, but
confirmation of inactivity with the controlling authority is required.
 Warning areas extend from 3 nautical miles outward from the coast of the United States and are similar to
restricted areas with regard to hazards for non-participating aircraft.
 Military Operations Areas (MOAs) separate certain military training activities from aircraft operating under
Instrument Flight Rules. Some IFR traffic may be cleared through is separation can be provided by ATC. Traffic
flying under Visual Flight Rules may transit the MOA but acute awareness must be maintained. Often it is better to
just avoid the MOA if at all possible.
 Alert areas show pilots where a high volume of pilot training or unusual aerial activity generally occurs.
Pilots should be cautious when flying in alert areas and all pilots within the Alert area are equally responsible for
collision avoidance.
 Controlled Firing Areas (CFAs), as mentioned, are not shown on pilot sectional charts. Activities that could
be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft occur within these areas. It is not required for pilots to know where they are
because all activities are suspended when a spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout position indicates an aircraft may
be approaching the area. Pilots do not need to alter their flight path through these areas.
Other Airspace
There are other airspace areas pilots will become familiar with as they progress through their training. For
example, a Temporary Flight Restriction (TFR) is an area that temporarily restricts or limits the type of
flight activities that may occur within the area. These may be created for potential hazard areas, aerial
firefighting or disaster relief efforts, limit the amount of aerial activity over an area or event that may
generate a high level of interest such as sporting events or sightseeing destinations, movement of VIPs like
the President or Vice President, space launch or recovery operations, etc. Other airspaces of interest may be
military training routes, parachute jump aircraft operations, national security areas (NSA), and Air Defense
Identification Zones.
Why Is It Important for Pilots to Learn About the Airspace Classes?
It is in the best interest of every pilot to become familiar with airspace and the limitations or regulations
associated with each individual airspace. For example, each class of airspace has their own weather
minimums when flying on Visual Flight Rules. Class A is IFR only and not a factor, but Class B, C, D, and
E each have their own complex set of rules with regard to visibility and cloud clearance required.
Pilots spend hours studying these weather minimums and other regulations associated with the individual
airspace classes in order to ensure safety of flight and avoiding finding themselves explaining a deviance
from a regulation to the FAA.
As an example, if a pilot accidentally enters a Class B airspace without explicit clearance to do so they could
potentially lose their pilot privileges indefinitely. Flying through a Prohibited area or TFR could result in
being intercepted by military fighter aircraft, certainly not a situation in which a civilian pilot wants to find
themselves. On the other hand, a VFR pilot unfamiliar with the regulations concerning Military Operations
Areas may someday find themselves planning a cross country flight path hours out of the way around a
massive MOA, even though they legally are allowed to fly through it, and when exercising additional
caution, are likely perfectly safe in doing so. Of course, if it is reasonable to avoid it, some additional flight
time to go around may be worth the extra boost in safety.
Instrument Flying Rules (IFR) & Visual Flying Rules (VFR) in controlled &
uncontrolled airspace
There are two sets of rules for flying any aircraft: VFR and IFR. VFR stands for Visual Flight Rules. IFR stands for
Instrument Flight Rules. Depending on the weather conditions a pilot may opt for one set of rules or the other. Mostly,
it’s the weather that makes the pilot fly VFR or IFR.
What is the difference between VFR and IFR flying?

VFR normally means “see and avoid”. Under VFR, an aircraft is flown just like driving a car with eye
movement and the pilot can see where he is going. VFR pilots maintain a ‘see and avoid’ principle when the
visual meteorological conditions (VMC) are favorable. VFR is the usual way to fly a small craft. Under
VRF, a pilot, however, cannot fly through clouds, which means they must go under, around, or divert if the
clouds form a block en-route.
In order to fly VFR, Visual Meteorological Conditions have to be maintained. It, basically, means you
cannot fly through clouds and need to keep a safe distance. In some types of airspace, you also have to see
the ground. As VFR flights rule, pilots are responsible for seeing other aircraft and avoiding a collision.
They have to maintain vertical and horizontal separation. As per the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal rules,
an 8 kilometers horizontal separation is required for a flight under the VFR rules at and above 3,050 meters
[10,000 feet] above mean sea level and 5 kilometers below 3,050 meters above mean sea level. There must
be no cloud within 1,500 meters [5,000 feet] horizontally or 300 meters [1,000 feet] vertically from the
aircraft.
Similarly, an aircraft must maintain an altitude of 300 meters [1,000 feet] over any congested area of a city,
town, or settlement. In hills, the aircraft should maintain 600 meters [2,000 feet] altitude from the
ground. Flying VFR is beneficial in busy airspace. In Nepal for example, there can be long delays for IFR
departures because there are so many requests.
Aviating under IFR

