DIRECT SELF STUDY REPORT

Title: FUEL CELLS

NAME: B. Jyotindra Sai
Regd No: 16331A0810
2016-2020

MAHARAJ VIJAYARAM GAJAPATI

RAJ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (A)
 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
MVGR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (A)

The project name entitled “ FUEL CELLS” submitted by Mr. B. Jyotindra

Sai (16331A0810) may be accepted for getting evaluated.

Signature of Head of the Department

Date:
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

3. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell

4. Alkaline Fuel Cell

5. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

6. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

7. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

8. Reversible Fuel Cell

INTRODUCTION
A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical
reaction. Every fuel cell has two electrodes, one positive and one
negative, called, respectively, the anode and cathode. The reactions
that produce electricity take place at the electrodes. Every fuel cell
also has an electrolyte, which carries electrically charged particles
from one electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which speeds the
reactions at the electrodes. Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel
cells also require oxygen. One great appeal of fuel cells is that they
generate electricity with very little pollution–much of the hydrogen
and oxygen used in generating electricity ultimately combine to
form a harmless byproduct, namely water. One detail of
terminology: a single fuel cell generates a tiny amount of direct
current (DC) electricity. In practice, many fuel cells are usually
assembled into a stack. Cell or stack, the principles are the
same.All over the world, including India, the need for the
development of an alternate energy sector, which is becoming
increasingly important not only due to our need to reduce
dependence of rapidly exhausting fossil fuels, but also due to
increasing global concern about the environmental consequences
of the uses of fossil fuels in generation of electricity and for the
propulsion of vehicles. There are more than 1 billion automobiles
in use worldwide, satisfying many needs for mobility in daily life.
The automotive industry is therefore one of the largest economic
forces globally employing huge people force and generating a
value chain in excess of $3 trillion per year. As a consequence of
this colossal industry, the large number of automobiles in use has
caused and continues to cause a series of major issues in our
society as follows:
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions—the transportation sector
contributes ~13.1% of GHG emissions worldwide (5 billion tonnes
of CO2 per year). More than two thirds of transport-related GHG
emissions originate from road transport. Reducing the GHG
emissions of automobiles has thus become a national and
international priority. Air pollution—tailpipe emissions are
responsible for several debilitating respiratory conditions, in
particular the particulate emissions from diesel vehicles. The
increasing number of diesel vehicles on roads would further
worsen air quality. Oil depletion—oil reserves are projected to
only last 40–50 years with current technology and usage. Transport
is already responsible for large share of the oil use and this share
continues to increase. Energy security—India dependence on
foreign sources for its oil and reserves of conventional oil are
concentrated largely in politically unstable regions; dependency on
fossil fuels for transportation therefore needs to be reduced in the
country. According to the United Nations, world population
reached 7 Billion on October 31, 2011and is expected to reach 8
billion in the spring of 2024 & 9 billion by 2050. This will
obviously have an important impact on climate change, food
security and energy security. The development of alternative fuels
to petrol and diesel has therefore been an ongoing effort since the
1970s, initially in response to the oil shocks and concerns over
urban air pollution. Efforts have gained momentum more recently
as the volatility of oil prices and stability of supplies, not to
mention the consequences of global climate change, have risen up
political agendas the world over. Hydrogen has emerged as
environment friendly alternate fuel. A number of devices / systems
have been developed / are under development for power generation
/ transportation applications with hydrogen as fuel. Fuel cells are
low-carbon technologies and have already been recognized to
address all the above issues related to GHG emissions, air
pollution, energy security etc. and are thus rapidly advancing in
global technology and industrial domain Today, fuel cells are
widely considered to be efficient and nonpolluting.

How does fuel cells work?

The purpose of a fuel cell is to produce an electrical current that

can be directed outside the cell to do work, such as powering an
electric motor or illuminating a light bulb or a city. Because of the
way electricity behaves, this current returns to the fuel cell,
completing an electrical circuit. (To learn more about electricity
and electric power, visit "Throw The Switch" on the Smithsonian
website Powering a Generation of Change.) The chemical
reactions that produce this current are the key to how a fuel cell
works. There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit
differently. But in general terms, hydrogen atoms enter a fuel cell
at the anode where a chemical reaction strips them of their
electrons. The hydrogen atoms are now "ionized," and carry a
positive electrical charge. The negatively charged electrons
provide the current through wires to do work. If alternating current
(AC) is needed, the DC output of the fuel cell must be routed
through a conversion device called an inverter. Oxygen enters the
fuel cell at the cathode and, in some cell types (like the one
illustrated above), it there combines with electrons returning from
the electrical circuit and hydrogen ions that have traveled through
the electrolyte from the anode. In other cell types the oxygen picks
up electrons and the travels through the electrolyte to the anode,
where it combines with hydrogen ions. The electrolyte plays a key
role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to pass between the
anode and cathode. If free electrons or other substances could
travel through the electrolyte, they would disrupt the chemical
reaction.

