DKM6063 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY 2

4.0POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

This topic explains the basic purposes of switches, circuit breakers and fuses. It also
explains what is meant by insulation and the role of transformer onboard ship.
4.0 POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

4.1 Distribution
The function of a distribution system is the generated electrical power to every item of consumer equipment
connected to it. Probably the most obvious element in the system is the main distribution centre, i.e. the
ship's main switchboard.
The main board supplies bulk power to motor group starter boards (often part of the main board), section
boards and distribution boards.
Protection, e.g. circuit-breakers and fuses, strategically placed throughout the system automatically
disconnects a faulty circuit within the network. Transformers interconnect the high voltage and low voltage
distribution sections of the system.
The operational state of a- distribution system is indicated by the monitors for power, voltage, current and
by protection relays for overcurrents and earth-faults at each main control centre. Study the electrical power
diagrams for your own ship to see if you can relate them to the actual equipment they represent.
The vast majority of ships have an alternating current (a.c.) distribution system in preference to a direct
current (d.c.) system. The required electrical services are broadly considered as main and emergency
supplies.

Main supply
An a.c. network is cheaper to install and operate than a d.c. system. In particular, d.c. offers a higher
power/weight ratio for the generation, distribution and utilization of electricity. Simple transformers efficiently
step-up or step-down a.c. voltages where required. Three-phase a.c. is effectively converted into rotary
mechanical power in simple and efficient induction motors. A ship's electrical distribution scheme generally
follows shore practice. This allows normal industrial equipment to be used onboard ship after being
"marinised", where necessary, to withstand the rigours of a sea-life (e.g. it must withstand the vibration,
humidity, high temperature, ozone, sea-water, etc. encountered in various parts of the ship).
The majority of ships have a 3-phase d.c., 3-wire, 440 V insulated-neutral system. This means that the
neutral point of star-connected generators is not earthed to the ship's hull. For continental European
vessels, a 380 V, 3-phase system is common. Ships with very large electrical loads have generators
operating at high voltages (HV) of 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV and even 11 kV. Such high voltages are economically
necessary in high power systems to reduce the size of current, and hence reduce the size of conductors
and equipment required. Operating at such high voltages is becoming more common as ship size and
complexity increase, e.g. for large cruise liners. Offshore oil and gas production platforms operate at up to
13.8 kV, where equipment weight saving is important. Distribution systems at these high voltages usually
have their neutral points earthed through a resistor or earthing transformer to the ship's hull.
The frequency of an a.c. power system can be 50 Hz or 60 Hz. In Europe and most of the world the
national frequency is 50 Hz but is 60 Hz in North America and in a few other countries. The most common
power frequency adopted for use on board ships and offshore platforms is 60 Hz. This higher frequency
means that motors and generators run at higher speeds with a consequent reduction in size for a given
power rating.
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Lighting and low power single-phase supplies usually operate at the lower voltage of 220 V a.c. although
110 V a.c. is also used. These voltages are derived from step-down transformers connected to the 440 V
system.
The distribution system is the means by which the electrical power produced by the generators is delivered
to the various motors, lighting, galley services, navigation aids, etc. which comprise the ship's electrical
load. The electrical energy is routed through the main switchboard, then distributed via cables to section
and distribution boards then ultimately to the final load consumers. The main electrical load is divided into
essential and non-essential services.
Essential services are those required for the safety of personnel and for the safe navigation and propulsion
of the ship. They include certain supplies to navigational aids, communications, machinery spaces, control
stations and steering gear. The essential services may be supplied directly from the main switchboard or
via section boards or distribution boards.

4.1.1 Explains the basic purposes of switches, circuit breakers and fuses
The circuit-breakers and switches are the means of interrupting the flow of electric current, and the fuses
and relays protect the distribution system from the damaging effects of large fault currents.

 A switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or
diverting it from one conductor to another. The mechanism of a switch may be operated directly by a
human operator to control a circuit (for example, a light switch or a keyboard button), may be operated
by a moving object such as a door-operated switch, or may be operated by some sensing element for
pressure, temperature or flow. Switches are made to handle a wide range of voltages and currents;
very large switches may be used to isolate high-voltage circuits in electrical substations.
An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no limits on voltage or
current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time during state changes, and would change state
without "bouncing" between on and off positions.
Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current and voltage they
can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal switch is often used in circuit analysis as it greatly
simplifies the system of equations to be solved, but this can lead to a less accurate solution.
Theoretical treatment of the effects of non-ideal properties is required in the design of large networks
of switches, as for example used in telephone exchanges.

 A fuse is a type of low resistance resistor that acts as a sacrificial device to

provide overcurrent protection, of either the load or source circuit. Its essential component is a metal
wire or strip that melts when too much current flows through it, interrupting the circuit that it
connects. Short circuits, overloading, mismatched loads, or device failure are the prime reasons for
excessive current. Fuses can be used as alternatives to circuit breakers.

A fuse interrupts an excessive current so that further damage by overheating or fire is prevented.
Wiring regulations often define a maximum fuse current rating for particular circuits. Overcurrent
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 protection devices are essential in electrical systems to limit threats to human life and property
damage. The time and current operating characteristics of fuses are chosen to provide adequate
protection without needless interruption. Slow blow fuses are designed to allow harmless short term
currents over their rating while still interrupting a sustained overload.

Fuses are manufactured in a wide range of current and voltage ratings to protect wiring systems and
electrical equipment. Self-resetting fuses automatically restore the circuit after the overload has
cleared, and are useful in environments where a human replacing a blown fuse would be difficult or
impossible, for example in aerospace or nuclear applications.