Under IFR rules, a pilot is authorized to fly into clouds in what is called zero visibility. It’s called instrument
flight because the pilot navigates only by reference to the instruments in the aircraft cockpit. Unlike VFR
flights, IFR happens usually within controlled airspace and requires filing a flight plan, usually, ahead of
time. The flying is not completely at the pilot’s discretion. Established waypoints and airways have to be
used and the altitude for the flight is determined.
IFR requires a ceiling less than 300 meters [1,000 feet] above ground level and visibility of fewer than three
miles. During flight under IFR, there are no visibility requirements, so flying through clouds or other
conditions where there is zero visibility outside the aircraft is legal and safe. According to air traffic
controller Bhatta, additional time is required for the preparation of the IFR flight plan.
In controlled en-route airspace, the horizontal separation standard between the same types of aircraft flying
at the same altitude is 5 minutes. If a smaller aircraft is ahead, for the bigger aircraft, the horizontal
separation standard should be 10 minutes. And if a bigger aircraft is ahead to land, for smaller aircraft, the
horizontal separation standard should be 2 minutes. Therefore, for smaller planes, which are normally flown
on VFR condition, flights are delayed sometimes if the weather deteriorates to prepare for IFR flight.
Radio communication
Aviation Radio Communication
Much of aviation communication and navigation is accomplished through the use of radio waves.
Communication by radio was the first use of radio frequency transmissions in aviation.
Radio Waves
A radio wave is invisible to the human eye. It is electromagnetic in nature and part of the electronic
spectrum of wave activity that includes gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet rays, infrared waves, and visible
light rays, as well all radio waves. [Figure 1] The atmosphere is filled with these waves. Each wave occurs at
a specific frequency and has a corresponding wavelength. The relationship between frequency and
wavelength is inversely proportional. A high frequency wave has a short wave length and a low frequency
wave has a long wave length.
In aviation, a variety of radio waves are used for communication. Below Figure illustrates the radio
spectrum that includes the range of common aviation radio frequencies and their applications.
AC power of a particular frequency has a characteristic length of conductor that is resonant at that
frequency. This length is the wavelength of the frequency that can be seen on an oscilloscope. Fractions of
the wavelength also resonate, especially half of a wavelength, which is the same as half of the AC sign wave
or cycle.
The frequency of an AC signal is the number of times the AC cycles every second. AC applied to the center
of a radio antenna, a conductor half the wavelength of the AC frequency, travels the length of the antenna,
collapses, and travels the length of the antenna in the opposite direction. The number of times it does this
every second is known as the radio wave signal frequency or radio frequency as shown in Figure 2. As the
current flows through the antenna, corresponding electromagnetic and electric fields build, collapse, build in
the opposite direction, and collapse again.
To transmit radio waves, an AC generator is placed at the midpoint of an antenna. As AC current builds and
collapses in the antenna, a magnetic field also builds and collapses around it. An electric field also builds
and subsides as the voltage shifts from one end of the antenna to the other. Both fields, the magnetic and the
electric, fluctuate around the antenna at the same time. The antenna is half the wavelength of the AC signal
received from the generator. At any one point along the antenna, voltage and current vary inversely to each
other.
Because of the speed of the AC, the electromagnetic fields and electric fields created around the antenna do
not have time to completely collapse as the AC cycles. Each new current flow creates new fields around the
antenna that force the nottotally-collapsed fields from the previous AC cycle out into space. These are the
radio waves. The process is continuous as long as AC is applied to the antenna. Thus, steady radio waves of
a frequency determined by the input AC frequency propagate out into space.
Radio waves are directional and propagate out into space at 186,000 miles per second. The distance they
travel depends on the frequency and the amplification of the signal AC sent to the antenna. The electric field
component and the electromagnetic field component are oriented at 90° to each other, and at 90° to the
direction that the wave is traveling. [Figure ]
Types of Radio Waves

Radio waves of different frequencies have unique characteristics as they propagate through the atmosphere.
Very low frequency (VLF), LF, and medium frequency (MF) waves have relatively long wavelengths and
utilize correspondingly long antennas. Radio waves produced at these frequencies ranging from 3kHz to
3mHz are known as ground waves or surface waves. This is because they follow the curvature of the earth as
they travel from the broadcast antenna to the receiving antenna. Ground waves are particularly useful for
long distance transmissions. Automatic direction finders (ADF) and LORAN navigational aids use these
frequencies. [Figure ]
High frequency (HF) radio waves travel in a straight line and do not curve to follow the earth’s surface. This
would limit transmissions from the broadcast antenna to receiving antennas only in the line-of-sight of the
broadcast antenna except for a unique characteristic. HF radio waves bounce off of the ionosphere layer of
the atmosphere. This refraction extends the range of HF signals beyond line-of-sight. As a result,
transoceanic aircraft often use HF radios for voice communication. The frequency range is between 2 to 25
MHz. These kinds of radio waves are known as sky waves. [Figure 5]
Above HF transmissions, radio waves are known as space waves. They are only capable of line-of-sight
transmission and do not refract off of the ionosphere. [Figure 5] Most aviation communication and
navigational aids operate with space waves. This includes VHF (30-300MHz), UHF (300MHz-3GHz), and
super high frequency (SHF) (3Ghz-30Ghz) radio waves.
VHF communication radios are the primary communication radios used in aviation. They operate in the
frequency range from 118.0 MHz to 136.975MHz. Seven hundred and twenty separate and distinct channels
have been designated in this range with 25 kilohertz spacing between each channel. Further division of the
bandwidth is possible, such as in Europe where 8.33 kilohertz separate each VHF communication channel.
VHF radios are used for communications between aircraft and air traffic control (ATC), as well as air-to-air
communication between aircraft. When using VHF, each party transmits and receives on the same channel.
Only one party can transmit at any one time.
Loading Information onto a Radio Wave

The production and broadcast of radio waves does not convey any significant information. The basic radio
wave discussed above is known as a carrier wave. To transmit and receive useful information, this wave is
altered or modulated by an information signal. The information signal contains the unique voice or data
information desired to be conveyed. The modulated carrier wave then carries the information from the
transmitting radio to the receiving radio via their respective antennas. Two common methods of modulating
carrier waves are amplitude modulation and frequency modulation.
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
A radio wave can be altered to carry useful information by modulating the amplitude of the wave. A DC
signal, for example from a microphone, is amplified and then superimposed over the AC carrier wave signal.
As the varying DC information signal is amplified, the amplifier output current varies proportionally. The
oscillator that creates the carrier wave does so with this varying current. The oscillator frequency output is
consistent because it is built into the oscillator circuit. But the amplitude of the oscillator output varies in
relation to the fluctuating current input.
Frequency Modulation (FM)

Frequency modulation (FM) is widely considered superior to AM for carrying and deciphering information
on radio waves. A carrier wave modulated by FM retains its constant amplitude. However, the information
signal alters the frequency of the carrier wave in proportion to the strength of the signal. Thus, the signal is
represented as slight variations to the normally consistent timing of the oscillations of the carrier wave.
Single Side Band (SSB)

When two AC signals are mixed together, such as when a carrier wave is modulated by an information
signal, three main frequencies result:
1. Original carrier wave frequency;
2. Carrier wave frequency plus the modulating frequency; and
3. Carrier wave frequency minus the modulating frequency.
Due to the fluctuating nature of the information signal, the modulating frequency varies from the carrier
wave up or down to the maximum amplitude of the modulating frequency during AM. These additional
frequencies on either side of the carrier wave frequency are known as side bands. Each side band contains
the unique information signal desired to be conveyed. The entire range of the lower and upper sidebands
including the center carrier wave frequency is known as bandwidth.
There are a limited number of frequencies within the usable frequency ranges (i.e., LF, HF, and VHF). If
different broadcasts are made on frequencies that are too close together, some of the broadcast from one
frequency interfere with the adjacent broadcast due to overlapping side bands. The FCC divides the various
frequency bands and issues rules for their use. Much of this allocation is to prevent interference. The spacing
between broadcast frequencies is established so that a carrier wave can expand to include the upper and
lower side bands and still not interfere with a signal on an adjacent frequency.
As use of the radio frequencies increases, more efficient allocation of bandwidth is imperative. Sending
information via radio waves using the narrowest bandwidth possible is the focus of engineering moving
forward. At the same time, fully representing all of the desired information or increasing the amount of
information conveyed is also desired. Various methods are employed to keep bandwidth to a minimum,
many of which restrict the quality or quantity of information able to be transmitted.
In lower frequency ranges, such as those used for ground wave and some sky wave broadcasts, SSB
transmissions are a narrow bandwidth solution. Each side band represents the initial information signal in its
entirety. Therefore, in an SSB broadcast, the carrier wave and either the upper or lower sidebands are
filtered out. Only one sideband with its frequencies is broadcast since it contains all of the needed
information. This cuts the bandwidth required in half and allows more efficient use of the radio spectrum.
SSB transmissions also use less power to transmit the same amount of information over an equal distance.
Many HF longdistance aviation communications are SSB
Figure . The additional frequencies above and below the carrier wave produced during modulation with the
information signal are known as sidebands. Each sideband contains the unique information of the information signal
and can be transmitted independent of the carrier wave and the other sideband
Radio Transmitters and Receivers