Types of fuel cells

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells—also called

proton exchange membrane fuel cells—deliver high power density
and offer the advantages of low weight and volume compared with
other fuel cells. PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer as an
electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum or
platinum alloy catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from the
air, and water to operate and do not require corrosive fluids like
some fuel cells do. They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen
supplied from storage tanks or reformers. PEMPEM fuel cells
operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80°C (176°F). Low-
temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up
time) and results in less wear on system components, resulting in
better durability. However, it requires that a noble-metal catalyst
(typically platinum) be used to separate the hydrogen's electrons
and protons, adding to system cost. The platinum catalyst is also
extremely sensitive to carbon monoxide poisoning, making it
necessary to employ an additional reactor to reduce carbon
monoxide in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from a
hydrocarbon fuel. This reactor also adds cost. PEM fuel cells are
used primarily for transportation applications and some stationary
applications. Due to their fast startup time and favorable power-to-
weight ratio, PEM fuel cells are particularly suitable for use in
passenger vehicles, such as cars and buses.

Direct Methanol Fuel Cells

Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, which can be fed to the
fuel cell system directly or can be generated within the fuel cell
system by reforming hydrogen-rich fuels such as methanol,
ethanol, and hydrocarbon fuels. Direct methanol fuel cells
(DMFCs), however, are powered by pure methanol, which is
usually mixed with water and fed directly to the fuel cell anode.
Direct methanol fuel cells do not have many of the fuel storage
problems typical of some fuel cell systems because methanol has a
higher energy density than hydrogen—though less than gasoline or
diesel fuel. Methanol is also easier to transport and supply to the
public using our current infrastructure because it is a liquid, like
gasoline. DMFCs are often used to provide power for portable fuel
cell.

Alkaline Fuel Cells

Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell
technologies developed, and they were the first type widely used in
the U.S. space program to produce electrical energy and water on-
board spacecraft. These fuel cells use a solution of potassium
hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of non-
precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode. High-
temperature AFCs operate at temperatures between 100°C and
250°C (212°F and 482°F). However, newer AFC designs operate
at lower temperatures of roughly 23°C to 70°C (74°F to 158°F). In
recent years, novel AFCs that use a polymer membrane as the
electrolyte have been developed. These fuel cells are closely
related to conventional PEM fuel cells, except that they use an
alkaline membrane instead of an acid membrane. The high
performance of AFCs is due to the rate at which electro-chemical
reactions take place in the cell. They have also demonstrated
efficiencies above 60% in space applications.The disadvantage of
this fuel cell type is that it is easily poisoned by carbon dioxide
(CO2). In fact, even the small amount of CO2 in the air can affect
this cell's operation, making it necessary to purify both the
hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell. This purification process is
costly. Susceptibility to poisoning also affects the cell's lifetime
(the amount of time before it must be replaced), further adding to
cost. Alkaline membrane cells have lower susceptibility to CO2
poisoning than liquid-electrolyte AFCs do, but performance still
suffers as a result of CO2 that dissolves into the membrane.
CostCost is less of a factor for remote locations, such as in space or
under the sea. However, to compete effectively in most
mainstream commercial markets, these fuel cells will have to
become more cost-effective. To be economically viable in large-
scale utility applications, AFCs need to reach operating times
exceeding 40,000 hours, something that has not yet been achieved
due to material durability issues. This obstacle is possibly the most
significant in commercializing this fuel cell technology.

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) use liquid phosphoric acid as
an electrolyte—the acid is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon
carbide matrix—and porous carbon electrodes containing a
platinum catalyst. The electro-chemical reactions that take place in
the cell are shown in the diagram to the right. TheThe PAFC is
considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of
the most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially.
This type of fuel cell is typically used for stationary power
generation, but some PAFCs have been used to power large
vehicles such as city buses. PAFCs are more tolerant of impurities
in fossil fuels that have been reformed into hydrogen than PEM
cells, which are easily "poisoned" by carbon monoxide because
carbon monoxide binds to the platinum catalyst at the anode,
decreasing the fuel cell's efficiency. PAFCs are more than 85%
efficient when used for the co-generation of electricity and heat but
they are less efficient at generating electricity alone (37%–42%).
PAFC efficiency is only slightly more than that of combustion-
based power plants, which typically operate at around 33%
efficiency. PAFCs are also less powerful than other fuel cells,
given the same weight and volume. As a result, these fuel cells are
typically large and heavy. PAFCs are also expensive. They require
much higher loadings of expensive platinum catalyst than other
types of fuel cells do, which raises the cost.
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are currently being