 FUSE is a low resistance device which is placed in the circuit for protection. Under faulty
conditions when the current becomes more than the desired value, then due to the increase in
temperature the fuse wire melts and breaks, thus breaking the circuit. These are used for lower
power ratings and can be used only once, after that it has to be replaced with a new one.

 A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical

circuit from damage caused by excess current from an overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to
interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be
replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation.
 Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect low-current circuits or
individual household appliance, up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits. The
generic function of a circuit breaker, RCD or a fuse, as an automatic means of removing power from a
faulty system is often abbreviated as OCPD (Over Current Protection Device).
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 CIRCUIT BREAKER also solves the same purpose i.e. it breaks the circuit when the fault
occurs. These are used for large ratings and in the power systems and auxiliaries. CB also has
the capability to re-close after the fault is through i.e. when the system gets healthy. The CB has
two parts/contacts one is static and the other is moving (the one responsible for making or
breaking the contacts).When the contacts of CB separate, then it said to have tripped. Tripping
of the circuit breaker has to be very fast so as to avoid the arc formation between the two
contacts, otherwise it will defeat the purpose of installing the CB. The trip signal is given to the
CB by another protective device called as an ELECTRICAL RELAY. CB’s are categorized on the
basis of the power ratings and the medium used to extinguish the arc formed during the breaking
of the contacts.

Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually and
automatically for controlling and protection of electrical power system respectively. As the modern
power system deals with huge currents, the special attention should be given during designing of
circuit breaker for safe interruption of arc produced during the operation of circuit breaker.
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The circuit breaker must first detect a fault condition. Once a fault is detected, the circuit breaker contacts
must open to interrupt the circuit; this is commonly done using mechanically stored energy contained within
the breaker, such as a spring or compressed air to separate the contacts. Circuit breakers may also use the
higher current caused by the fault to separate the contacts, such as thermal expansion or a magnetic field.
The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand
the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper
alloys, silver alloys and other highly conductive materials. When a high current or voltage is interrupted,
an arc is generated. The length of the arc is generally proportional to the voltage while the intensity (or
heat) is proportional to the current. This arc must be contained, cooled and extinguished in a controlled
way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different
techniques are used to extinguish the arc including:

 Lengthening or deflecting the arc

 Intensive cooling (in jet chambers)
 Division into partial arcs
 Zero point quenching (contacts open at the zero current time crossing of the AC waveform, effectively
breaking no load current at the time of opening. The zero crossing occurs at twice the line frequency;
i.e., 100 times per second for 50 Hz and 120 times per second for 60 Hz AC.)
 Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits.

Arc interruption

Low-voltage miniature circuit breakers (MCB) use air alone to extinguish the arc. These circuit breakers
contain so-called arc chutes, a stack of mutually insulated parallel metal plates that divide and cool the arc.
By splitting the arc into smaller arcs the arc is cooled down while the arc voltage is increased and serves as
an additional impedance that limits the current through the circuit breaker. The current-carrying parts near
the contacts provide easy deflection of the arc into the arc chutes by a magnetic force of a current path,
although magnetic blowout coils or permanent magnets could also deflect the arc into the arc chute (used
on circuit breakers for higher ratings). The number of plates in the arc chute is dependent on the short-
circuit rating and nominal voltage of the circuit breaker.

FRAME OF MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER

The frame of miniature circuit breaker is a molded case. This is a rigid, strong, insulated housing in which
the other components are mounted.

Miniature circuit breaker construction is very simple, robust and maintenance free. Generally a MCB is
not repaired or maintained, it just replaced by new one when required. A miniature circuit breaker has
normally three main constructional parts. These are:
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Working Principle Miniature Circuit Breaker
There are two arrangement of operation of miniature circuit breaker. One due to thermal effect of over
current and other due to electromagnetic effect of over current. The thermal operation of miniature circuit
breaker is achieved with a bimetallic strip whenever continuous over current flows through MCB, the
bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by bending. This deflection of bimetallic strip releases mechanical
latch.

As this mechanical latch is attached with operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit
breaker contacts. But during short circuit condition, sudden rising of current, causes electromechanical
displacement of plunger associated with tripping coil or solenoid of MCB. The plunger strikes the trip lever
causing immediate release of latch mechanism consequently open the circuit breaker contacts. This was
a simple explanation of miniature circuit breaker working principle.
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OPERATING MECHANISM OF MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER
The operating mechanism of miniature circuit breaker provides the means of manual opening and closing
operation of miniature circuit breaker. It has three-positions "ON," "OFF," and "TRIPPED". The external
switching latch can be in the "TRIPPED" position, if the MCB is tripped due to over-current. When manually
switch off the MCB, the switching latch will be in "OFF" position. In close condition of MCB, the switch is
positioned at "ON". By observing the positions of the switching latch one can determine the condition of
MCB whether it is closed, tripped or manually switched off.

TRIP UNIT OF MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER

The trip unit is the main part, responsible for proper working of miniature circuit breaker. Two main types
of trip mechanism are provided in MCB. A bimetal provides protection against over load current and an
electromagnet provides protection against short-circuit current.

Operation of Miniature Circuit Breaker

There are three mechanisms provided in a single miniature circuit breaker to make it switched off. If we
carefully observe the picture beside, we will find there are mainly one bi - metallic strip, one trip coil and
one hand operated on - off lever. Electric current carrying path of a miniature circuit breaker shown in the
picture is like follows. First left hand side power terminal - then bimetallic strip - then current coil or trip coil -
then moving contact - then fixed contact and - lastly right had side power terminal. All are arranged in
series.