Radio transmitters and receivers are electronic devices that manipulate electricity resulting in the
transmission of useful information through the atmosphere or space.
Transmitters
A transmitter consists of a precise oscillating circuit or oscillator that creates an AC carrier wave frequency.
This is combined with amplification circuits or amplifiers. The distance a carrier wave travels is directly
related to the amplification of the signal sent to the antenna.
Other circuits are used in a transmitter to accept the input information signal and process it for loading onto
the carrier wave. Modulator circuits modify the carrier wave with the processed information signal.
Essentially, this is all there is to a radio transmitter.
Receivers
Antennas are simply conductors of lengths proportional to the wavelength of the oscillated frequency put out
by the transmitter. An antenna captures the desired carrier wave as well as many other radio waves that are
present in the atmosphere. A receiver is needed to isolate the desired carrier wave with its information. The
receiver also has circuitry to separate the information signal from the carrier wave. It prepares it for output
to a device, such as speakers or a display screen. The output is the information signal originally introduced
into the transmitter.
Antennas
As stated, antennas are conductors that are used to transmit and receive radio frequency waves. Although the
airframe technician has limited duties in relation to maintaining and repairing avionics, it is the
responsibility of the technician to install, inspect, repair, and maintain aircraft radio antennas.
Three characteristics are of major concern when considering antennas:

1. Length
2. Polarization
3. Directivity
Air Traffic Control (ATC) communication procedures
Communications with ATC should be stated:

 Clearly – state your message and intentions so there is no misunderstanding about what you are saying.
 Completely – Don’t force the controller to query you to understand all of what you should have told him in
your initial transmission.
 Succinctly – Your transmission should be to the point and not include extra or unnecessary information.
 Honestly - Do not wait to ask ATC for help if you think you need it e.g., low on fuel, not sure of your
present position or needing to divert due to weather. Fess up!
As a rule, each transmission should include:

 Who you are (i.e., aircraft type and tail number or call sign)
 Where you are - on the ground or in the air - using specific location information, preferably locations that
are charted and known to ATC and other pilots.
 What you want. If you have a request requiring a lengthier explanation, a good practice is to state who and
where you are and then simply say: “I have a request.”
Tips for better communications:

 Study the Pilot/Controller Glossary. This excellent resource is located in an appendix of the Aeronautical
Information Manual (AIM).
 Also review AIM Chapter 4, especially sections 2, 3 and 4; Chapter 5 all sections; Chapter 6 all sections;
and finally, Chapter 7 especially related to Pilot Reports (PIREPS).
 For non-towered airports, study the table in the AIM Chapter 4 (Table 4-1-1) titled: “Summary of
Recommended Communication Procedures.”
 If you are a new pilot, think about what you want to say first and listen to and practice with your instructor
(and at home) before you key the mic and start talking. Write down common and often used phrases if you
have to as this will help you learn standard phraseology.
 Wait a few seconds and listen before transmitting to avoid transmitting when someone else is already
transmitting or expecting a response. Be patient; however, if the frequency is very busy, sometimes you just
have to break in at the first opportunity.
it in (e.g., a transponder “squawk,” departure heading, altitude assignment or comm frequency). Double
check that you have correctly set up your avionics before transmitting.
-
by) to be displayed simultaneously. Take advantage of this to enter the new frequency into the stand-by
display and then switch that to be the active frequency. This will allow you to go back to the previous
frequency if contact cannot be established on the newly assigned frequency.
Study and use the airport taxi diagram, especially if you are flying into an airport for the first time. Note
“hot spots” and always ask for help if there is any confusion about taxi instructions or if you are not sure of
your position. You can always ask for “Progressive Taxi” and ATC will provide instructions in stages or
incrementally as you taxi.
certain instructions from ATC must be repeated back to ATC. When reading back
instructions, be sure to include your aircraft tail number with your read back. See more on clearance read
back in the AIM.
efficiently.
you do need to change frequencies, you can

do so with one button push instead of several.
entering the airport traffic area at a non-towered field.

 busy airspace: On the initial call to ATC, especially when the frequency is busy, a slight pause (say 1
second) after initial contact is helpful to the controller. This may seem contradictory, but a slight pause will
help the controller, who may be multi-tasking, get into “listening mode” and thus less likely to miss
something in your transmission. Example: “Phoenix Approach (slight pause) Cessna 5521C two miles
south of Deer Valley request Class B transition and flight following to Marana, leaving 4 thousand for 6
thousand 5 hundred.”
Common Traps to Avoid:

