A

Project Report
on

Automatic Street Light Using Sensors

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
by
Anantika Kushwaha (1709720011)
Aniket Porwal (1709720012)
Sahil Kumar (1709720044)
Shubham Patel (1709720053)
Vivek Chaudhary (1809720909)

Under the Guidance of

Mr. Thakur Ankit Krishnakumar
(Assistant Professor)

G
Department of Electrical Engineering
Galgotias College of Engineering and
Technology
2017-2021]
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled "Automatic Street Light Using
Sensors" has been carried out by the team given below under my guidance in
fulfillment of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in ELECTRICAL
partial
ENGINEERING during the academic ycar 2020-2021 (8th Sem).

Anantika Kushwaha (1709720011)

Aniket Porwal (1709720012)
Sahil Kumar (1709720044)
Shubham Patel (1709720053)
Vivek Chaudhary (1809720909)

Date: /8/2/
Place: Cvento Hoid

Mr. Thakur Ankit Krishnakumar DrPinki Yadav Dr. Md. Danjsh Equbal
Project Guide Project Coordinator HOD, EE

D . R E C T O R

Tecinology
1gineering&
U.P
of L N o i d a - 2 0 1 3 0 6

College Gieater
Gulgotias
.Knowledge
Park l,
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the Project report entitled "Automatic Street Light using
Sensors" submitted by Anantika Kushwaha, Aniket Porwal, Sahil Kumar,
Shubham Patel, and Vivek Chaudhary to Galgotias College of Engineering and
Technology in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree
of B.Tech in "Electrical Engineering Department" is a record of bonafide project
work carried out by us under the guidance of Mr. Thakur Ankit Krishna Kumar.
We further declare that the work reported in this project has not been submitted
either in part or in full, for the award of any other degree or diploma in this
institute or any other institute or university.

ui ke
Signature of the Candidates

Date: 2oe }2)

Place: hrenh M»da

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Taking advantage of the situation, we would like to thank our project guide Mr. Thakur
Ankit Krishna Kumar for his esteemed guidance and support and all the help he
provided for the completion of this project report. We would also like to thank our
project coordinator Dr. Pinki Yadav and the department of Electrical Engineering for
their valuable time, support, suggestions, and persuasion.

Anantika Kushwaha (1709720011)

Aniket Porwal (1709720012)
Sahil Kumar (1709720044)
Shubham Patel (1709720053)
Vivek Chaudhary (1809720909)

iii
 Table of Contents

CERTIFICATE ..................................................................................................................................... i
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................................iii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................ vi
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................. vi
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER – 1 ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Introduction to Smart Street Lights...................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 History of Street Lights ............................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Yablochkov candle.................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Incandescent lighting ................................................................................................................ 6
1.5 Later developments ................................................................................................................... 7
1.6 Modern lights ............................................................................................................................ 8
CHAPTER – 2 ................................................................................................................................... 12
Why need such a circuit? ................................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER – 3 ................................................................................................................................... 15
Components ....................................................................................................................................... 15
3.1 COMPONENTS LIST ............................................................................................................ 15
3.2 CURRENT SENSOR.............................................................................................................. 15
3.2.1 What is a current sensor? ................................................................................................. 15
3.2.2 How do current sensors work? ........................................................................................ 16
3.3 TRANSCEIVER ..................................................................................................................... 17
3.3.1 What is a Transceiver?..................................................................................................... 17
3.3.2 Working ........................................................................................................................... 18
3.3.3 Types of Transceivers ...................................................................................................... 18
3.3.3.1 RF Transceivers ........................................................................................................ 19
3.3.3.2 Fiber-Optic Transceivers .......................................................................................... 19
3.3.3.3 Ethernet Transceivers ............................................................................................... 19
3.3.3.4 Wireless Transceivers............................................................................................... 20
3.3.4 Applications of Transceiver ............................................................................................. 20
3.4 Arduino Uno R3 ...................................................................................................................... 20
3.5 Light Dependent Resistor ....................................................................................................... 22
3.5.1 What is LDR? .................................................................................................................. 23
3.5.2 LDR Symbol .................................................................................................................... 24
3.5.3 Working of LDR .............................................................................................................. 25
3.5.4 Structure ........................................................................................................................... 26
3.5.5 Classification of Photoresistor ......................................................................................... 26
3.5.6 Frequency Dependence of LDR ...................................................................................... 27
3.5.7 Photoresistor Latency ...................................................................................................... 27
3.5.8 Uses of photoresistor ....................................................................................................... 28
3.5.9 Light Dependent Resistor Specifications ......................................................................... 28
3.5.9.1 Example Photoresistor Specifications ...................................................................... 29
3.6 Light Emitting Diodes............................................................................................................. 30
3.6.1 What are LED Lights? ..................................................................................................... 30
3.6.2 What are the advantages of LEDs? .................................................................................. 30

iv
 3.6.3 What do all these advantages mean? ............................................................................... 32
3.6.4 How LEDs Produce Different Colors .............................................................................. 32
3.7 IR Sensor ................................................................................................................................. 33
3.7.1 Defining IR Sensors: Circuit Diagram ............................................................................ 34
3.7.2 How does it work? ........................................................................................................... 34
3.7.3 Classification of Infrared Sensors .................................................................................... 35
3.7.3.1 ACTIVE SENSOR ................................................................................................... 35
3.7.3.2 PASSIVE SENSOR ................................................................................................. 35
3.7.4 IR Sensor Circuit Diagram .............................................................................................. 36
3.7.5 IR Sensor Circuit with Transistor .................................................................................... 37
3.7.6 Burglar Alarm Circuit ...................................................................................................... 37
3.7.7 ADVANTAGES .............................................................................................................. 38
3.7.8 DISADVANTAGES........................................................................................................ 38
3.7.9 APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................. 38
CHAPTER – 4 ................................................................................................................................... 41
Block Diagram & Methodology ........................................................................................................ 41
4.1 Block diagram ......................................................................................................................... 41
4.2 Methodology ........................................................................................................................... 42
4.2.1 SENSING UNIT .............................................................................................................. 43
4.2.2 CONTROL UNIT ............................................................................................................ 44
4.2.3 FEEDBACK UNIT .......................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER – 5 ................................................................................................................................... 45
Sodium Lamp vs LED ....................................................................................................................... 45
5.1 SODIUM VAPOR LAMP ...................................................................................................... 45
5.1.1 High-Pressure Sodium Light ........................................................................................... 45
5.1.2 Low-Pressure Sodium Lights .......................................................................................... 46
5.2 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE .................................................................................................. 47
5.3 COMPARISON ...................................................................................................................... 48
5.4 FEATURES ............................................................................................................................ 49
5.4.1 Sodium Lights.................................................................................................................. 49
5.4.2 Light Emitting Diodes ..................................................................................................... 49
5.5 LED STREET LIGHTING BENEFITS ................................................................................. 50
CHAPTER – 6 ................................................................................................................................... 51
Merits & Demerits ............................................................................................................................. 51
6.1 MERITS .................................................................................................................................. 51
6.2 DEMERITS............................................................................................................................. 54
CHAPTER – 7 ................................................................................................................................... 56
Result ................................................................................................................................................ 56
7.1 Efficiency ............................................................................................................................ 56
7.2 Number of days required to overcome the initial investment ............................................. 57
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................... 58

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

S.No. Figure Page No.

1.1 Link Boy 4
1.2 Coal gas lamp 5
1.3 Yablochkov candle 6
1.4 Incandescent lighting 7
1.5 High-pressure Sodium Lamp 9
1.6 The distinctive monochromic yellow glow of sodium 9
lamps
1.7 The white glow of metal halides 10
1.8 Intelligent street light 11
3.1 Current Sensor 16
3.2 Transceiver 17
3.3 Arduino UNO R3 22
3.4 LDR 23
3.5 LDR Symbol 24
3.6 LED Light 30
3.7 IR Sensor 34
4.1 Block diagram of Automatic Street light 41
5.1 High Pressure Sodium Lights 45
5.2 Low Pressure Sodium Lights 46
5.3 LED Lights 47
6.1 IR Sensor 51
6.2 LDR 51
6.3 Smart street light with CCTV camera 53

LIST OF TABLES

S.No. Table Page No.