If circuit is overloaded for long time, the bi - metallic strip becomes over heated and deformed.
This deformation of bi metallic strip causes, displacement of latch point. The moving contact of the MCB is
so arranged by means of spring pressure, with this latch point, that a little displacement of latch causes,
release of spring and makes the moving contact to move for opening the MCB.
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 The current coil or trip coil is placed such a manner that during short circuit fault the mmf of that coil causes
its plunger to hit the same latch point and make the latch to be displaced. Hence the MCB will open in
same manner. Again when operating lever of the miniature circuit breaker is operated by hand, that
means when we make the MCB at off position manually, the same latch point is displaced as a result
moving contact separated from fixed contact in same manner. So, whatever may be the operating
mechanism, that means, may be due to deformation of bi - metallic strip, due to increased mmf of trip coil or
may due to manual operation, actually the same latch point is displaced and same deformed spring is
released, which ultimately responsible for movement of the moving contact.
When the the moving contact separated from fixed contact, there may be a high chance of arc. This arc
then goes up through the arc runner and enters into arc splitters and is finally quenched. When we switch
on an MCB, we actually reset the displaced operating latch to its previous on position and make the MCB
ready for another switch off or trip operation.

4.1.2 Describes briefly the principle of the various types of closing mechanism of circuit breakers

The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and moving contacts. In normal "ON" condition of
circuit breaker, these two contacts are physically connected to each other due to applied mechanical
pressure on the moving contacts. There is an arrangement stored potential energy in the operating
mechanism of circuit breaker which is released if switching signal is given to the breaker.
The potential energy can be stored in the circuit breaker by different ways like by deforming metal spring,
by compressed air, or by hydraulic pressure. But whatever the source of potential energy, it must be
released during operation. Release of potential energy makes sliding of the moving contact at extremely
fast manner.
All circuit breaker have operating coils (tripping coils and close coil), whenever these coils are energized by
switching pulse, and the plunger inside them displaced. This operating coil plunger is typically attached to
the operating mechanism of circuit breaker, as a result the mechanically stored potential energy in the
breaker mechanism is released in forms of kinetic energy, which makes the moving contact to move as
these moving contacts mechanically attached through a gear lever arrangement with the operating
mechanism.
After a cycle of operation of circuit breaker the total stored energy is released and hence the potential
energy again stored in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker by means of spring charging motor or air
compressor or by any other means. Till now we have discussed about mechanical working principle of
circuit breaker. But there are electrical characteristics of a circuit breaker which also should be considered
in this discussion of operation of circuit breaker.

Types of Circuit Breaker

According different criteria there are different types of circuit breaker.

According to their arc quenching media the circuit breaker can be divided as-
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1. Oil circuit breaker.

2. Air circuit breaker.
3. SF6 circuit breaker.
4. Vacuum circuit breaker.

According to their services the circuit breaker can be divided as-

1. Outdoor circuit breaker

2. Indoor breaker.

According to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker they can be divided as-

1. Spring operated circuit breaker.

2. Pneumatic circuit breaker.
3. Hydraulic circuit breaker.

According to the voltage level of installation types of circuit breaker are referred as-

1. High voltage circuit breaker.

2. Medium voltage circuit breaker.
3. Low voltage circuit breaker.

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Introduction of circuit breakers

All electric circuits needs a switching device and also a protective device. Switchgear is the general term
covering a wide range of equipment connected with switching and protection. A circuit breaker is a
switching and circuit interrupting device. A circuit breaker serves two purposes:

(i) Switching on and off during normal operation for maintenance etc.

(ii) Switching during abnormal conditions- short circuits, earthing etc. to protect the associated equipment.

In short, a circuit breaker is a sort of automatic switch which can interrupt the fault currents. Two important
parts of a circuit breaker that need consideration are:

(i) Arc extinction system

(ii) Relay for operation

Arc Extinction in circuit breakers:

Whenever a circuit carrying current is interrupted by a circuit breaker an arc is inevitably formed between
the contacts which prolongs the current interrupting process for a duration ranging from 10 to 100 or more
milliseconds.

Since arc is produced in every circuit breakers, therefore suitable energy dissipating device must be
incorporated in the design of circuit breaker. Unless carefully controlled, arc can lead to danger of fire or
explosion.
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The arc consists of a column of ionized gas i.e. gas in which the molecules have lost one or more of their
negative electrons, leaving positive ions. The negative electrons are attracted towards the positive contact
and being light, more towards it very rapidly. The positive ions attracted towards the negative contact. Due
to electron movement the current flows. The ionization process is accompanied by the emission of light and
heat. Also some portion of power is dissipated as heat. The temperature of arc may be as high as 60000 C.

Methods of arc extinction in circuit breakers :

Two methods commonly used are:

(i) High resistance interruption :

In this the arc is controlled in such a way that its resistance is caused to increase rapidly, thereby reducing
the current until it falls to a value that is insufficient to maintain the ionization process. The arc resistance
may be increased by

(a) Arc lengthening

(b) Arc cooling

(c) Arc splitting

(ii) Low resistance interruption :

In this the arc resistance is kept low, in order to keep the arc energy to a minimum and use is made of a
natural or artificial current zero when the arc extinguishes itself and is then prevented from re striking.

Protection of contacts of circuit breakers :

During arcing mechanical as well as electrical erosion of contacts occurs. Therefore the resistance to
erosion by arching is the important property of contact materials. In case of dc circuits the process of
erosion is represented by loss of material from one contact and the deposition of part of this material on to
the other contact. However, in case of ac circuits there is no marked direction of transfer, as either contact
becomes successively positive and negative.