 When initial contact with ATC is made (or initial call to “traffic” or unicom at a non-towered airport), use
your aircraft type and full tail number. Example: Skyhawk 351 Papa Bravo. Once ATC or unicom
responds, the correct response becomes: Skyhawk 1 Papa Bravo, i.e., just the last 3 numbers/letters are used
for brevity.
 Use the correct phraseology and words to state your intentions or to answer a question from ATC so that
there is no misunderstanding. Example: ATC asks: “Bonanza 123TK do you have traffic in
sight?” Bonanza 123TK responds: “Roger.” This response is incomplete and incorrect. Roger means you
have received and understood the transmission (and compliance with any instructions is implied). The
correct response would be: “Bonanza 123TK affirmative, traffic in sight,” or “Bonanza 123TK, negative
looking for traffic.” If a question from ATC requires a yes or no answer, the response should be
“affirmative” for yes, or “negative” for no.
 It is critically important that certain ATC instructions be repeated back to ATC to ensure understanding and
compliance. Example: ATC instructs: “Cessna 123CP hold short of runway 7 right,” the correct response:
“Roger, Cessna 3CP holding short runway 7 right.” Note that the read back must include the aircraft tail
number and the specific runway along with the instructions from ATC. Common and incorrect responses
include (but are not limited to): “roger, Cessna 3CP,” or “roger holding short,” or “roger holding short
runway 7.”
 By far the most common violation for which pilots are cited by ATC involves altitude, i.e., failure to level
off, climb to, descend to or maintain the correct altitude. Again, the best way to avoid a violation is to: 1)
write it down, 2) read it back, and 3) dial it in (if your aircraft has an autopilot with altitude select capability
or an altitude bug or alerter). There are other inexpensive ways to remind pilots of their assigned altitude,
including movable devices which can be placed on the altimeter at an assigned altitude. This same advice
applies to holding an assigned heading, airspeed or course.
ATC Clearance
Definition
Authorization for an aircraft to proceed under conditions specified by an air traffic control unit.
Note 1.— For convenience, the term “air traffic control clearance” is frequently abbreviated to
“clearance” when used in appropriate contexts.
Note 2.— The abbreviated term “clearance” may be prefixed by the words “taxi”, “take-off”, “departure”,
“en-route”, “approach” or “landing” to indicate the particular portion of flight to which the air traffic
control clearance relates.
Description
Purposes
Clearances are issued solely for expediting and separating air traffic and are based on known traffic
conditions which affect safety in aircraft operation. The traffic conditions include:
 aircraft in the air;
 aircraft on the maneuvering area;
 vehicles on the maneuvering area;
 Obstructions not permanently installed on the maneuvering area.
ATC clearances do not constitute authority to violate any applicable regulations for promoting the safety of
flight operations or for any other purpose; neither do clearances relieve a pilot-in-command of any
responsibility whatsoever in connection with a possible violation of applicable rules and regulations.
If an air traffic control clearance is not considered suitable by the pilot-in-command of an aircraft, the flight
crew may request and, if practicable, obtain an amended clearance.
Applicability
ATC clearances are issued for controlled flights only, i.e.:
 When a flight plan specifies that the initial portion of a flight will be uncontrolled, the pilot needs to
obtain a clearance from the relevant ATC unit before entering controlled airspace.
 When a flight plan specifies that the first portion of a flight will be subject to ATC, and that the
subsequent portion will be uncontrolled, the aircraft is normally cleared to the point at which the controlled
flight terminates.
 For flights through intermediate stops, the initial clearance limit is be the first destination aerodrome
and new clearances are to be issued for each subsequent portion of flight. By prior arrangement between
ATC units and the operators however it is possible to clear the flight through intermediate stops.
A flight is subject to ATC clearance depending on the flight rules and airspace class, i.e.:
 IFR flights are subject to ATC clearance in airspace classes A, B, C, D and E.
 VFR flights are subject to ATC clearance in airspace classes B, C and D. They are not permitted in
class A airspace and are not controlled in class E.
Contents
ATC clearances (except departure and arrival clearances) contain the following items in the order listed:
 aircraft identification;
 clearance limit;
 route of flight;
 level(s) of flight for the entire route or part thereof and changes of levels if required;
 Any necessary instructions or information on other matters (e.g. SSR transponder operation,
approach or departure maneuvers, the time of expiry of the clearance, etc.).
The clearance limit is described by specifying the name of the appropriate significant point, or aerodrome, or
controlled airspace boundary. When prior coordination has been effected with units under whose control the
aircraft will subsequently come, or if there is reasonable assurance that it can be effected a reasonable time
prior to their assumption of control, the clearance limit shall be the destination aerodrome or, if not
practicable, an appropriate intermediate point, and coordination shall be expedited so that a clearance to the
destination aerodrome may be issued as soon as possible.
The route of flight is to be detailed in each clearance when deemed necessary. Subject to airspace
constraints, ATC workload and traffic density, and provided coordination can be effected in a timely
manner, an aircraft should whenever possible be offered the most direct routing.
Instructions included in clearances relating to levels shall consist of:
 cruising level(s) or, for cruise climb, a range of levels, and, if necessary, the point to which the
clearance is valid with regard to the level(s);
 levels at which specified significant points are to be crossed, when necessary;
 the place or time for starting climb or descent, when necessary;
 the rate of climb or descent, when necessary;
 Detailed instructions concerning departure or approach levels, when necessary.
Read back
The flight crew shall read back to the air traffic controller safety-related parts of ATC clearances and
instructions which are transmitted by voice. The following items shall always be read back:
 ATC route clearances;
 clearances and instructions to enter, land on, take off from, hold short of, cross, taxi and backtrack on
any runway;
 Runway-in-use, altimeter settings, SSR codes, level instructions, heading and speed instructions and
transition levels.
Other clearances or instructions, including conditional clearances, shall be read back or acknowledged in a
manner to clearly indicate that they have been understood and will be complied with.
The controller shall listen to the readback to ascertain that the clearance or instruction has been correctly
acknowledged by the flight crew and shall take immediate action to correct any discrepancies revealed by
the readback.
Unless specified by the appropriate ATS authority, voice readback of CPDLC messages shall not be
required.
Amendment of Clearance
When issuing a clearance covering a requested change in route or level, the exact nature of the change shall
be included in the clearance.
When traffic conditions will not permit clearance of a requested change, the word “UNABLE” shall be used.
When warranted by circumstances, an alternative route or level should be offered.
When an alternative route is offered and accepted by the flight crew, the amended clearance issued shall
describe the route to the point where it joins the previously cleared route, or to the destination (if the aircraft
will not re-join the previous route).
Aircraft identification
 Overall size of the airliner, e.g., narrow-body or wide-body
Shape of the nose section

Cockpit windshield design, i.e., number, placement and shape of glass windows
along the fuselage
Destination airport in airlines