5.1 Comparison between Sodium Light & LED 48
7.1 Hour wise consumption and saving of energy 56

vi
 ABSTRACT

Street lights have always been an unexchangeable part of our society. From the era of
early Romans till now, the public lighting system is used in full force. The street lights
act as a source of light during the night to facilitate night vision, improve security,
prevent accidents. These lights were operated manually which sometimes results in
misoperations. And a huge amount of energy is wasted on these lights because of these
mistakes. Smart street lights provide a solution to this worldwide problem. These lights
are not only energy but also cost-effective. The system of smart street lights can be
installed on existing infrastructure. They help us in saving energy in this era of energy
crisis. And also make the lights automatic with less to no human intervention. LDRs
(Light Dependent Resistors) act as a trigger to switching the lights ON and OFF. The
lights turn on automatically as soon as the sun sets and turns off when the sun rises,
thus preventing any mistake. Cameras are installed to keep an eye on the surroundings
in case of accidents or any crime occurring. The installing of this system is complex
and costly, however, it is of great help when installed and also cost-effective in the long
run.

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 CHAPTER – 1
Introduction to Smart Street Lights

1.1 Introduction

Night travel has always been troublesome and considered unsafe because of the
lingering darkness. To get rid of this issue, the idea of public lightning was proposed
by ancient Romans. A civilized and planned system was first used in the 16th century.
Since then street lights have undergone many changes and updates to become what it
is today.

These traditional lights also have their pros and cons. These lights are switched ON
and OFF manually. Hence sometimes mistakes happen. Like light remains ON even
during the day. And by mistake sometimes lights remain OFF even during the nights.
Street lights also run using the electricity supplied by the respective electric boards.
And so when in the night, the supply is cut off due to any reason, the surrounding is
completely engulfed in darkness as street lights and also the lights from our homes go
OFF. This also leads to confusion and accidents. Several mishaps happen due to the
darkness that engulfs our surroundings.

To overcome these shortcomings the idea of smart street lights was proposed. These
lights are equipped with sensors, microcontrollers, etc. which makes this system smart.
LDRs (Light Dependent Resistors) are the trigger to turn ON and OFF the smart street
lights at Twilight. IR (Infrared) sensors sense the presence of vehicles and humans and
switch ON and OFF the street lights in the dead of the night. LEDs are used in place of
Sodium lights which are both energy and cost-efficient. Overall this system is costly to
install but is profitable in the long run.

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 1.2 History of Street Lights

During the time of night, there is almost negligible natural light present in the
surroundings or the environment. This has always been a problem for humans. A lot of
basic problems, as well as an inconvenience, have to be faced by the people at the time
of night or dark. People can be attacked, mugged, or rubbered in the shadow of the dark
during the night.

The history of street lights is much older than we think because this issue has always
prevailed in society irrespective of the type and culture.

It is also known that gas leaking from the volcano was used as fuel for street lamps
with the help of bamboo pipes (early 500 B.C). Oil lamps were filled with vegetable
oil and used as street lights by the ancient Romans. They also use to have a separate
slave to take care of these lamps, to light them, extinguish them and keep a check on
the level of oil in the lamps.

The very first organized method of public lightning was done in 1417 by Sir Henry
Barton, Mayor of London. He brought a law that every house must hang lanterns
outside their homes at the time of dawn in the winter season.

After this in 1524 streets in Paris were also illuminated for the first time. Order was
given that every house must have a light on its window facing the street.

There was one other method known as “Link boys”. Wealthy citizens of London use
to take some servant boys along them at night. These boys carried torches to
accompany the wealthy citizens. These servants accompanied their masters throughout
their night travel carrying lamps.

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 Fig 1.1: Link boy

Then came the era which focused on the efficiency of the light also. In 1802 William
Murdock lit the outside of the Soho Foundry with a light or a gaslight. This gas light
was fueled by coal gas.

After this London also used its first gaslight in the year 1807. If we move to the USA,
Baltimore was the first place in the USA which got illuminated by street light using
gas lamps in the year 1816. In 1820 Paris also started its illumination of their streets
and roads.

These street lights consist of gas lamps for which coal gas was transported through
pipes from the installation to the gas lanterns. Every pole had one gas lantern with it.

Every evening a man known as lamplighter was given the responsibility to take care of
the streetlights. But after some time a mechanism was invented that lit the lamp only
when the gas was given inside.

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 Fig 1.2: Coal gas lamp

After few years of this came the invention of electricity. This proved to be the turning
point in the history of street lights. Street light became more efficient.

1.3 Yablochkov candle

The first streetlight that was lit using electric power was given the name “Yablochkov
candle” in the year 1878 in Paris. Within three years, 4000 more electric lamps came
into use in place of gas lanterns. They used arc so they were also called arc lamps.

These arc lamps started becoming famous and in 1890 USA also had more than 120000
arc lamps. The towers on which these were installed were known as moonlight towers.
These towers were made tall to cover the move area.

But these arc street lights also had some problems and flaws, one was that they
produced very harsh light and the second was that they did not last for too long.

Thus, after some time these arc lamps were replaced by incandescent lamps. These
lamps solved both the problems of the arc lamps. It was cheaper, lighter, and long-
lasting. This started to prove very useful for the industries.

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 Fig 1.3: Yablochkov candle

1.4 Incandescent lighting

Street light having incandescent bulbs was first installed on Mosley Street in
Newcastle. It was the day of 3rd February in the year 1879. And thus, this was the first
street of Newcastle to get their incandescent lighting.
In the United States Cleveland, Ohio was the first place to get light by electricity with
12 electric lamps on the day 29 April 1879. This light was installed all around the
Public Square road.

In the year 1880, four brush arc lamps having 3000 candle power each were lit in
Wabash, Indiana. In South Africa, it was the Kimberley Cape colony to get their first

6|Page
street light in the Southern Hemisphere. In Central America, Costa Rica lit 25 lamps
which were being given power by a hydroelectric plant on August 9, 1884. Nimberg in
Germany was the first in the country to get their street illuminated followed by Berlin
on 20 September 1882. Temesvar was the first city to have an electric street light in
1884 in Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy.

If we move towards Australia, in the year 1882, 9 December, Brisbane in Queensland

had their introduction with electricity-driven street lights. They used 8 lights erected
along the Queen Street Mall. This was then followed by Adelaide street. Slowly other
places in Australia in the region of New South Wales also started adopting this.
In 1885, 10th of December Harnosand became the first town in Sweden that used
electric street lights.

Fig 1.4: Incandescent lighting

1.5 Later developments

Incandescent lamps were used for street lighting until the arrival of gas discharge lamps
of high intensity. These lamps were mainly being operated in the series connection of
high voltage. Moreover, before the photoelectric equipment was invented a single
switch or clock was used to control all the lights in an entire district.

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If there was a fault in even a single lamp, the entire connection and thus street would
go dark. To remove this flaw in the system each light was equipped with a device that
ensured the circuit would remain intact.

Then came the invention of film cutout. A disk shape small in size was used to separate
any two contacts with the main wire. So now if any lamp went faulty then also it would
not affect the other lights on the street.

6.1 Modern lights

After world war 2 efficient lamps like high-intensity discharge lamps, low-pressure
sodium lamps came into good use. They gave the advantage of low power consumption
and long life. These lamps are still in use in today's time for street lighting purposes.

As the 20th century proceeded in the late years of this century high-pressure sodium
lamps came into preference. These lamps provided greater photopic illumination for
the least consumption of electricity.