There are two distinct forms of protections which may be employed with the object of reducing the rate of
erosion of contacts by arcing thereby prolonging their useful life.
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(a) Arc dispersion in circuit breakers :

In this the destructive effects of the arc are minimized, using one of the following methods:

1. Oil immersion of contacts

2. Multiple break contacts

3. De ionization of arc path

4. Magnetic blow out of arc

5. Blast principle using air, oil, gas or water.

(b) Arc prevention in circuit breakers:

In this the occurrence or arc is prevented by reducing the current and voltage below the minimum arcing
values or reducing its destructive effects as far as possible. The principle devices used to quench circuits of
this kind are :

(i) Discharge resistance

(ii) Rectifiers

(iii) Condensers

Circuit breakers:

These are heavy-duty devices capable of interrupting comparatively large electric currents safely. They are
designed not only to carry and interrupt the normal load currents flowing in circuit but also to interrupt any
abnormally high current that may flow under fault conditions such as short circuit. Circuit breakers are
constructed mechanically strong enough to withstand the forces set-up by enormous short-circuit currents.

The ability of a breaker to withstand short circuit forces is expressed in Volt-Amperes, i.e., product of
nominal circuit voltage and the short-circuit current for which the breaker is designed.

Specifications of circuit breakers:

1. Operating voltage of the circuit :

It determines the insulating requirements.

2. Normal operating or maximum load current :

It determines requirements of the normal or load-carrying parts.

3. Maximum abnormal or fault current that must be interrupted :

It determines the mechanical requirements of the breaker itself and of its supporting structure.
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Commonly used insulations are:

l. Oil
2. Vacuum
3. Inert gas e.g. sulphur hexafluoride.

Principle of operation of Circuit Breakers :

The circuit breaker actually makes a physical separation in the current-carrying or conducting element by
inserting an insulating medium sufficient to prevent current from continuing to flow. In so doing, the
persistence of an arc across the gap is prevented. The circuit is usually opened by drawing out an arc
between contacts until the arc can no longer support itself. The arc formed when the contacts of a circuit
breaker move apart to interrupt of a circuit is a conductor made up of ionized particles of the insulating
materials. Whenever voltages and currents are large other forms of insulation are used in place or air to
extinguish the arc as quickly as possible.

Whenever fault occurs in the circuit breaker, relay connected to the current transformer CT actuates and
closes its contacts. Current flows from the battery in the trip circuit As soon as the trip coil of the circuit
breaker gets energized the circuit breaker operating mechanism is actuated and it operates for the opening
mechanism.

Thus relay forms a vital part of a circuit breaker. Various types of relays used are given below:

Relay Operation

1.Differential relay Responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical quantities.

Operates when the impedance between relay point and fault point is below a
2.Impedance relay
specified value.

Responds to increase in current. The relay operates when the current exceeds a
3.Over current relay
present level

Instantaneous
4. A quick operating relay (less than 0.2-second operating times).
relay

A relay without moving parts. In this the measurement is performed by a stationary

5.Static relay
circuit.
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Types of Circuit Breakers:

Type Medium Range

Low voltage Up to l000

1.Air break C.B. Air at atmospheric pressure
V

2.Tank type oil circuit breaker Dielectric oil Up to 33 kV

36 kV, 1500 MVA

3.Minimum oil circuit breaker Dielectric oil
132 kV, 3000 MVA

Compressed air (pressure 20 to 30 132 kV, 220 kV

4.Air blast C.B.
atmospheres) 400 kV, 760 kV

132 k V, 220 kV
5.SF6 C.B. SF6 gas
400 kV, 760 kV.

6.Vacuum C.B. Vacuum 11 kV. 33 kV

High voltage direct current

7. Vacuum or SF6 ± 500 kV DC.
C.B.

1. Air circuit breakers :

An air circuit breaker employs air as the interrupting insulation medium. Of all the insulating media
mentioned, air is the most easily ionized and, hence, arcs formed in air tend to be serve and
persistent. The switching elements for an air current, breaker, consists of main and auxiliary contacts. The
auxiliary contacts open before the main contacts do, and the arc is drawn on them, thereby avoiding serve
pitting of the main contacts.

2. Oil Circuit Breakers :

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Oil circuit breakers have their contacts immersed in insulating oil. They are used to open and close high-
voltage circuits carrying relatively large currents in situations where air circuit breakers would be impractical
because of the danger of the exposed arcs that might be formed. When the contacts are drawn apart, the
oil covering them tends to quench the arc by its cooling effect and by the gases thereby generated, which
tend to "blow out" the arc. At the instant the contacts part, the arc formed at each contact not only displaces
the oil but decomposes it, creating gas and a carbon residue. If these carbon particles were to remain in
place, as a conductor they would tend to sustain the arc formed. However, the violence of the gas and the
resulting turbulence of the oil disperse these particles and they eventually settle to the bottom of the tank.
The insulating oil normally used as a dielectric strength of around 30 kV per one tenth of an inch (compared
to a similar value of 1 kV for air). Oil is also an effective cooling medium.