Today’s traveler could be forgiven for focusing on the journey, not the destination, and contemporary airport
conditions are beginning to reinforce this mindset. Prior models focused on processing passengers and
baggage as expediently as possible; trading on efficiency, airports have tended towards delivering a
“nothing-to-do-or-see-here” sameness in the bargain.
A new generation of airports treats the terminal as more than a threshold. In fact, we are recognizing a new
reality: because of security, passengers spend more time in the terminal, making them vital to revenue
growth and reputation and creating new possibilities for what airports can be. This awareness sees airports
increasingly treating terminals as destinations, where passengers also spend money. Four Gensler-designed
terminals exemplify the emerging model.
JFK International Airport, Terminal 5
With its curved rooflines, JetBlue Airways’ first terminal responds to its unique location near Eero
Saarinen’s historic TWA terminal. From a functional standpoint, Gensler designed Terminal 5 to
complement JetBlue’s business model. The 640,000-gross-square-foot, 26-gate terminal provides
exceptional customer service, with a tailored plan for circulation and seating in the concourse. The ticketing
lobby and holdrooms are sized as transitory spaces, while concessions areas are larger as JetBlue customers
tend to buy food and drink before boarding. Wider space between gates allows JetBlue’s Airbus 320s to
easily turn around, minimizing delays.
Denver International Airport, South Terminal
The South Terminal Redevelopment Program aims to reinvent the way the airport connects to the city —
providing travelers a swifter gateway to downtown Denver — while turning the airport into a travel
destination. The project, an addition to the existing Jeppesen Terminal, will provide infrastructure and
connections for future terminal expansion. Program elements include a new train station servicing the RTD
FasTracks commuter rail connection to and from downtown, a new 500-key Westin hotel and conference
center, and an outdoor public plaza linking the hotel, conference center and train station to the Jeppesen
Terminal. Slated for 2015 completion, the airport seeks to improve passengers’ travel experience before
departure and upon arrival.
Incheon International Airport, Terminal 2
Named Airports Council International’s “Best Airport Worldwide” seven years running, Incheon is a
gateway to Korea and East Asia’s premier aviation hub. Nine international design teams competed to design
a second, 72-gate terminal that doubles the airport’s size. Gensler, as collaborating design architect with the
HMGY (Heerim-Mooyoung-Gensler-Yungdo) Consortium, won the competition with an elegant, yet
practical terminal concept notable for its extensive sustainable design features. The airport expansion
includes a second control tower, train station, parking facilities, and an integral hotel and conference center.
Slated for 2017 completion, Terminal 2 will incorporate technologies that set new performance benchmarks
for the celebrated airport.
Departure instructions
Departure terminology
Avoid using the term “takeoff” except to actually clear an aircraft for takeoff or to cancel a takeoff
clearance. Use such terms as “depart,” “departure,” or “fly” in clearances when necessary.
Departure information
Provide current departure information, as appropriate, to departing aircraft.
a. Departure information contained in the ATIS broadcast may be omitted if the pilot states the appropriate
ATIS code.
b. Issue departure information by including the following:
1. Runway in use. (May be omitted if pilot states “have the numbers.”)
2. Surface wind from direct readout dial, wind shear detection system, or automated weather observing system
information display. (May be omitted if pilot states “have the numbers.”)
3. Altimeter setting. (May be omitted if pilot states “have the numbers.”)
c. Time, when requested.
d. Issue the official ceiling and visibility, when available, to a departing aircraft before takeoff as follows:
1. To a VFR aircraft when weather is below VFR conditions.
2. To an IFR aircraft when weather is below VFR conditions or highest takeoff minima, whichever is greater.
e. Issue the route for the aircraft/vehicle to follow on the movement area in concise and easy to understand
terms. The taxi clearance must include the specific route to follow.
f. USAF NOT APPLICABLE. An advisory to “check density altitude” when appropriate
g. Issue braking action for the runway in use as received from pilots when braking action advisories are in
effect.
h. Runway Condition Codes. Furnish RwyCC, as received from the Airport Operator, to aircraft via the ATIS.
i. For opposite direction departure operations, controllers may verbally issue the RwyCC, as identified in the
FICON NOTAM, in reverse order. Controllers must not include reversed RwyCC on the ATIS broadcast.
j. When the ATIS is unavailable, and when the runway length available for departure has been temporarily
shortened, controllers must ensure that pilots receive the runway number combined with a shortened
announcement for all departing aircraft.
Departure delay information

USA/USAF/USN not applicable
When gate‐hold procedures are in effect, issue the following departure delay information as appropriate:
a. Advise departing aircraft the time at which the pilot can expect to receive engine startup advisory.
b. Advise departing aircraft when to start engines and/or to advise when ready to taxi.
c. If the pilot requests to hold in a delay absorbing area, the request must be approved if space and traffic
conditions permit.
d. Advise all aircraft on GC/FD frequency upon termination of gate hold procedures.
Departure control instructions

Inform departing IFR, SVFR, VFR aircraft receiving radar service, and TRSA VFR aircraft of the following:
a. Before takeoff.
1. Issue the appropriate departure control frequency and beacon code. The departure control frequency may be
omitted if a SID has been or will be assigned and the departure control frequency is published on the SID.
2. Inform all departing IFR military turboprop/turbojet aircraft (except transport and cargo types) to change to
departure control frequency. If the local controller has departure frequency override, transmit urgent
instructions on this frequency. If the override capability does not exist, transmit urgent instructions on the
emergency frequency.
CHANGE TO DEPARTURE.
3. USAF. USAF control towers are authorized to inform all departing IFR military transport/cargo type aircraft
operating in formation flight to change to departure control frequency before takeoff.
b. After takeoff.
1. When the aircraft is about 1/2 mile beyond the runway end, instruct civil aircraft, and military transport, and
cargo types to contact departure control, provided further communication with you is not required.
2. Do not request departing military turboprop/turbojet aircraft (except transport and cargo types) to make
radio frequency or radar beacon changes before the aircraft reaches 2,500 feet above the surface.
Same runway separation

Separate a departing aircraft from a preceding departing or arriving aircraft using the same runway by
ensuring that it does not begin takeoff roll until:
a. The other aircraft has departed and crossed the runway end or turned to avert any conflict.
b. When only Category I aircraft are involved- 3,000 feet.
c. When a Category I aircraft is preceded by a Category II aircraft- 3,000 feet.
d. When either the succeeding or both are Category II aircraft- 4,500 feet.
e. When either is a Category III aircraft- 6,000 feet.
f. When the succeeding aircraft is a helicopter, visual separation may be applied in lieu of using distance
minima.
Fig. Same Runway Separation
Route of flight
Routing types used in flight planning are: airway, navaid and direct. A route may be composed of segments
of different routing types. For example, a route from Chicago to Rome may include airway routing over the
U.S. and Europe, but direct routing over the Atlantic Ocean.
Airway or flight path