Fig 1.5: High-pressure Sodium Lamp

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Then came the metal halide lamps in use for the street lighting. A lot of comparison
studies were done after that between metal halides and high-pressure sodium lamps.
The results that came were metal halides lighting was more reliable as well as brighter
and proved safer than same scene lighting by high-pressure sodium lamp.

Fig 1.6: Distinctive monochromic yellow glow of sodium lamps

Fig 1.7: The white glow of metal halides

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Now variation in illuminance standards is allowed for different spectra. HPS
performance is decreased to 75% in Australia, and in the UK it is reduced with a much
higher value.

In today’s time, many new technologies are used in the street lights such as LEDs and
induction lights. These lights very efficient and give a white glow on street making the
scenery look more beautiful than before.

The first main city which completely converted their street lamps to LED street lamps
was Milan in Italy.

A city of North America known as Mississauga, Canada held the biggest LED
conversion project in the world. In this project, more than 45,000 lights got replaced
by LED in the year 2012-2014.

Now the time is demanding a more efficient and automatic street light for our roads
and street which can work on its intelligence. The only thing we need to do is to monitor
the working of these intelligent or automatic street lights. These lights will
automatically on and off as per the movements on the road. They will play a major role
in moving towards a smart world.

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 Fig 1.8: Intelligent street light

In the late 1990s came the very first patent of automatic street lights, but they were first
installed in the year 2006 in Europe. A City of Norway known as Oslo was the first to
get this street light control system to be installed. It was expected to reduce energy use
by 50%.

After this project in Oslo, other countries also started showing their interest and were
also accepted by the European Union.

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 CHAPTER – 2
Why need such a circuit?

Smart street lights can change the way authorities manage cities and returning an
enormous amount to nature as well. Street light accounts for around 40 percent of total
city energy use. Smart LEDs can save around 70 to 80 percent energy. Smart LEDs
can additionally do 10 to 20 percent savings since they can adjust output to ambient
light levels, dimming, or brightening as required. They can turn on as they detect
motion, and then dim or turn off after a specific amount of time. Apart from saving
money, cities gain enhanced capabilities and functionalities as well. By using existing
brackets and poles, cities and utility providers are pocket-friendly as they add a wide
variety of equipment and sensors. Smart street lights can help monitor traffic flow,
parking, pedestrian crossings, seismic activity, or atmospheric changes. They come
with speakers to alert people as well as cameras to help police solve cases. With these
advantages, cities can improve functionality, increase people's content, and decrease
costs. Furthermore, smart street lights can also open new revenue opportunities, such
as leasing poles for digital signs and other services.

There are significant opportunities some of them are listed below:

• Traffic control- Continuous monitoring can help cities better understand traffic and
pedestrian patterns, regulate movement, as well as route emergency-response vehicles
around congested areas.

• Crime detection and prevention- Street lights with video cameras can aid police in
solving crimes and help in surveillance as well. With sound sensors, police can easily
recognize specific information, such as gunshots, and then rapidly secure an area.

• Emergency response: Emergency-response operators can activate street lights to help

guide emergency workers to specific locations. Lights can also be flashed in sequence,

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or the color could change, to indicate emergency evacuation routes during natural
disasters such as floods and tornados.

• Environmental monitoring. Street lights can be equipped with sensors that detect toxic
chemicals, pollen counts, or air pollution levels.

• Warnings and alerts. Speaker-equipped lights can be used to warn people close to
storms and other risks

• Advertising. In India, the city rents its poles to a company that equips them with
digital signs and smart cells, collecting advertising and subscriber revenue. With street
lights in the city the opportunities to transform a simple light into a tool. By converting
to smart LED street lights, cities can help their savings. LEDs consume much less
energy and smart lights are optimized for better functioning by recognizing the
conditions within the environment and adjusting energy use accordingly. Smart street
lights can go beyond basic lighting capabilities and become a source of new income.
Cities can lease capabilities, such as digital advertising or Wi-Fi hotspots, to a variety
of companies and organizations. The savings and revenue opportunities include:

• Reduced energy cost- Smart lighting that optimizes dimming, on/off programming,
or motion activation can save energy which makes it environment friendly.

• Optimized maintenance- Street light maintenance is difficult in cities as it interrupts

traffic causing the public problem. While in smart street lighting, cities can predict
lamp failures using data collected, such as the number of hours the light has operated
and the status of a light fixture. Motion sensors and cameras can also provide
information on a suitable time to schedule maintenance.

• Use of existing infrastructure- Smart street lights can be installed on poles that have
been installed before, making saving money as simple as changing the luminaire and
enabling a backbone of services in old cities without requiring new investments in
infrastructure.

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• Analytics - Real-time information is required for quicker response. An IP camera can
stream images as an event occurs, reducing the need for manual review. And with some
solutions, edge analytics can detect abnormalities and transmit only important
information to speed the response, as well as reduce costs.

• Increased citizen content- Through improved traffic flow, safer crosswalks,

environmental monitoring, and weather alerts, as well as other solutions, the livability
of cities is greatly facilitated and citizens are safer and happier. Both cities and utility
providers—whichever entity owns the physical pole—are uniquely positioned to
increase value through additional smart street light functionality.

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 CHAPTER – 3
Components

3.1 COMPONENTS LIST

• Current Sensor
• Transceiver
• Arduino Uno R3
• Light Dependent Resistor
• LED
• IR Sensor

3.2 CURRENT SENSOR

3.2.1 What is a current sensor?

Commonly referred to as current transformer or CTs, current sensors are the devices
that measure the current passing through wire using a magnetic field and sense
current it and generate output proportionally. The current sensor works both for an
AC and DC without any interruption. An in-circuit current sensor is capable of
measuring current passively and replaces the current sensor around the conductor
where we want to measure the output.

There is much essential application of the current transformer-

• For determination of energy uses by separate tenants, these are commonly used
in sub-metering.
• The current sensor also helps with their facility regulation by providing
information on energy usage and then used to calculate when to keep cost high
and low and increases efficiency also.

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 Fig 3.1- Current Sensor

3.2.2 How do current sensors work?

A proportional amount of magnetic field is generated around the conductor when
current flows through it. Current flow is measured using a magnetic field produced
around the conductor using a current transformer. Inductive technology is used when
cities are designed to measure the easy current. There is continuous collapse and
expansion of the magnetic field when AC changes potential. The wire is wrapped
around the core in AC sensors. Proportional current or voltage is induced in the wire
of current sensor current flowing through our conductor produces a magnetic field.
Then certain output (voltage) is generated on-screen of the current sensor to the wire
connected and translates into the amount of current flowing through the conductor. For
instance, we could have a current transformer data output of 333 volts that is the
common output for CTs when the current through the conductor is 300 A. 300A is
configured by our meter when it receives 330 V input then it will be able to calculate
how many ampere of current flowing through conductor based on what input is
received. DC works on similar principal but they rely on hall effect technology to
operate properly.
The sensor which steps up or steps down the current is termed a transformer. The sensor
typically consists of two coils termed primary coil and secondary coil. In the primary

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coil, the current passes through it, and in the secondary coil, voltage is induced. In
many CTs that we sell for dynamics, the conductor installed around is termed as a
primary winding and secondary winding is within the transformer. Secondary winding-
core wrapping is dependent on the design of the sensor which is formed to handle.

3.3 TRANSCEIVER

3.3.1 What is a Transceiver?

The combination of transmitter and receiver in a single package is termed a transceiver.
Irregularly the Transceiver name is used as a reference to transmitter and receiver
devices that are used within a cable or in the optical fiber systems. The transceiver is
used in various wireless communication devices like cellular telephones, radios
cordless telephone sets, and many more. The major function of these devices is to
transmit as well as to receive a different signal within the wires and fibers.

This is majorly used in the land to apply signal illustrated to the components over the
network wire and it also detects the signal flowing through the wire in several LANs,
it is embedded in the network interface card and some kind of network, there is a
requirement of an exterior transceiver.