3. Vacuum Circuit Breaker :

Here the contacts are drawn apart in a chamber from which air has been evacuated. The electric arc is
essentially an electric conductor made up of ionized air. Thus, if there is no air, theoretically the arc cannot
form. In practice, however, a perfect vacuum is not likely to be obtained. The small residual amount of air
that may exist permits only a small arc to be formed and one of only a very short direction. The same
vacuum however, will not dissipate the heat generated as readily as other insulating media. This type of
breaker has certain advantages in terms of its size and simplicity.
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4. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) breaker :

This type of breaker is similar to the vacuum types of breaker except that the vacuum is replaced by an
inert non-toxic, odorless gas-sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). This gas, extinguished the arc so rapidly as almost
to prevent its formation. It is also excellent heat-dissipating characteristics, and its dielectric strength is very
much greater than that of oil. The breakers are constructed to modules capable of operation at voltages
from 34.4 kV at gas pressure of 45 psi to 362 kV at 240 psi. By connecting two or three such modules in
series, breaker capable of operating at 800 kV at 240 psi can be constructed with two-three-cycle
interrupting time. Features of sulphur hexafluoride interrupting module.

Terms associated with circuit breakers:

1. ARCING TIME :

Time between separation of circuit breaker contacts and Final current zero.

2. Dead time :

Time between final current zero of first opening and contact touch during subsequent re closing.

3. DE IONIZING TIME :

Time for de ionizing the arc space after opening of circuit breaker.

4. FAULT CLEARING TIME :

Time between occurrence of fault and closing of tripping contacts or energizing of shunt trip release.

5. Opening time :

Time between energizing of shunt trip release and opening of circuit breaker contacts.

6. Rated Short circuit breaking current :

The rated short circuit breaker current of a circuit breaker is the highest value of short circuit which a circuit
breaker is capable of breaking under specified conditions of recovery voltage and power frequency
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recovery voltage.
 7. RELAY TIME :

Time between occurrence.of fault and closure of relay contacts.

Working Principle of Air Circuit Breaker

The working principle of this breaker is rather different from those in any other types of circuit breakers. The
main aim of all kind of circuit breaker is to prevent the reestablishment of arcing after current zero by
creating a situation where in the contact gap will withstand the system recovery voltage.

The air circuit breaker does the same but in different manner. For interrupting arc it creates an arc voltage
in excess of the supply voltage. Arc voltage is defined as the minimum voltage required maintaining the arc.
This circuit breaker increases the arc voltage by mainly three different ways,

1. It may increase the arc voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc plasma is
decreased, the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced, hence more voltage gradient is required
to maintain the arc.
2. It may increase the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc path is increased, the
resistance of the path is increased, and hence to maintain the same arc current more voltage is required
to be applied across the arc path. That means arc voltage is increased.
3. Splitting up the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.

Types of ACB
There are mainly two types of ACB are available.

1. Plain air circuit breaker.

2. Air blast Circuit Breaker.

OPERATION OF ACB

insulating material. Every air circuit breaker is fitted with a chamber surrounding the contact. This chamber
is called 'arc chute'. The arc is driven into it. If inside of the arc chute is suitably shaped, and if the arc can
be made conform to the shape, the arc chute wall will help to achieve cooling. This type of arc chute should
be made from some kind of refractory material. High temperature plastics reinforced with glass fiber and
ceramics are preferable materials for making arc chute.

fist objective. If the

inner walls of the arc chute is shaped in such a way that the arc is not only forced into close proximity with it
but also driven into a serpentine channel projected on the arc chute wall. The lengthening of the arc path
increases the arc resistance.

divided into numbers of small compartments by using metallic separation plates. These metallic separation
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plates are actually the arc splitters and each of the small compartments behaves as individual mini arc
chute. In this system the initial arc is split into a number of series arcs, each of which will have its own mini
arc chute. So each of the split arcs has its own cooling and lengthening effect due to its own mini arc chute
and hence individual split arc voltage becomes high. These collectively, make the overall arc voltage, much
higher than the system voltage.

This was working principle of air circuit breaker now we will discuss in details the operation of ACB in
practice. The air circuit breaker, operated within the voltage level 1 KV, does not require any arc control
device. Mainly for heavy fault current on low voltages (low voltage level above 1 KV) ABCs with appropriate
arc control device, are good choice. These breakers normally have two pairs of contacts. The main pair of
contacts carries the current at normal load and these contacts are made of copper. The additional pair is
the arcing contact and is made of carbon. When circuit breaker is being opened, the main contacts open
first and during opening of main contacts the arcing contacts are still in touch with each other. As the
current gets, a parallel low resistive path through the arcing contact during opening of main contacts, there
will not be any arcing in the main contact.

The arcing is only initiated when finally the arcing contacts are separated. The each of the arc contacts is
fitted with an arc runner which helps, the arc discharge to move upward due to both thermal and
electromagnetic effects as shown in the figure. As the arc is driven upward it enters in the arc chute,
consisting of splitters. The arc in chute will become colder, lengthen and split hence arc voltage becomes
much larger than system voltage at the time of operation of air circuit breaker, and therefore the arc is

quenched finally during the current zero.

Although this type of circuit breakers have become obsolete for medium voltage application, but they are
still preferable choice for high current rating in low voltage application.

4.1.3 Lists the ways in which a circuit breaker can be tripped.

A circuit breaker is designed to break circuits so that electrical shorts, faults or excessive power draw on a
system doesn't cause fires.
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Manual Trip

Some molded case circuit breakers, especially larger breakers, can be manually tripped by pressing the
“PUSH TO TRIP” button on the face of the circuit breaker. When the button is pressed the tripper bar
rotates up and to the right. This allows the trip mechanism to “unlock” releasing the operating
mechanism.

The operating mechanism opens the contacts.

The “PUSH TO TRIP” button also serves as a safety device by preventing access to the circuit breaker
interior in the “ON” position. If an attempt is made to remove the circuit breaker cover while the contacts
are in the closed (“ON”) position, a spring located under the pushbutton causes the button to lift up and
the breaker to trip.