Airway routing occurs along pre-defined pathways called flight paths. Airways can be thought of as three-
dimensional highways for aircraft. In most land areas of the world, aircraft are required to fly airways
between the departure and destination airports. The rules governing airway routing cover altitude, airspeed,
and requirements for entering and leaving the airway (see SIDs and STARs). Most airways are eight nautical
miles (14 kilometers) wide, and the airway flight levels keep aircraft separated by at least 1000 vertical feet
from aircraft on the flight level above and below. Airways usually intersect at Navaids, which designate the
allowed points for changing from one airway to another. Airways have names consisting of one or more
letters followed by one or more digits (e.g., V484 or UA419)
The airway structure is divided into high and low altitudes. The low altitude airways in the U.S. which can
be navigated using VOR Navaids have names that start with the letter V, and are therefore called Victor
Airways. They cover altitudes from approximately 1200 feet above ground level (AGL) to 17,999 feet
(5,486 m) above mean sea level (MSL). T routes are low altitude RNAV only routes which may or may not
utilize VOR NAVAIDS. The high altitude airways in the U.S. have names that start with the letter J and are
called Jet Routes, or Q for Q routes. Q routes in the U.S. are RNAV only high altitude airways, whereas J
routes use VOR NAVAID's the same way V routes do. J & Q routes run from 18,000 feet (5,486 m) to
45,000 feet (13,716 m). The altitude separating the low and high airway structures varies from country to
country. For example, it is 19,500 feet (5,944 m) in Switzerland, and 25,500 feet (7,772 m) in Egypt.
Navaid
Navaid routing occurs between Navaids (short for Navigational Aids, see VOR) which are not always
connected by airways. Navaid routing is typically only allowed in the continental U.S. If a flight plan
specifies Navaid routing between two Navaids which are connected via an airway, the rules for that
particular airway must be followed as if the aircraft was flying Airway routing between those two Navaids.
Allowable altitudes are covered in Flight Levels.
Direct
Direct routing occurs when one or both of the route segment endpoints are at a latitude/longitude which is
not located at a Navaid. Some flight planning organizations specify that checkpoints generated for a Direct
route be a limited distance apart, or limited by time to fly between the checkpoints (i.e. direct checkpoints
could be farther apart for a fast aircraft than for a slow one).
Altitude assignment
Separate instrument flight rules (IFR) aircraft using the following minima between altitudes:
1. Up to and including FL 410- 1,000 feet.
2. Apply 2,000 feet at or above FL 290 between non-RVSM aircraft and all other aircraft at or above FL 290.
3. Above FL 410- 2,000 feet, except:
1. In oceanic airspace, above FL 450 between a supersonic and any other aircraft- 4,000 feet.
2. Above FL 600 between military aircraft- 5,000 feet.
Lowest usable flight level

If a change in atmospheric pressure affects a usable flight level in your area of jurisdiction, use TBL 4-5-2 to
determine the lowest usable flight level to clear aircraft at or above 18,000 feet MSL.
Adjusted minimum flight level

When the prescribed minimum altitude for IFR operations is at or above 18,000 feet MSL and the
atmospheric pressure is less than 29.92”, add the appropriate adjustment factor from TBL 4-5-3 to the flight
level equivalent of the minimum altitude in feet to determine the adjusted minimum flight level.
Required reports
The provisions in Chapter 8 of ICAO Annex 13 require the States to establish mandatory occurrence
(incident) reporting (MOR) systems to facilitate the collection of information on actual or potential safety
deficiencies. Further to that, ICAO requirements relating to the implementation of safety management
systems (SMS) require that aviation service providers develop and maintain a formal process for effectively
collecting, recording, acting on and generating feedback about hazards in operations, based on a
combination of reactive, proactive and predictive methods of safety data collection.
In Europe, Regulation (EU) No 376/2014 on the reporting, analysis and follow-up of occurrences in civil
aviation establishes requirements for mandatory reporting of occurrences which, if not corrected, would
endanger the safety of aircraft, its occupants or any other person.
In mandatory reporting systems operational personnel are required to report accidents and certain types of
incidents. ICAO Annex 13, Appendix C provides a list of examples of serious incidents that are to be
reported. Furthermore, Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2015/2018 defines a detailed list of
safety occurrences to be reported by aviation service provider organizations in Europe. The safety
occurrences are grouped in the following domains:
 Aircraft flight operations
 Aircraft technical, maintenance and repair
 Air navigation services and facilities
 Aerodromes and ground services.
In order to harmonise the reporting of safety occurrences in ATM, EUROCONTROL has adopted ESARR
2. This regulatory requirement establishes a list of ATM-related occurrences which, as a minimum, shall be
reported and assessed.
The reporting process should be as simple as possible and at the same time well documented, including
details as to what, where, when and to whom to report. Usually, reporting templates are developed by States
and organisations to facilitate the submission of information.
The national requirements of what to report vary depending on the laws of the State where the safety
occurrence happened and on the operational environment. The number of variables is so great that it is
difficult to establish a universally applicable comprehensive list of items to be reported. For example, the
loss of a system component may be critical on one type of aircraft, while on another it may be not. A
relatively minor problem in one set of circumstances can in different circumstances result in a hazardous
situation. Hence, the generic rule for reporting is established by the principle: If in doubt — report it.
The basic considerations when deciding whether or not to report an incident should be:
 Did a dangerous situation occur?
 Could a dangerous incident have occurred if circumstances had been different?
 Could a dangerous incident occur in the future if the situation being reported is not corrected?
According to ICAO Safety Management Manual mandatory occurrence reporting systems tend to collect
more information on technical (“hardware”) failures than on human performance aspects. To overcome this
problem, States and service provider organisations are required under Regulation (EU) No 376/2014 to
implement voluntary occurrence reporting in order to acquire more information on the human factors related
aspects and enhance aviation safety.
Recording and Analysis of Reported Safety Data

Once the safety report is received, the information must be stored in a manner suitable for easy retrieval,
investigation and analysis. States and their regulated entities should establish a database for this purpose.
Most aircraft operators, ANSPs, aerodrome operators and maintenance organisations have established their
own internal safety reporting systems and databases which they use to record and analyse all occurrences
affecting the safety of the services they provide, regardless of whether such occurrences must also be
reported to national investigators or regulators. Many regulators require that only serious occurrences are
reported to them, leaving lesser matters to be dealt with locally by the aircraft operators and service provider
organisations. This practice, which relies on mutual trust, enables the prompt identification of trends and
incident precursors, and the establishment of defensive measures at an early point. In general, internal
investigations of safety occurrences take less time than the investigations carried out by civil aviation
administrations or Air Accident Investigation Bureaux due to the lower severity of investigated occurrences
and, consequently, limited investigation scope.
Protection of Reporting Personnel