developed for natural gas and coal-based power plants for
electrical utility, industrial, and military applications. MCFCs are
high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a
molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically
inert ceramic lithium aluminum oxide matrix. Because they
operate at extremely high temperatures of 650°C (roughly 1,200°F)
and above, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at the
anode and cathode, reducing costs. ImprovedImproved efficiency
is another reason MCFCs offer significant cost reductions over
phosphoric acid fuel cells. Molten carbonate fuel cells, when
coupled with a turbine, can reach efficiencies approaching 65%,
considerably higher than the 37%–42% efficiencies of a
phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is captured
and used, overall fuel efficiencies can be over 85%. UnlikeUnlike
alkaline, phosphoric acid, and PEM fuel cells, MCFCs do not
require an external reformer to convert fuels such as natural gas
and biogas to hydrogen. At the high temperatures at which MCFCs
operate, methane and other light hydrocarbons in these fuels are
converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by a process called
internal reforming, which also reduces cost. The primary
disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. The high
temperatures at which these cells operate and the corrosive
electrolyte used accelerate component breakdown and corrosion,
decreasing cell life. Scientists are currently exploring corrosion-
resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that
increase cell life without decreasing performance.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a hard, non-porous ceramic
compound as the electrolyte. SOFCs are around 60% efficient at
converting fuel to electricity. In applications designed to capture and
utilize the system's waste heat (co-generation), overall fuel use
efficiencies could top
85%. SOFCs operate at very high temperatures—as high as 1,000°C
(1,830°F). High-temperature operation removes the need for precious-
metal catalyst, thereby reducing cost. It also allows SOFCs to reform
fuels internally, which enables the use of a variety of fuels and reduces
the cost associated with adding a reformer to the system. SOFCs are also
the most sulfur-resistant fuel cell type; they can tolerate several orders of
magnitude more of sulfur than other cell types can. In addition, they are
not poisoned by carbon monoxide, which can even be used as fuel. This
property allows SOFCs to use natural gas, biogas, and gases made from
coal. High-temperature operation has disadvantages. It results in a slow
start up and requires significant thermal shielding to retain heat and
protect personnel, which may be acceptable for utility applications but
not for transportation. The high operating temperatures also place
stringent durability requirements on materials. The development of low-
cost materials with high durability at cell operating temperatures is the
key technical challenge facing this technology.Scientists are currently
exploring the potential for developing lower-temperature
SOFCsoperating at or below 700°C that have fewer durability problems
and cost less. Lower temperature SOFCs produce less electrical power,
however, and stack materials that will function in this lower temperature
range are still under development.
 Reversible Fuel Cells

Reversible fuel cells produce electricity from hydrogen and oxygen and
generate heat and water as byproducts, just like other fuel cells.
However, reversible fuel cell systems can also use electricity from solar
power, wind power, or other sources to split water into oxygen and
hydrogen fuel through a process called electrolysis. Reversible fuel cells
can provide power when needed, but during times of high power
production from other technologies (such as when high winds lead to an
excess of available wind power), reversible fuel cells can store the
excess energy in the form of hydrogen. This energy storage capability
could be a key enabler for intermittent renewable energy technologies.
 Advantages and Disadvantage of Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical reaction.

Every fuel cell has two electrodes, one positive and one negative, called,
respectively, the anode and cathode. The reactions that produce
electricity take place at the electrodes. Every fuel cell also has an
electrolyte, which carries electrically charged particles from one
electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which speeds the reactions at the
electrodes. Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells also require oxygen.
One great appeal of fuel cells is that they generate electricity with very
little pollution—much of the hydrogen and oxygen used in generating
electricity ultimately combine to form a harmless by-product, namely
water. HydrogenHydrogen does not occur free in nature; it can be made
by “re-forming” natural gas or another fossil fuel, or by using electricity
to split (“electrolyze”) water into its components of oxygen and
hydrogen. In this sense, hydrogen is like electricity: the energy to
generate it can be obtained from sources ranging from the burning of
high-sulfur coal to pollution- free photovoltaic cells (solar cells).

Advantages

1. Most abundant element:

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe, which makes
up about 3/4 of all matter. Anywhere there is water (H2O) you have
hydrogen and oxygen.
2. Hydrogen has the highest energy content:
Energy content of hydrogen is the highest per unit of weight of any fuel.
Therefore it offers the most “bang for the buck”. When water is broken
down into HHO, otherwise known as oxyhydrogen or Brown’s Gas, it
becomes a very, very efficient fuel.
3. Hydrogen is non-polluting:
Along with its effectiveness as a fuel, hydrogen is non-polluting. The
only byproduct of hydrogen when it burns is heat and water.
4. Hydrogen is a renewable fuel source:
Hydrogen is very plentiful. The trick is to break the water molecules
down to release it.
5. Reduce dependency on foreign oil:
It will greatly reduce the import of highly expensive oil demands of our
country.
 Disadvantages

1. Hydrogen is currently very expensive, not because it is rare (it’s the

most common element in the universe!) but because it’s difficult to
generate, handle, and store, requiring bulky and heavy tanks like those
for compressed natural gas (CNG) or complex insulating bottles if stored
as a cryogenic (super-cold) liquid like liquefied natural gas (LNG).
2. It can also be stored at moderate temperatures and pressures in a tank
containing a metal-hydride absorber or carbon absorber, though these
are currently very expensive.