Manual trip mechanism

Overload Trip

Thermal-magnetic circuit breakers employ a bi-metalic strip to sense overload conditions. When sufficient
overcurrent flows through the circuit breaker’s current path, heat build up causes the bi-metalic strip to
bend. After bending a predetermined distance, the bi-metalic strip makes contact with the tripper bar
activating the trip mechanism.
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 Thermal-magnetic circuit breakers employ a bi-metalic strip to sense overload conditions.

Circuit breaker contacts

A bi-metalic strip is made of two dissimilar metals bonded together. The two metals have different
thermal expansion characteristics, so the bi-metalic strip bends when heated. As current rises, heat also
rises. The hotter the bi-metalic becomes the more it bends. After the source of heat is removed, as when
the circuit breaker contacts open, the bi-metalic strip cools and returns to its original condition. This
allows a circuit breaker to be manually reset once the overload condition has been corrected.

Short Circuit Trip

As previously described, current flow through a circuit breaker’s blow-apart contacts creates opposing
magnetic fields. Under normal operating conditions, these opposing forces are not sufficient to separate
the contacts. When a short circuit occurs, however, these opposing forces increase significantly.

The current that flows through the contacts also flows through a conductor that passes close to the circuit
breaker’s trip unit. At fault current levels, the magnetic field surrounding this conductor provides sufficient
force to unlatch the trip unit and trip the breaker.

Short Circuit Trip

The combined actions of magnetic fields forcing contacts apart while simultaneously tripping the circuit
breaker result in rapid interruption of the fault current. In addition, because the magnetic forces are
proportional to the current, the greater the fault current, the shorter the time it takes to interrupt the
current.
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4.1.4 Explains the purpose of interlocks fitted to circuit breakers.
Most switchboards and motor control centres are fitted with a variety of electrical and mechanical safety
interlocking devices.
Their purposes are to protect against for example:
 Withdrawing the switching device while it is carrying load or fault current.
 Prevent the switching mechanism from being inserted when it is in its ‘on’ state.
 Opening of access doors or panels before setting the switching device in its ‘off’ state.
 Gaining physical access by human operators while the main conductors and contacts are
energised.
 Gaining access to the busbars when the switching devices have been withdrawn.
 To prevent earthing switches from being closed on to live circuits or busbars.
 Incorrect electrical operation of a complex process system in which various external
devices, motors, pumps, etc. are intimately related. For example a lubrication oil pump must be
running before the main drive motor is started on a pump or compressor.

Most of the above interlocks are mechanical latches, bolts and shutters.
The last category is electrical functions using wired relays or electronic logic. Electrical interlocking is
also used to ensure that certain closing and tripping functions take place in a particular sequence.

4.1.5 Lists the essential services which are supplied by electrical power
The distribution system is the means by which the electrical energy produced by the generators is
distributed to the various motors, lighting, galley services, navigation aids, etc. which comprise the ship's
electrical load.
Essential services are those required for the safety of personnel and for the safe navigation and
Propulsion of the ship. They include certain supplies to navigational aids, machinery spaces,
control stations and steering gear. The essential services may be supplied directly from the main
switchboard or via section boards or distribution boards

4.1.6 Explains the purpose of an emergency power supply and states the possible sources of
emergency power supply and how they are brought into use.

Emergency supply
An emergency electrical power service must be provided on board in the event of a main power failure.
Such a supply is required for emergency lighting, alarms, communications, watertight doors and other
services necessary to maintain safety and to permit safe evacuation of the ship.
Regulations require that the emergency power source be a generator, or batteries, or both. The emergency
power source must be self-contained and not dependent upon any other engine room power supply. A
battery when fully charged is obviously self-contained.
An emergency generator must have an internal combustion engine as prime mover and have its own fuel
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supply tank, starting equipment and switchboard in the. near vicinity.

The emergency power source must come into action following a total mains failure. Emergency batteries
can be arranged to be switched into service immediately following a main power failure.
Emergency generators can be hand cranked, but are usually automatically started by compressed air or a
battery to ensure immediate run-up following a main power failure.
Although regulations may permit a battery to be the sole source of emergency power, in practice a suitable
battery may be physically very large and hence a diesel driven generator is usually installed with its own
small starting battery or air-start supply. Other small batteries may also be installed to locally supply control
and communication equipment.
The emergency generator must be capable of being readily started in their cold condition at a temperature
of 0'C (32'F). If this is impracticable or if lower temperatures are likely to be encountered, heating
arrangements must be operational.

The flash point of the fuel must be not less than 43ºC (ll0ºF) as the generator is located above the
uppermost continuous deck. This means that the fuel system can be affected by solar radiation especially
in tropical and equatorial climates. In other words, the mere selection of such a fuel will alleviate the
possibility of an unwarranted fire or explosion.
Each emergency generator arranged to be automatically started, is to be equipped with starting devices
with a stored energy capability for at least three consecutive starts. The source of stored energy is to be
protected from critical depletion (i.e., not to be depleted beyond a level where starting by manual
intervention is still possible) by the automatic starting system, unless a second independent means of
starting is provided. In addition, another source of energy is to be provided for an additional three starts
within thirty minutes unless manual starting can be demonstrated to be effective.

The stored energy for starting the emergency generator set is to be maintained at all times,
as follows:
1. Electrical and hydraulic starting systems are to be maintained from the emergency switchboard.