The objective of mandatory occurrence reporting is to prevent safety occurrences, such as accidents and
incidents, not to attribute blame or liability if they happen. The person filing a safety report needs to have
the strong assurance from the regulatory authority and the employer that prosecution or punitive actions
such as suspension of licence will not be sought unless the unsafe act is deliberately committed or gross
negligence is demonstrated. Such assurance includes confidentiality of reporting and sole use of reported
data for safety improvement. Protecting identities in the reports is a good practice adopted by many States,
and further made compulsory in Europe by Regulation (EU) No 376/2014. A positive safety culture in the
organisation creates the kind of trust necessary for a successful occurrence reporting system. The culture
must be error-tolerant and just. In addition, the reporting system needs to be perceived as being fair in the
way unintentional errors and mistakes are treated.
A Just Culture implies that, as far as possible:
 Reports will be confidential;
 Prosecution or punishment will not follow reports of unpremeditated or accidental breaches of regulations;
 Employers will not take punitive action following reports of unpremeditated or accidental breaches of
regulations or procedures.
International Reporting Systems
International aviation organisations dedicate considerable resources and efforts to collect, analyse and
communicate safety critical information to the global aviation community.
In accordance with Annex 13, ICAO collects data on aircraft accidents involving aircraft with a maximum
take-of mass (MTOW) of 2250 kg. In addition, information on serious incidents involving aircraft with
MTOW of 5,700kg is also collected. This reporting system is known worldwide as ICAO Accident/Incident
Data Reporting (ADREP). States report data in a predetermined, coded format. Upon reception of a report,
the information is verified and electronically stored, enriching this databank of worldwide safety
occurrences.
To pool the safety occurrence information in Europe and overcome the problems rooted in incompatible data
collection and data storage formats, the European Union introduced harmonised safety occurrence reporting
requirements and developed the ECCAIRS database (European Co-ordination Centre for Accident and
Incident Reporting Systems). It offers standard and flexible accident and incident data collection,
representation, exchange and analysis tools. The database is compatible with ICAO ICAO ADREP system
and supports the presentation of information in a variety of formats. Several non-European states have
decided to implement ECCAIRS to take advantage of the common classification taxonomies.
In 2007 European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) started collecting accident data for aircraft operated in
Europe, with a MTOW below 2,250kg.
The legal bases for the collection and dissemination of safety occurrence related information is ensured by
the following legislations:
 Regulation (EU) No 376/2014 on the reporting, analysis and follow-up of occurrences in civil aviation;
 Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2015/1018 laying down a list classifying occurrences in civil
aviation to be mandatorily reported according to Regulation (EU) No 376/2014;
 Regulation EC No 216/2008 establishing the European Aviation Safety Agency.
In the United States, MOR regulations are included in National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Part
830 — Notification and Reporting of Aircraft Accidents or Incidents and Overdue Aircraft, and
Preservation of Aircraft Wreckage, Mail, Cargo, and Records. As far as aviation is concerned, this
regulation, in part, contains rules perstaining to "Initial notification and later reporting of aircraft incidents
and accidents and certain other occurrences in the operation of aircraft, wherever they occur, when they
involve civil aircraft of the United States; when they involve certain public aircraft, as specified in this part,
wherever they occur; and when they involve foreign civil aircraft where the events occur in the United
States, its territories, or its possessions."
The regulation includes numerous MOR-relevant definitions for such terms as accident, fatal injury,
incident, operator, etc., and it details when NTSB must be notified. The Board must be notified when an
aircraft accident or any of the following listed serious incidents occur:
 Flight control system malfunction or failure;
 Inability of any required flight crewmember to perform normal flight duties as a result of injury or illness;
 Failure of any internal turbine engine component that results in the escape of debris other than out the
exhaust path;
 In-flight fire;
 Aircraft collision in flight;
 Damage to property, other than the aircraft, estimated to exceed US$25,000 for repair (including materials
and labor) or fair market value in the event of total loss, whichever is less.
 For large multiengine aircraft (more than 12,500 pounds [5,700 kg] maximum certificated takeoff weight):
o In-flight failure of electrical systems which requires the sustained use of an emergency bus powered by a
back-up source such as a battery, auxiliary power unit, or air-driven generator to retain flight control or
essential instruments;
o In-flight failure of hydraulic systems that results in sustained reliance on the sole remaining hydraulic or
mechanical system for movement of flight control surfaces;
o Sustained loss of the power or thrust produced by two or more engines; and
o An evacuation of an aircraft in which an emergency egress system is utilized.

 Release of all or a portion of a propeller blade from an aircraft, excluding release caused solely by ground
contact;
 A complete loss of information, excluding flickering, from more than 50 percent of an aircraft’s cockpit
displays known as:
o electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) displays;
o engine indication and crew alerting system (EICAS) displays;
o electronic centralized aircraft monitor (ECAM) displays; or
o other displays of this type, which generally include a primary flight display (PFD), primary navigation
display (PND), and other integrated displays;
 Airborne collision and avoidance system (ACAS) resolution advisories issued when an aircraft is being
operated on an instrument flight rules flight plan and compliance with the advisory is necessary to avert a
substantial risk of collision between two or more aircraft;
 Damage to helicopter tail or main rotor blades, including ground damage, that requires major repair or
replacement of the blade(s);
 Any event in which an operator, when operating an airplane as an air carrier at a public-use airport on land:
o lands or departs on a taxiway, incorrect runway, or other area not designed as a runway; or
o experiences a runway incursion that requires the operator or the crew of another aircraft or vehicle to take
immediate corrective action to avoid a collision.
 An aircraft is overdue and is believed to have been involved in an accident.
Holding instructions.
Definitions
 Holding Pattern (Merriam-Webster) - the usually oval course flown by aircraft awaiting further
clearance; especially to land
 Hold Procedure (FAA Pilot/Controller Glossary) -a predetermined maneuver which keeps aircraft
within a specified airspace while awaiting further clearance from air traffic control
 Holding Fix (FAA Pilot/Controller Glossary) - a specified fix identifiable to a pilot by NAVAIDs or
visual reference to the ground used as a reference point in establishing and maintaining the position
of an aircraft while holding
General
Holding patterns are flown as a delaying tactic, be it for ATC requirements such as airspace saturation or
approach delays, as the published termination of a missed approach procedure to be flown whilst
coordinating further clearance, at pilot request to allow time for completion of abnormal or emergency
checklist procedures or at any other time that a delay in flight progress is required. Under Instrument Flight
Rules (IFR) pilots are expected to adhere to proscribed holding procedures inclusive of speed, hold entry
procedures, timing and rate of turn, as the protected airspace for the holding pattern, and thus separation
from other traffic, is predicated on those procedures.
Standard Holding Pattern