Fir 3.2- Transceiver

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3.3.2 Working
When the transmitter transmits the signal, the receiver will be in silent mode in the
radio transceiver. There is an electronic switch that lets the transmitter and receiver
allied to a similar antenna so the transmitter output is protected from the damage of the
receiver when it is in working mode.

It is quite impossible to get a signal while transmitting which is known as a half-duplex

in the transceiver type. In full-duplex, the Transceiver is mainly designed for permitting
the reception of signal throughout the whole transmission stage. In cordless and cellular
phones, transceiver and receiver operate on a different frequency so that the transmitter
signal and the receiver signal do not interface with each other and do not cause any
collateral damage to each other.

In satellite communication systems there is the use of a full-duplex transceiver on the

subscriber point based on the surface. Satellite to the transceiver or receive signal is
known as downlink while the satellite to transmitted signal or Transceiver is termed as
uplink.

3.3.3 Types of Transceivers

Transceivers are classified into different types based on their characteristics below
are the followings.

• Wireless Transceivers
• Fiber-optic Transceivers
• RF Transceivers
• Ethernet Transceivers

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Types are different but the working remains the same, In the above-mentioned. Each
type has its characteristics like the number of accessible ports for connecting the
network and they also support full-duplex communication.

3.3.3.1 RF Transceivers
In RF transceiver module it consists of both hands even and receiver. This model is
used in any wireless communication system between baseband modem as well as a
power amplifier or low noise amplifier. Baseband modem consists of numerous
analog and digital modulation techniques and it also consists of ADC and DAC chips.
This module is used to transmit the data in the form of voice or video over the
wireless transmission medium. the medium and it also convert the intermediate
frequency to radiofrequency. It is used for transmission and reception of TV signals,
radio transmission, ZigBee in satellite communication.

3.3.3.2 Fiber-Optic Transceivers

For data transmission, it uses fiber optics technology. There are many terms used for
this module and that is an optical transceiver, optics module, and optical module. The
inclusion of electronic components becomes an essential part of the optical network
device to include our decode information into light signals. after encoder-decoder, this
information can be transmitted in the form of electric signals. Sources like VSCEL, FP,
and DFB laser use light sources so information can be transmitted in the form of light.

3.3.3.3 Ethernet Transceivers

Ethernet transceiver is also termed as media access unit (MAU). This module is used
to connect the computers and electronic devices in a network to receive and transmit
signals. For specification of IEEE 802.3 and Ethernet, it is used. It is a physical layer
component in the ISO network and the function of this transceiver is used for

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conversion of digital data, provides access for network, and for detecting a collision
and interface processing.

3.3.3.4 Wireless Transceivers

In a wireless communication system, a wireless transceiver is an essential component,

the quality of a wireless transceiver is determined based on data delivery within the
wireless system and its efficiency. The physical layer and media access control layer
(MAC) are two functional layers of the wireless transceiver. In the physical layer it
consists of a baseband processor as well as an RF front, the baseband processor
changes a bitstream to collection symbol flow for data transmission and media access
control layer it provides link traffic control is for transmitter contact with a wireless
link and enhance data throughout.

3.3.4 Applications of Transceiver

The transceiver applications are-

➢ Data or Information is transmitted in the form of voice or video over the
wireless medium.
➢ In satellite communication radio transmission for TV signal transmission, an
RF transceiver module is used.
➢ In wireless communication systems, this module is applicable.
➢ With the help of an RF transceiver, the intermediate frequency is converted to
radiofrequency.
3.4 Arduino Uno R3

The word 'Uno' means 'one' in Italian and it is taken to signify the initial release of
Arduino software and its originals and preferred quality are made in Italy. Uno is the
latest in this series of USB Arduino boards. The ATmega 328 onboard comes with the

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preprogrammed bootloader which allows users to upload new code without the use of
any external hardware in the Arduino software.

Arduino Uno is an open-source microcontroller board based on the ATmega 328p

microcontroller which is developed by the Arduino company. This board consists of
digital and analog input/output pins which are further connected to other devices,
electronic component, and circuits. This board consists of 14 input and output pins, out
of which 6 analog input/output pins and 6 are capable of PWM outputs and these are
programmable with Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment) with B-type
USB cable.

It accepts voltage between 7 and 20 volt and this can be powered by USB cable or
external 9-volt battery. It consists of everything that is needed to support the
microcontroller and it can be operated by simply connecting to a computer with a USB
or a power source with AC or DC adaptor.

Specification:-
Its Operating Voltage: 5 Volts
Its Input Voltage: 7 to 20 Volts
External power source: 9 volts battery
Digital I/O Pins: 14
PWM Output Pins: 6
Analog Input Pins: 6
Per I/O in DC Current: 20 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
Flash Memory: 32 KB (of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader)
UART: 1
IC: 1
SPPI: 1

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SRAM: 2 KB
EEPROM: 1 KB
Clock Speed: 16 MHz
Length: 68.6 mm

Fig 3.3 Arduino UNO R3

3.5 Light Dependent Resistor

The light-dependent resistor is an electronic component that is used to detect light and
used in the operation of the circuit depending upon the intensity of light. It is used in
an electrical circuit where there it is important to detect the presence of light and to
measure the intensity of light. There are many terms given to light-dependent resistors
that as photo registers or LDRs.

There are various names used for this light-dependent resistor is the light-dependent
resistor (LDRs), photoresistor, even photoconductor, or photocell.

The same function of LDR is also performed by electronic components like photodiode
or phototransistor. a little amount of light level changes the large resistance of the

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circuit so it is preferred or is being convenient to choose in many electronic circuits
design.
LDR is used in a variety of different applications such as there was a time when it is
used in photographic light meter and even now there are many places and many devices
where it is used where it is necessary to detect light levels or presence of light is
important. manufacturing of LDR is easy and it has low maintenance cost and its cost
is also low.

LDR are easily available they are usually stock by the distributor of electronic
components and because of the chain of supply of the industry and its operation these
days it is a normal way to have them. usually, the quality of LDR is good at any
distributor.

Fig 3.4- LDR

3.5.1 What is LDR?

LDR is an electronic component that is sensitive to light. LDR is also termed a
photoresistor or light-dependent resistor. When light falls on it the resistance of the
changing value of resistance of LDRs may change for many order of magnitude. The
value of the resistance falls when the intensity of light increases. The value of resistance

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varies from several megaohms to few100 ohms. It is common for the LDRs and
photoresistor to have the resistance of a few hundred in the bright light and then
increases to megaohm in the darkness. Windy web length of the incident light, the
sensitivity of LDRs or light dependent resistor or photoresistor may change. Due to
these wide variations in the registered area are very easy to use and used in various
places with various applications.

Light-sensitive property of LDR due to the use of semiconductor material while

making the LDR. Many materials are used in the manufacturing of LDS but widely
Cadmium Sulfide CdS, but due to its hazardous property and other environmental
impacts it is being restricted or banned in European countries similarly CdSe has also
restricted duty its hazardous property and other environmental impacts. Lead Sulfide
(PbS), and Indium Antimonate, InSb is also used as a material for the manufacturing
of LED.

LDRs are passive devices they do not possess a PN junction even though a
semiconductor material is used for manufacturing photo resistors this distinct property
makes it different from other devices like photodiode and phototransistor.

3.5.2 LDR Symbol

Fig 3.5- LDR Symbol

The LDR symbol is shown in the form of arrows shining on it. It is used in electronic
circuits based around the resistor circuit symbol. In this way, it follows the same

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procedure used for photodiode and phototransistor circuit symbols where arrows are
used to show the light falling on these components.

3.5.3 Working of LDR

Without any complex explanation, it is very easy to understand the basics of LDR. An
essential part of understanding is that electrical current consists of a moment of an
electron within the conductor and in a good conductor, there is a very large number of
free electrons that can be moved by the application of potential difference but in the
case of insulator with very high resistance and little free electrons it is become very
hard to make them m divert in the direction and the current does not flow in the
insulator.