2. If started by air, a dedicated air bottle and compressor is usually provided. Compressed air starting
systems may be maintained by the main or auxiliary compressed air receivers through a suitable
non-return valve or by an emergency air compressor which, if electrically driven, is supplied from the
emergency switchboard.

3. All of these starting, charging and energy storing devices are to be located in the emergency
generator space; these devices are not to be used for any purpose other than the operation of the
emergency generating set. The air receiver of the emergency generator may also be supplied from
the main or auxiliary compressed air system through a non-return valve fitted in the emergency
generator space.
Operation
The generator is provided with its own starting system. When power is lost, the emergency generator must
24

be able to automatically start and provide power to the emergency switchboard within the stipulated time
mentioned above. Falling mains frequency or voltage causes the 'start-up' relay to operate the generator
starting equipment. Where automatic starting of the emergency generator is not required, manual starting is
permissible, such as manual cranking, inertia starters, manually charged hydraulic accumulators, or power
charge catridges, where they can be demonstrated as being effective. A manual start-up may be initiated
by push buttons in the main control room and in the emergency generator room. The run-up is initiated by
an electrical relay which monitors the normal mains power supply.
On passenger ships, regulations require that the primary emergency power supply be provided by a diesel
driven generator for up to 36 hours. (18 hours for non-passenger vessels).
In addition, an emergency transitional battery must also be installed to maintain vital services (mainly
lighting) for a short period - typically a minimum of 3 hours. This emergency battery is to ensure that a total
blackout cannot occur in the transitional period between loss of main power and the connection of the
emergency generator.
A typical ship's distribution system is shown in Fig. 2.2. The system incorporates emergency power
supplies. There is no standard electrical supply arrangement, all ships differing in some respect. It will be
seen that both the main and the emergency consumers' are supplied by the main service generators during
normal operating conditions. In the event of an emergency, only the emergency services are supplied by
the emergency generator.

Fig. 2.2

The emergency power system must be ready and available at all times. Such reliability requires special
care and maintenance. At regular intervals it must be tested to confirm that it does operate correctly. The
testing is normally carried out during the weekly emergency fire and boat drill practice sessions. The main
generators are not shut down but the emergency power sources are energised and connected to supply the
emergency services for the period of the practice session.
25
The regulations governing the emergency source of power are detailed in International Conventions, e.g.
SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea), National regulations, e.g. IEE Regulations for the
Electrical and Electronic Equipment of Ships (UK) and in the regulations of the Classification Societies such
as Lloyds, Det Norske Veritas, etc.

4.2 Transformers
Electrical generation on board ship is typically at 3-phase a.c., 440 V, 60 Hz while fixed lighting and other
low power loads are supplied with 220 V a.c. single-phase from very efficient
(typically > 90%) static transformer units. Ships with HV generation require 3-phase transformers to supply
the LV engine-room and accommodation subswitchboards e.g. using 6600/440 units.
The principle of operation of a single-phase transformer is simple. An applied a.c. voltage V1 to the primary
winding sets up an alternating magnetic flux in the laminated steel core.
The flux induces an emf in the secondary whose size is fixed by the ratio of primary and secondary turns in
the pair of phase windings (N1 and N2) to

The secondary voltage V2 is available to drive current through a load.

It is the load connected to the secondary that sets the size and power factor angle of the load current I2.
This is matched on the primary side from:

Transformers are rated in apparent power (VA or kVA) units.

4.2.1 States that transformers on ships are usually air-cooled.

The transformers are generally air cooled, being mounted in sheet steel enclosures which are often located
adjacent to the main switchboard. Alternatively, they may be fitted within the switchboard so transformer
enclosures are not required.
Three-phase 440/220 V lighting transformers are usually composed of three separate single-phase units
inter- connected to form a 3-phase arrangement. This enables easy replacement of a single-phase unit if it
develops a fault. The alternative is to use a single 3-phase unit with all windings mounted on a common
magnetic core. This type has to be completely isolated in the event of a fault on one phase only.
Transformers for use on 3-phase insulated systems are generally interconnected in a delta-delta circuit
configuration using copper links between the phase windings.
If a fault develops on one phase of such an arrangement, the faulty unit can be disconnected (via the links)
creating an open-delta or "V" connection and a 3-phase supply will still be available, although at a reduced
power capacity.
This is obviously a useful safeguard. In some cases, a spare 4th transformer is available to replace the
26

faulty unit. Transformers for use on 3-phase HV/LV earthed systems ashore are generally connected delta-
star to provide a 3-phase, 4-wire LV supply, e.g. a 6600/400V ratio gives a secondary line voltage of 400 V
plus a line-neutral phase voltage of 400/√3 = 230 V. An earth fault occurring on a such neutral-earthed
system will immediately operate the protective fuse or circuit-breaker. This interruption of supply leads to
rapid identification of the faulty circuit.

Transformers are static items of equipment which are usually very reliable and trouble-free. However, like
all electrical equipment, transformers must be subjected to the usual maintenance checks.
At regular specified intervals, transformers must be disconnected, covers removed and all accumulated
dust and deposits removed by a vacuum cleaner and suitable brushes. Windings must be inspected for any
signs of damage or over-heating. Winding continuity resistance values are measured, recorded and
compared with each other for balance.
Any differences in continuity readings will-indicate winding faults such as short-circuited turns. The
insulation resistance of all windings must be measured both with respect to earth and to the other phase
windings. The cause of any low insulation resistance reading must be investigated and rectified.
Cable connections must be checked for tightness. Covers must be securely replaced and the transformers
recommissioned. All test results and observations should then be recorded for future reference.