A standard holding pattern is depicted in the following diagram which shows the ground track as it would
appear in still-air conditions. The holding "fix" can be any of a VOR, a NDB, a radial/DME fix, a
specified waypoint or, in some circumstances, the current aircraft position as generated by the Flight
Management System (FMS).
Standard Holding Pattern

After the completion of the appropriate procedure to enter the hold, all turns in a standard pattern are to the
right. During entry and holding, pilots manually flying the aircraft are expected to make all turns to achieve
an average bank angle of at least 25˚ or a rate of turn of 3˚ per second, whichever requires the lesser bank.
The inbound leg is flown following the assigned radial or bearing to the fix whilst the ground track for the
outbound leg is adjusted for the wind conditions to facilitate the turn to intercept the inbound track. The
outbound leg is flown for the appropriate time interval to achieve the regulated inbound timing. Inbound
timing for a standard hold is one minute when at or below 14,000' and one and a half minutes when above
14,000'. When the pilot receives ATC clearance specifying the time of departure from the holding fix,
adjustments should be made to the flight pattern within the limits of the established holding pattern to leave
the fix as close as possible to the time specified.
Non-Standard Holding Pattern

A non-standard holding pattern is one in which the turns are made to the left or the inbound timing is other
than standard values. Unless the ATC clearance includes instruction to hold non-standard, make left turns or
a non-standard holding pattern is depicted on the chart, pilots are expected to make all turns to the right after
initial entry into the holding pattern; that is, a standard holding pattern is to be flown unless specifically
cleared otherwise.
Entry Procedures
Entry sectors for a standard holding pattern are depicted in the following diagram. Note that there are three
entry sectors based upon the heading at which the aircraft approaches the holding fix. Note also that there is
a zone of flexibility of 5˚ on either side of each boundary; that is, within the zone, the entry procedure
appropriate to either side of the boundary can be executed at the discretion of the pilot.
Hold Entry Procedures for a Standard Holding Pattern

 Sector 1 procedures (parallel entry):
o Upon reaching the fix, turn onto the outbound heading of the holding pattern for the appropriate period of
time
o Turn left to intercept the inbound track or to return directly to the fix
o On the second arrival over the fix, turn right and follow the holding pattern
 Sector 2 procedures (offset entry):
o Upon reaching the fix, turn to a heading that results in a track having an angle of 30˚ or less from the
inbound track reciprocal on the holding side
o Continue for the appropriate period of time, then turn right to intercept the inbound track and follow the
holding pattern
 Sector 3 procedure (direct entry):
o Upon reaching the fix, turn right and follow the holding pattern
Entry procedures to a non-standard holding pattern requiring left turns are oriented in relation to the 70˚ line
on the holding side,just as in the standard pattern. Thus the corresponding entry procedure diagram for a
non-standard holding pattern is a mirror image of that for the standard pattern.
DME Procedures
DME holding is subject to the same entry and holding procedures as a standard holding pattern except that
distances, in nautical miles (NM), are used in lieu of time values to define the limits of the holding pattern.
In describing the direction from the fix on which to hold and the limits of a DME holding pattern, an ATC
clearance will specify the DME distance from the navigation aid at which the inbound and outbound legs are
to be terminated. The end of each leg is determined by the DME indications. Conversely, when the aircraft
is FMS equipped, a pilot might be cleared to hold at a defined waypoint on a specified track with a specific
leg distance expressed in NM.
Speed Limitations
The expected holding speed for many charted holding patterns is published on the associated enroute,
terminal or approach chart. In cases where a speed is not specified, holding patterns must be entered and
flown at or below the appropriate airspeed for the holding altitude. These speeds can vary from region to
region so pilots must be aware of the limitations in force for the area in which they are
operating. International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) maximum holding speeds are as follows:
 Holding altitude 14000' or below - 230 KIAS
 Holding altitude above 14000' to 20000' - 240 KIAS
 Holding altitude above 20000' to 34000' - 265 KIAS
 Holding altitude above 34000' - Mach .83
 Holding patterns restricted to Category A and B aircraft only - 170 KIAS
NOTES:
 Pilots are to advise ATC immediately if airspeeds in excess of those specified above become necessary for
any reason, including turbulence. After such higher speed is no longer necessary, the aircraft should be
operated at or below the specified airspeeds and ATC notified
 Airspace protection for turbulent air holding is based on a maximum of 280 KIAS or Mach 0.8, whichever is
lower, from the Minimum Holding Altitude (MHA) to 34000' and Mach .83 above that altitude.
 Considerable impact on the flow of air traffic may result when aircraft hold at speeds which are higher than
those specified above. After departing a holding fix, pilots should resume normal speed subject to other
requirements, such as speed limitations in the vicinity of controlled airports, specific ATC requests, etc.
Holding Clearance
A holding clearance issued by ATC will include at least the following items:
 a clearance to the holding fix
 the direction to hold from the holding fix
 a specified radial, course, or inbound track

 If DME is used, the DME distances at which the fix end and outbound end turns are to be commenced (hold
between [number of miles] and [number of miles]). If the outbound DME is not specified by ATC, pilots are
expected adhere to the standard holding pattern timing procedures above
 the altitude or FL to be maintained
 the time to expect further clearance or an approach clearance or the time to leave the fix in the event of a
communications failure
REFERENCE
 https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aip_html/part2_enr_section_1.5.html
 https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/atc_html/chap4_section_5.html
 https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/chap_4.html
 https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/chap_6.html
 https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/chap9_section_1.html

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Frequency Modulation (FM)

Single Side Band (SSB)

Radio Transmitters and Receivers

Three characteristics are of major concern when considering antennas:

Air Traffic Control (ATC) communication procedures

Communications with ATC should be stated:

As a rule, each transmission should include:

Tips for better communications:

you do need to change frequencies, you can

entering the airport traffic area at a non-towered field.

Common Traps to Avoid:

 Overall size of the airliner, e.g., narrow-body or wide-body

Shape of the nose section

along the fuselage

Destination airport in airlines

JFK International Airport, Terminal 5

Denver International Airport, South Terminal

Incheon International Airport, Terminal 2

Departure delay information

Departure control instructions

Same runway separation

Fig. Same Runway Separation

Airway or flight path

Lowest usable flight level

Adjusted minimum flight level

Recording and Analysis of Reported Safety Data

Protection of Reporting Personnel

o An evacuation of an aircraft in which an emergency egress system is utilized.

Standard Holding Pattern

Standard Holding Pattern

Non-Standard Holding Pattern

Hold Entry Procedures for a Standard Holding Pattern

 a specified radial, course, or inbound track

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