The making of a photo register or an LDR consists of any semiconductor material with
high resistance. The high resistance of semiconductors is due to very less amount of
free electrons that are capable of move-majority of the electron is log into the crystal
lattice and they are not capable of moving therefore in this stage the LDR has very high
resistance.

When light falls on LDR that is on semiconductor PU photons are transferred to the
free electrons and the rest are observed by the crystalline lattice of LDR. The absorbed
photons by the electron make them get free from the crystalline lattice of the
semiconductor these electrons then move in the lattice structure causing the current to
flow in the semiconductor. In this process, the electron gets free to move to cause the
lowering of the resistance of LDR.

As this process continues, more and more light falls on the LDR semiconductor causing
the release of more and more electrons to conduct electricity and hence results in falling
of resistance of the LDR semiconductor.

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3.5.4 Structure
Each material gives different property to the LDR or photoresistor in terms of
wavelength and sensitivity. A semiconductor is a material used for photoresist in photo
register and this material is such as InSb, Ge, GaAs, PbS, CdTe, CdS, CdSe, and many
more. It is a type of resistor that is light sensitive and a horizontal body that is exposed
to light and it has a simple structural definition.

An active region is normally lightly doped and this active semiconductor region is
deposited onto a semi-insulating substrate. To increase the area of photo registered that
is exposed to light it uses an interdigital pattern to increase its area in many distinct
photoresistor devices. On the surface of an active area, the pattern is cut in the form of
metallization which lets the light go throughout. The cut area must be large and these
cutted areas act as one surface and two surfaces are joined together the active area must
be large because the resistance at the contact area must be low.

3.5.5 Classification of Photoresistor

The photoresistor is classified into two-part:
1. Intrinsic Photoresistor
2. Extrinsic Photoresistor

➢ Intrinsic Photoresistor: Intrinsic Photoresistor is the devices which consist of

semiconductor which are and doped like silicon or germanium. As the light of
photon fall on the LDR, it excites the electron that is capable of moving from
valence bond to conduction band. As the electron capable of moving from
valence bond to conduction band can cause the flow of electricity. The more
intensity of light that falls on the device more the electron is liberated and there
is a greater level of conductivity as the resistance is at a lower level.

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 ➢ Extrinsic photoresistor: This type of Photoresistor is made from
semiconductors that are covered with impurities with the help of these impurities
new valence band is created with a lower bandgap as the bandgap is low less
amount of photons is needed to release the electron to conduct electricity. Due
to the smaller energy gap, less amount of energy is required for conduction.
Regardless of the type of light with an increased level of incident light on the
semiconductor device both types of photoresistors show a fall of resistance and
increase in conduction.

3.5.6 Frequency Dependence of LDR

For a different wavelength of light, the LDR accumulates different properties that is
the sensitivity of the photoresistor is changed. This effect is such that for the range of
light it causes the LDR to change the resistance but outside this range, the other
wavelength of light does not affect the LDR.

For a different wavelength of the light source is different property because of these
difference in property LDR can be used for a different purpose at different places.
It is observed that extensive Photoresistors are more sensitive to the longer wavelength
light and can be used for infrared. Since infrared light causes heating and other
radiation which resists the demand.

3.5.7 Photoresistor Latency

Latency is the property of the electronic component which refers to the time taken by
the component to respond to any change in the case of LDR or photoresistor be latency
is referred to as the LDR response to the light and this aspect is very important for
different circuit design.

LDR takes a considerable amount of time to recognize the change when the light falls
on the active area of the semiconductor so it is not a good choice when there is a rapid

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change in the intensity of light. For different intensities of photons its shows different
properties, however, when the time taken to change the intensity of light is considerable
it is a good choice to use in the circuit. When light falls on the LDR or photoresistor it
responds rapidly like a ten millisecond that is the recovery rate of India is high in case
of light incidence but in the case when light is removed (without incidence)it can take
up to a second or more to reach its initial or final level. Because of this property, there
is one specification of LDR termed as dark resistance after a given time which is
typically in second. and there is two value quoted one is for 1 second and another is for
5 seconds, which indicates the latency of the photoresistor.

3.5.8 Uses of photoresistor

Because of simple design and low cost and easy to maintain photoresistors used at vast
places and are found in many circuit devices and electronic design these are usually
found in the smoke alarm, fire alarm, and photographic light meters and it is also used
as lighting control of street lamps.

Since extensive photoresistor is very sensitive to longer wavelength and they are very
popular in various electronic circuit design which can detect infrared photodetector so
it is also used in to detect nuclear radiation.

3.5.9 Light Dependent Resistor Specifications

Several specifications are very important for an LDR light-dependent resistor
photoresistor while considering its use in electronic circuit design.

➢ Maximum power dissipation: This is the amount of power the device can
disappear with a given temperature range and this dissipated power should
below. Above a certain temperature, derating is also applied.

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 ➢ Maximum operating voltage: The maximum operating voltage is about 200
volt for all these semiconductor-based devices. This maximum operating voltage
is specified at 0 lux that is at the darkness.

➢ Resistance: The resistance of LDR changes when the light is incident on the
active area so the resistance of LDR is a key parameter for any photoresistor.
For the range of wavelength, resistance is specified for LDR semiconductors that
are minimum and maximum resistance. It is generally specified at 10 Lux and
100 Lux.

➢ Dark resistance: For photoresistors, the dark resistance value is given and
specified in terms of second because it takes several seconds to fall to the final
resistance value when the incident light is removed.

➢ Peak wavelength: Peak wavelength is specified in terms of nm. Peak

wavelength is the wavelength of the maximum sensitivity curve is provided for
all the wavelengths.

3.5.9.1 Example Photoresistor Specifications

• Max power dissipation- 200mW

• Max voltage @ 0 lux- 200V

• Peak wavelength- 600nm

• Min. resistance @ 10lux- 1.8kΩ

• Max. resistance @ 10lux- 4.5kΩ

• Type resistance @ 100lux- 0.7kΩ

• Dark resistance after 1 sec- 0.03MΩ

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 • Dark resistance after 5 sec- 0.25MΩ
This shall help my comrades to understand the concept of LDR well. LDR has brought
a revolution to the field of technology. LDRs are efficient instances of human vision
and dynamism.

3.6 Light Emitting Diodes

3.6.1 What are LED Lights?

An LED is a semiconductor light source that produces light when triggered by an

electronic current. A semiconductor is a solid substance whose ability to conduct
electric current ranges between that of most metals and an insulator.

Fig 3.6- LED Light

3.6.2 What are the advantages of LEDs?

There are a variety of advantages of LED to lighting professionals and ultimate

beneficiaries of LED lighting system-from individual creative to the innovative
business to the beautiful cities and amazing countries:

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• The brightness and intensity level of LED is high-Generated lumen output is
high, during the intensity of light and color light is good by the LED.

• Range- Without any use of gels are filtered the color and tunable of white light
by led and have many color temperature ranges and accuracy is very high.

• Energy-efficient LED lights are more energy-efficient than incandescent light

and other halogen sources which are conventionally used.

• Voltage and current requirement are low- The installation of LED light is simple
and it is flexible for installation and easy-to-use and the voltage and current
requirement is quite low.

• Radiated heat by LED is low. LED light that can be installed in the heat-sensitive
area, near the people or material which can be harmed by the infrared radiations
and it can be installed in small spaces where collected it is dangerous because
LED light does not meet any infrared radiation.

• Reliability is high since LED has no moving part or element that can be break
or fail so it becomes very useful wherein any condition it can work. It can be
operated in colder temperatures and withstand vibration sensor kings and it can
resist any environmental impact.

• Control is easy- It can be controlled digitally automatically for maximum

efficiency and flexibility.

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 • Life of LEDs is long- The lifetime of LED sources are quite longer than
conventional light source which reduces the cost and inconvenience of
maintenance and replacement of LED light in many places and circuits.