ON THE BASIS OF COOLING

 Self-Cooled Oil-Filled TransformersThis type is generally employed in small transformers of up to

3 MVA and is it designed to cool itself by the surrounding air flow.

 Water-Cooled Oil-Filled TransformersThis type of electrical transformer employs a heat
exchanger to facilitate the transfer of the heat from the oil to the cooling water.

 Air-Cooled (Air Blast) TransformersIn this type of transformer, the heat that is generated is
cooled with the help of blowers and fans that force the circulation of air on the windings and the
core.

COOLING METHODS OF A TRANSFORMER

No transformer is truly an 'ideal transformer' and hence each will incur some losses, most of which get
converted into heat. If this heat is not dissipated properly, the excess temperature in transformer may
cause serious problems like insulation failure. It is obvious that transformer needs a cooling system.
Transformers can be divided in two types as (i) dry type transformers and (ii) oil immersed transformers.
Different cooling methods of transformers are -

 For dry type transformers

 Air Natural (AN)
 Air Blast
 For oil immersed tranformers
 Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
 Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
 Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)
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  Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

COOLING METHODS FOR DRY TYPE TRANSFORMERS

Air Natural Or Self Air Cooled Transformer

This method of transformer cooling is generally used in small transformers (upto 3 MVA). In this method the
transformer is allowed to cool by natural air flow surrounding it.

Air Blast

For transformers rated more than 3 MVA, cooling by natural air method is inadequate. In this method, air is
forced on the core and windings with the help of fans or blowers. The air supply must be filtered to prevent
the accumulation of dust particles in ventilation ducts. This method can be used for transformers upto 15
MVA.

COOLING METHODS FOR OIL IMMERSED TRANSFORMERS

Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)

This method is used for oil immersed transformers. In this method, the heat generated in the core and
winding is transferred to the oil. According to the principle of convection, the heated oil flows in the upward
direction and then in the radiator. The vacant place is filled up by cooled oil from the radiator. The heat from
the oil will dissipate in the atmosphere due to the natural air flow around the transformer. In this way, the oil
in transformer keeps circulating due to natural convection and dissipating heat in atmosphere due to natural
conduction. This method can be used for transformers upto about 30 MVA.
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Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)

The heat dissipation can be improved further by applying forced air on the dissipating surface. Forced air
provides faster heat dissipation than natural air flow. In this method, fans are mounted near the radiator and
may be provided with an automatic starting arrangement, which turns on when temperature increases
beyond certain value. This transformer cooling method is generally used for large transformers upto about
60 MVA.

Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)

In this method, oil is circulated with the help of a pump. The oil circulation is forced through the heat
exchangers. Then compressed air is forced to flow on the heat exchanger with the help of fans. The heat
exchangers may be mounted separately from the transformer tank and connected through pipes at top and
bottom as shown in the figure. This type of cooling is provided for higher rating transformers at substations
or power stations.

Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

This method is similar to OFAF method, but here forced water flow is used to dissipate hear from the heat
exchangers. The oil is forced to flow through the heat exchanger with the help of a pump, where the heat is
29
dissipated in the water which is also forced to flow. The heated water is taken away to cool in separate
coolers. This type of cooling is used in very large transformers having rating of several hundreds MVA.

4.2.2 Shows diagrammatically the connections between the main switchboard and the main
distribution board through:
a. delta-delta transformers
b. delta-star transformers
c. delta-star transformers with an earthed neutral

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4.2.3 Describes the procedure when connecting up to a shore supply
A shore-supply is required so that the ship's generators and their prime-movers can be shut down for major
overhaul during a dry-docking period.
There must be a suitable connection box conveniently located to accept the shore supply cable. The
connection box is often located at the entrance to the accommodation or in the emergency
generator room.
The connection box must have suitable terminals to accept the shore supply cable, including an earthing
terminal to earth the ship's hull to the shore earth.
The connection box must have a circuit breaker or an isolator switch and fuses to protect the cable linking
the connection box to the main switchboard, with a data plate giving details of the ship's
electrical system (voltage and frequency) and showing the method for connecting the shore supply cable. A
voltmeter is fitted to indicate polarity of a d.c. shore supply.
For an a.c. shore supply a phase-sequence indicator is fitted to indicate correct supply phase sequence.
This indicator may be arranged as two lamps connected as an unbalanced load across the three phases
via resistors and capacitors.
The sequence is "right" (or correct) when the right side lamp is bright and the other is dark. An alternative
P.S.I. indicator is a rotary pointer driven by a small 3-phase induction motor.
At the main switchboard an indicator is provided, usually a lamp, to indicate that the shore supply is
available for connection to the bus-bars via a connecting switch or circuit-breaker. It is not normally
possible to parallel the shore supply with the ship's generators.
31
The ship's generators must, therefore, be disconnected before the shore supply can be connected to the
main switchboard. Normally, the shore supply switch on the main switchboard is interlocked with the
generator circuit breakers so that it cannot be closed if the generators are still connected.

Fig. 2.21, shows a typical shore connection arrangement but some variations occur.
For example, the shore supply may be connected directly to the emergency board which then back-feeds to
the main switchboard.
The shore supply may have a different frequency and/or voltage to that of the ship's system.
A higher frequency will cause motors to run faster, be overloaded and overheat.
A higher voltage will generally cause equipment to take excess current and overheat. It will also cause
motors to accelerate more rapidly and this may overstress the driven loads.
A lower voltage is generally not so serious but may cause motors to run slower and overheat, and may
cause motors to stall.
If the shore supply frequency differs from the ship's normal frequency then, ideally, the shore supply
voltage should differ in the same proportion.
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