• No infrared radiation or UV rays- Since LED light does not EMIT any harmful
UV rays or infrared radiation that can degree date material or harm humans.
Sweet becomes quite useful in many places such as museums, hotels, and study
lamps.

3.6.3 What do all these advantages mean?

LED technology has advanced repeatedly in the last few decades as demand grows and
innovation improved. LED-related technology and its manufacturing method have
changed very vastly in the last few years. LED light used for indicator light and other
lowly applications has now become the preferred light source for high-profile and
large-scale projects in present days. Lower cost and maintenance of the LED light are
quite low so it is preferred in all the high profile projects and where the lifetime of the
source should be high. It is preferred by all the lighting professionals and being
explored and it has high demand because of its color kinetics also.

3.6.4 How LEDs Produce Different Colors

The Colour of LED light depends on the wavelength of the photon which is being
produced by the material in the LED light. Each wavelength has its different colors.
When the photon is excited the wavelength is produced and because of this wavelength,
there is a different color at a different wavelength. A combination of different
wavelengths produces different colors for example the equal amount of red, green, and
blue light produces the white light. There is a combination of red, green, and blue LED
is in a single LED device which is then further controlled by a multi-chip LED, and

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with their relative intensity, different colors are produced by their combinations at
different intensities.

Different colors are produced by using the different materials used in LED different
materials produce photons at different wavelengths. The material used in LED can
handle the necessary level of electricity, heat, and humidity. To produce high
brightness red and Amber LED material used in led is aluminum indium gallium
phosphide. To produce blue or green color LED uses the Indian gallium nitride
.together with aluminum indium gallium phosphide and indium gallium nitride used in
LEDs cover the entire light spectrum which is being produced.

3.7 IR Sensor

An infrared sensor is a sort of device that can sense surrounding like measuring the
heat of an object or detecting motion. These types of sensors measure only infrared
spectrum, all the objects radiate some form of thermal radiation.

Human eyes fail to detect such radiation while IR sensors can. The emitter is an IR
LED and the detector is an IR photodiode (sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength
of the LED). Resistances and output voltage changes as soon as IR light falls on the
photodiode.

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 Fig- 3.7 IR Sensor

3.7.1 Defining IR Sensors: Circuit Diagram

IR technology has tremendous use in our everyday life. For instance, IR sensors help
TVs to understand signals. IR sensors are beneficial as they use low power, their design
is simple & their features are convenient. the human eye does not possess the capability
to see IR radiations. In the electromagnetic spectrum, IR radiations are found in regions
of visible and microwave. Usually, the wavelengths of these waves range from 0.7 µm
to 5 to 1000µm. The IR spectrum is broadly categorized into three regions- near-
infrared, mid, and far-infrared. The near-infrared region has a wavelength that ranges
from 0.75 – 3µm, the mid-infrareds from 3 to 6µm & the far-infrared has a wavelength
higher than 6µm.

3.7.2 How does it work?

Object detection sensors have the same working principles. By combining IR LED and
photodiode a photo-coupler or optocoupler is formed. Planks radiation, Stephan
Boltzmann & Wein displacement are physics principles used.

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IR LED is one sort of transmitter that emits IR radiation. Normal LED looks like an IR
LED. Generated radiations are not visible to humans. An infrared transmitter detects
the radiation. These infrared receivers are available in photodiode form. IR
photodiodes are different from usual photodiodes as they simply detect IR radiation.

Once the IR transmitter and receiver's combination is set then it is essential to have the
receiver's wavelength equal to the transmitter. For our device, IR LED is the transmitter
while IR photodiode is the receiver. And we already know that the IR photodiode is
responsible to detect the IR light generated by an IR LED. Resistance of photodiodes
and changes in output voltage is in proportion to infrared light obtained. THIS IS A
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF INFRARED SENSORS.

When the infrared transmitter generates emission it arrives at the object while some of
the emission is reflected in the IR receiver. Then depending on the intensity of response
IR receiver decides the sensor output.

3.7.3 Classification of Infrared Sensors

3.7.3.1 ACTIVE SENSOR

These types of sensors have both the transmitter and the receiver. Usually LED is used
as a source. It is used as a non-imaging IR sensor whereas laser diode is used as an
imaging IR sensor.

These sensors work all-around energy radiation. They are received and detected
through energy radiation. They are used to fetch necessary information by the signal
processor. Examples- Reflectance and break beam sensor.

3.7.3.2 PASSIVE SENSOR

This type of sensor has only a detector but no transmitter. It uses objects like

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transmitters or IR sources. The energy it emits is detected through an Infrared receiver.
A signal processor is used to decipher signals to fetch information. Example-
pyroelectric detector, bolometer, thermocouple-thermopile.

Passive sensors are further classified into two subcategories-

• THERMAL IR SENSORS

a. They do not depend on wavelength.

b. The energy source is heated
c. Slow response

• QUANTUM IR SENSORS

a. Depend on wavelength
b. High response
c. Need regular cooling

3.7.4 IR Sensor Circuit Diagram

An infrared sensor is very common in daily life. It is indeed an extraordinary instance
of human brilliance and visually dynamic imagination. Below is the diagram-

Following components have been used-

i. LM358 IC 2 IR transmitter and receiver pair

ii. Resistors of the range of kilo-ohms.

iii. Variable resistors.

iv. LED (Light Emitting Diode).

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The transmitter section includes an IR sensor, which transmits continuous IR rays to
be received by an IR receiver module. An IR output terminal of the receiver varies
depending upon its receiving of IR rays. Since this variation cannot be analyzed as
such, therefore this output can be fed to a comparator circuit. The operational amplifier
(op-amp) of LM 339 is a comparator circuit.

When the IR receiver does not receive a signal, the potential at inverting input goes
high and the output of the comparator remains low thus the LED does not glow.
Whereas when the IR receiver receives the signal, the potential at inverting input goes
low and the output of the comparator remains low. Thus the LED glows.

3.7.5 IR Sensor Circuit with Transistor

This type of circuit is used to detect obstacles. It can be built with two transistors like
NPN and PNP. the pinout of both transistors is the same.

One infrared LED is always switched on whereas the other infrared LED is allied to
the PNP transistor’s base terminal because it is a detector. The required components of
this IR sensor circuit include resistors 100 ohms & 200 ohms, BC547 & BC557
transistors, LED, IR LEDs-2.

If IR LED is detected it generates a small amount of current that is supplied to the IR

LED detector, activating the PNP transistor switching on the LED. This is used to make
automatic lights that turn on as a person comes near.

3.7.6 Burglar Alarm Circuit

It is sort of safety equipment. It can easily be spotted at entries or doors. It produces a
sound as an alert when something passes through it. Since IR rays are not visible to
humans it serves as a hidden safety device.

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The circuit is arranged by arranging IR LED and IR sensors on opposite doors. This
ensures that IR rays fall on the sensor properly. Thus IR rays fall over the IR diode &
the output condition at pin-3 will stay in the low condition.

The alarm begins buzzing once a solid object crosses the ray. The alarm remains ON
till it is switched off. The circuit or switch should be placed away from sight to avoid
others switching it off.

3.7.7 ADVANTAGES
• Less power is used.

• Motion detection is also possible without light.

• For object detection, there is no contact needed.

• There is no data leakage.

• These sensors do not get distorted by corrosion or oxidation

• Very strong noise immunity.

3.7.8 DISADVANTAGES
• There is a requirement of the line of sight.

• Limited range

• Weather can affect.

• The data transmission rate is low.

3.7.9 APPLICATIONS
IR sensors are classified into different types depending on the applications.

• For synchronizing the speed of multiple motors speed sensor is used.

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 • TEMPERATURE SENSOR is used for temperature control in industries.

• PIR SENSOR is used for an automatic door opening system

• ULTRASONIC SENSOR is used for the measurement of distance.

IR sensors are used in various Sensor based projects and also in various electronic
devices which measure the temperature that is discussed below.

I. RADIATION THERMOMETER

• Measurement without direct contact with the object

• Easy pattern measurements

• Flame Monitor

• Faster response

II. GAS ANALYSERS

Two types of methods are used to measure the density of gas

1. Dispersive: The sample quality and gas ingredient is analyzed by division of

incidence light spectroscopically and its absorption characteristics.

2. Nondispersive: It is the most common method to analyze the gas. It does not
divide the gas but it commonly uses the absorption property of the gas. It uses
the optical bandpass filter similar to the sunglasses used for the protection of
eyes from the UV rays.

III. IR IMAGING DEVICES

It is used in IR waves because it is not visible. It is used for thermal images, night
vision devices

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The electronic detector is cooled by liquid helium or liquid nitrogen. These cooling
detectors ensure that radiated energy comes from terrain and not from the temperature
of the object within scanner or IR imaging devices.

Applications of the infrared sensors include the following.

• Meteorology

• Gas detectors

• Testing of Anesthesiology

• Exploration of Petroleum

• Climatology

• Photo-bio modulation

• Analysis of Water

• Safety of Rail

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 CHAPTER – 4
Block Diagram & Methodology

4.1 Block diagram

Fig 4.1: Block diagram of Automatic Street light

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Above shown is the block diagram of Automatic street lights using different sensors.
The diagram consists of three main sensors that sense different factors surrounding us.
These are Infrared sensors, LDRs, and current sensors.

Information is collected from different sensors attached to each pole send to the control
unit which is precoded as per our requirement. Then the resultant signal is sent to the
minicomputer (Raspberry pi) where the data is stored and thus a feedback signal is
generated which is sent back to the control unit and then to the street light poles. Thus,
making the lights ON or OFF or dim as per the feedback given.

The data stored in the mini-computer can also be used for sending notifications on an
app or a website as per the requirement with the help of the internet making it a more
real-time efficient project.

A separate source unit is also shown in the diagram consisting of a solar panel and a
Piezoelectric sensor. This unit together helps in providing extra voltage sources to the
street light making it more efficient. This unit has a battery also connected with it for
the storage of energy generated by solar panels and a piezoelectric sensor.

4.2 Methodology
The main objectives of making a street light automatic and intelligent are
i. To make it more efficient so that a good amount of power can be saved and
utilized for other purposes.
ii. To minimize the manual error
iii. To operate the street lights with real-time data.
These objectives are fulfilled by automatic street lights using sensors.
The project works with the help of 3 main units:-

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 I. Sensing unit
II. Control unit
III. Feedback unit

4.2.1 SENSING UNIT

The main function of the elements of this unit is to sense different conditions and
parameters of the environment around them. All the types of sensors like Infrared
sensors, Light-dependent resistors, and current sensors are part of this sensing unit.
They all have different roles for sensing different things in the environment and then
send the signal to the control unit. Now let’s see what every sensor does individually.
First is the IR (infrared) or the PIR (passive infrared) sensor. It is placed on each pole
of the street light. The work of the IR sensor is to sense any movement of an object or
human or animal in its vicinity. So as the vehicle passes through the vicinity of a pole,
the IR sensor will send the information to the control unit about the vehicle or vehicle
passing.

Next is the LDR, it is also placed on each node or pole of the street light. Light-
dependent resistor works on the principle of Photoconductivity which is nothing but an
optical process or phenomenon. Its work is to detect the presence or absence of light
around it. So, as it starts getting dark, LDR sends this information sensed by it to the
controller which then switches ON the lights or increases the intensity of the light.
Another one is the Current sensor, which is a safety device. As the current flows it
produces a voltage drop. If the amount of current is high the voltage drop across the
device will also be high, thus increasing the chances of the device getting damaged.
So, this sensor work is to sense the amount of current flowing and sending the
information to the control unit.

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 4.2.2 CONTROL UNIT
Once all the signals are collected from the sensor then the work of the control unit
starts. It consists of a microcontroller, it could Arduino Uno or Nodemcu v2 or any
other as well. The main purpose of the controller is to analyze the information collected
from the sensor and compare it with the preset commands and generate an Error signal,
which is then sent to the minicomputer or the feedback unit. Commands are given to
the controller before only and thus it operates accordingly. The most easily available
microcontroller in today's time is Arduino Uno and Node Mcu v2 ESP8266.

4.2.3 FEEDBACK UNIT

The error signal generated by the control unit is now sent to the central base station of
the project where the data collected and processed is stored as well. This unit consists
of a minicomputer. This computer stores the information and then with all the available
data collected a feedback signal is generated and given back to the controller (whether
to switch ON or OFF the lights). The stored data in the minicomputer can also be used
for real-time monitoring. This can be done with the help of the internet which can send
a notification about all the actions going on along with the time and place. Another
separate unit can also be installed with these 3 main units which consist of a Solar panel
and a Piezoelectric sensor. They will make the project self-dependent and also
contribute to the demand side management programs going in the country.

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 CHAPTER – 5
Sodium Lamp vs LED

5.1 SODIUM VAPOR LAMP

A Sodium lamp is a lamp that utilizes Sodium in an excited state to generate light in
the process. These lamps work by generating an electric arc through vaporized Sodium.
These lamps are majorly used for street lighting and industrial use. Two types of
Sodium Vapor lamps exist:
• High-Pressure Sodium lamp
• Low-Pressure Sodium lamp

5.1.1 High-Pressure Sodium Light

Fig 5.1- High-Pressure Sodium Lights

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High-Pressure Sodium (HPS) light is a part of the High-Intensity Discharge (HID)
family. They use the gas discharge to generate light. High-Pressure Sodium Vapor light
work at high internal pressure. The arc tube is composed of Aluminium oxide. And the
Sodium is combined with other elements like Mercury to balance the yellow tint and
give the light a white to blue tint instead. Some places in the world still use HPS lights,
and at the same time, they are being replaced by LEDs.

5.1.2 Low-Pressure Sodium Lights

Fig 5.2- Low-Pressure Sodium Lights

Just like above, they also belong to the High-Intensity Discharge (HID) family. They
also utilize gas discharge to create light. They constitute Solid Sodium metal with an
internal Borosilicate glass tube. As the lights are turned ON, the Sodium turns into gas
as it is heated up. At this time, the lights appear with a reddish or pink hue. The metal
continues to heat, and when fully heated it becomes vaporized emissions that are

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responsible for the appearance of the bright yellow light. These lights remain yellow
when fully lit. However, these lights have become outdated and are no longer in use.

5.2 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE

Fig 5.3- LED Lights

Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when
current flows through it. They do not operate on gas discharge. LEDs are considered
solid-state lights. Unlike Sodium lamps, LEDs can emit several different colors of
lights. The color emitted by the LED is determined by the energy needed by the
electron to cross the band-gap of the semiconductors. Unlike, high- pressure and low-
pressure sodium lights, LEDs do not require or emit heat. It is also uni-directional,
meaning light is focused in a single direction. As a result, the light is not wasted.

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5.3 COMPARISON

Table- 5.1 Comparison between Sodium Light & LED

Features Sodium Light LED

Efficiency ✓

Start-Up Time ✓

Size ✓

Lifespan ✓

Directionality ✓

Upfront Costs ✓

Maintenance Costs ✓

Lifetime Costs ✓

CRI ✓

Dimming ✓

Color Temperature ✓

Shock Resistance ✓

Directionality ✓

Emissions ✓

Cold Tolerance ✓

Warm-Up Time ✓

Warranty ✓

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5.4 FEATURES

5.4.1 Sodium Lights

Color- Warm Yellow Color

Color Temperature- 2000K
Efficiency- 100- 150 lumens/watt
Price- $5- $10
Lifespan- Average 24,000 hours
Bulb Angle- 360 degree

5.4.2 Light Emitting Diodes

Color- Variety of Colors

Color Temperature- Varies
Efficiency- Up to 223 lumens/watt
Price- $10- $20
Lifespan- Ranges between 25,000 to 200,000 hours
Bulb Angle- 180 degree

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5.5 LED STREET LIGHTING BENEFITS

• LED Reaches full brightness instantly- Unlike Sodium lamps which take a
couple of seconds to reach their full intensity, LEDs do not require warm-up
time, they operate at full brightness since the beginning.

• LEDs are durable- They can withstand almost every weather and climate
condition. They are dustproof, waterproof, sturdy and operates at all temperature
and weather.

• Less glare- They are adjusted in a way that they are directed at the road. As a
result, they do not badly affect the drivers.

• Environment friendly- LEDs do not contain substances like Lead or Mercury

which can harm others, neither do they emit any poisonous gas. They also give
off less CO2.

• Higher light output- LEDs tend to perform better at lower temperatures. This
is best for colder regions as well as for the winter seasons.

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 CHAPTER – 6
Merits & Demerits

6.1 MERITS

• Automatic Switching
Normal street lights are turned ON and OFF manually. They are turned ON as soon
as the sun sets and darkness takes over and switched OFF as the sun rises. Human
Beings are prone to make mistakes. And mistakes happen in these situations as well.
Sometimes lights are left ON by mistake during the day. As a result, a huge amount
of energy is wasted. Energy is very precious in today’s time of energy crisis. And
if electricity is wasted like this daily, it could lead to a severe problem. And
sometimes the lights remain OFF at night. It leads to several security issues as well
as the risk of accidents.

Fig 6.1- IR Sensor Fig 6.2- LDR

Smart street lights are inbuilt with Infrared (IR) sensors and Light Dependent
Resistor (LDR). LDRs or Photoresistors are light-sensitive devices. They are usually
used to indicate the presence or absence of light or to measure the intensity of light

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falling on it. LDRs are resistors whose resistance changes according to the light
intensity falling on them. During the absence of light or night, the resistance of LDRs
is very high, and so the light turns ON. While during the day, when the sunlight
intensity is high, the resistance of LDRs is low, so the lights turn OFF. Infrared
sensors are capable of sensing heat signatures. So when a human being or any vehicle
passes by the street light, IR sensors sense their presence and pass the instruction to
the microcontroller to turn the light ON. And as commanded after the vehicle or
human being passes by, they turn OFF. This is best for highways, as during deep
nights, the lights are not needed all the time.

• Cost-effective
The installation of smart street lights is costly when compared to normal street lights.
Since it includes sensors, microcontrollers, memory units, and several other devices.
However, when looking at it in the long time run, it is cost-effective. It saves plenty of
energy as the issue of the wrong operation is solved. They won’t glow in the daytime.
So the energy is not wasted. Using Infrared sensors to detect the presence of human
beings and vehicles and to turn ON and OFF lights in the dead of the night also helps
in saving energy. So overall this system is cost-effective.

• Wireless Communication
Normal street lights are often tangled with a bunch of wires resulting in a structure
similar to a spider’s web. It becomes so difficult to even identify the different wires,
their uses, and their purpose. This is why wireless communication is the best as the
tangles of wires are nowhere to be seen.

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• Security
Security is a major need for our society. According to a survey, the crimes
committed at night in the areas where there is a lack of sufficient public lighting are
considerably greater than the areas in which street lights were present. Cameras
installed on the smart street lights give additional security to the area in case of theft,
accidents, etc.

Fig 6.3- Smart street light with CCTV camera

• Use of existing infrastructure

One of the greatest things about smart street lights is that they can be installed on
the existing infrastructure. We do not have to completely replace the existing
traditional street lights. Only some parts need to be exchanged. Like Sodium, lamps
need to be replaced with LEDs. The tangles of wires need to be replaced with
wireless technology.

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6.2 DEMERITS

• Implementation cost design

High cost of energy-efficient products: Energy-efficient products and appliances

Generally have a high initial capital cost. This becomes a stumbling block to adopt
them readily. Take for instance the use of energy-efficient light-emitting diodes for
street lighting in municipal areas. The end-users normally do not carry out a life cycle
analysis of the products and their costs during the product purchase. Secondly,
awareness levels about the likely benefits of installing energy-efficient products are
also subdued. There is also limited availability of potential financing mechanisms for
energy efficiency.

• Limited technical knowledge of EE: Most project developers have limited technical
knowledge about the various aspects of EE. Therefore, they hesitate to implement such
technologies.

• Lack of internal funds for EE: Internal funds are generally not readily available for
procurement of the equipment or products needed for EE project implementation, both
in the public and private sectors in the country. As such, the uptake of EE is very limited
due to the need for external financing, which is often difficult to obtain. Finance plays
a key role in facilitating the large-scale implementation of EE projects and energy-
efficient technologies. There is growing adoption of energy-efficient measures in India;
however, several barriers continue to stall sufficient financing of such projects and
technologies. Some key barriers to financing EE projects include:

• Lack of non-recourse finance for EE projects- A large number of FIs do not perceive
EE measures as separate projects. Thus, they are unwilling to provide loans without
any lien on the assets of the parent entity. This makes it difficult for the implementing

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organization to raise finance for such projects, as most organizations utilize their
borrowing limits for their core businesses.

• Perceived difficulty in evaluating financial returns of EE projects – Banks and FIs

may have difficulties in evaluating financial returns from EE projects. This hinders the
availability of both debt and equity finance for EE projects.

• High transaction costs due to small project size-EE projects are relatively small in
size and have a high transaction cost, compared to other conventional lendings by
banks and FIs. This not only makes EE projects less attractive for conventional bank
financing but also limits the interest of international FIs (such as multilateral and
bilateral donor organizations) to whom the scale of financing is important.

• In case of defective repair troubleshooting of the system is complex.

• The system is prone to damage by environmental conditions.

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 CHAPTER – 7
Result

7.1 Efficiency

Table 7.1 Hour wise consumption and saving of energy

Duration Intensity Power Consumption at different intensity (in Power

(in %) kWh) saved

1800 hrs- 100 1 0

1900 hrs
1900 hrs- 100 1 0
2000 hrs
2000 hrs- 100 1 0
2100 hrs
2100 hrs- 100 1 0
2200 hrs
2200 hrs- 100 1 0
2300 hrs
2300 hrs- 50 0.5 0.49
0000 hrs
0000 hrs- 50 0.5 0.49
0100 hrs
0100 hrs- 25 0.25 0.73
0200 hrs
0200 hrs- 25 0.25 0.73
0300 hrs
0300 hrs- 25 0.25 0.73
0400 hrs
0400 hrs- 50 0.5 0.49
0500 hrs
0500 hrs- 50 0.5 0.49
0600 hrs
Total 7.75 4.15

With the help of the above data, we can tell the estimated energy saving by the
formula:

Estimated energy saving = 4.15/7.75

= 53.5%

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7.2 Number of days required to overcome the initial investment

Sodium lamps-
1 lamp =400 W
1000 lamp =400*1000 =400 kW
Used for 12 hours (at 100% intensity) =400 kW*12h
= 4800 kWh
Cost of power consumption =4800*Rs7 =Rs 33600.00

LED lamps-
1 lamp =100 W
1000 lamp =100*1000 =100 kW

Used for
1. 5 hours (at 100% intensity from 6pm -11pm) =100 kW*5 =500 kWh
2. 2 hours (at 50% intensity from 11pm-1pm) =100 kW*2*0.5 =100 kWh
3. 3 hours (at 25% intensity from 1pm-4pm) =100 kW*3*0.25 =75 kWh
4. 2 hours (at 50% intensity from 4pm-6pm) =100 kW*2*0.5 =100 kWh
Total usage =775 kWh
Cost of power consumption =775*Rs 7
=Rs 5425.00
Price saved in single day compared with sodium lamp =Rs (33600-5425)
=Rs 28175.00

Initial cost =Between 30 lakhs to 50 lakhs

Days required to overcome this initial investment of smart street light=

5000000/28175= 177.46 days

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