CE-304

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

MID-SEMESTER PROJECT
ON

FOUNDATIONS ON EXPANSIVE
SOIL

SUBMITTED BY:
KANAK SHARMA
2K19/CE/061

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Table of Contents
Introduction 3
Objective 4
What are expansive soils? 5
Mechanism of swelling of soils 6
Identification of Expansive soils 7
Challenges Associated 10
Foundations on Expansive soils 11
Methods of Foundation Practises 12
References 17

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INTRODUCTION

Expansive soil is common in Africa, Australia, India, South America,

Indonesia, Burma, and some countries of Europe. In India, nearly 20% of the
total area is covered by expansive soil. The area includes the entire Deccan
Plateau, Western Madhya Pradesh, parts of Rajasthan, Bundelkhand region in
Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The expansive soil
in India is commonly called ‘Black Cotton Soil’ because of its colour. The soil
is most favourable for cotton growth.
Numerous structures constructed on these soils, including many military
facilities, have experienced, and sustained 3-5 significant damage from
differential heave and settlement. Differential movements redistribute loads of
the structure on the elements of the foundation and can cause large changes in
moments and shears not accounted for in the design. These changes may also
further aggravate differential movement and worsen damages to the structure.
The types of structures most often damaged from heaving soil include
foundations and walls of residential and light commercial buildings, highways,
canal, and reservoir linings, and retaining walls.
Globally, the annual maintenance cost of expansive soils exceeds the cost of
damage caused by natural catastrophes. Therefore, it is very important to
confirm its soil characteristics for reasonable and economical design and safe
construction work.

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OBJECTIVE

Damages in structures founded on expansive soils occur because uniform and

reliable design procedures are not generally available. Unsuitable design
approaches that do not consider the potential of soil swell are often used.
Designs of relatively small structures such as residences and lightly loaded
buildings, for example, are often based on local experience without adequate
investigation of soil characteristics.
The design process sometimes omits but should consist of a feasibility study to
establish the need and provide economic justification, preliminary design phase
to establish the overall concept, and a detailed design phase to complete the
engineering description of the project.
This report provides background information for mechanism of
swelling/shrinkage of expansive soils, their method of identification, challenges
associated and remedial measures.

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What are expansive soils?

The expansive soils are high volume change soils in which montmorillonite is
the principal clay. These soils are subject to swelling and shrinkage
characteristics on account of seasonal variations in moisture content and often
cause tremendous pieces of damages to structures. It is worth mentioning that
the expansive soil problems can occur in both humid environments and
arid/semi-arid soils. Expansive soil is a commonly identified problem which has
made scientists concern about the design, protection, and operating of highway
and structural systems. Buildings, roads, pipelines, and other structural
members have always been subjected to damages resulted from expansive soils
which this damage is even more than twice the damage resulted from floods,
hurricanes, earthquakes, and tornadoes.
The characteristic feature of swelling and shrinkage of the soil with respect to
water is due to the presence of a clay mineral montmorillonite. Among all the
clay minerals, montmorillonite has the largest specific surface. Due to the
chemical properties and the structure of the mineral, a large amount of water
and other exchangeable ions can easily enter between the layers causing the
layers to be separated. Because of the affinity for water, clay soil containing
montmorillonite minerals are susceptible to substantial volume change. They
swell as soon as the water enters the lattice structure and shrink if the water is
removed. In moist state montmorillonite is highly plastic and has little internal
friction. Its excessive swelling capacity may seriously endanger the stability of
overlaying structures and road pavements.

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Mechanism of swelling of soils

The montmorillonite clay mineral is present in expansive soils. The basic

structure of each unit is made of gibbsite sheet sandwiched between two silica
sheets. The thickness of each unit is 10 A. There is very week bonding between
successive sheets and water may enter between the sheets causing the minerals
to swell. The spacing between these sheets depend upon the amount of water
available to take up space. Soils containing montmorillonite minerals exhibit
high shrinkage or swelling capabilities depending on nature of exchangeable
cations present.

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Identification of expansive soils

1. Microscopic Examination
2. X-ray Diffraction
3. Differential Thermal Analysis
4. Infrared Analysis

1. Microscopic Examination
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope
that produces images of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused
beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample,
producing various signals that contain information about the surface
topography and M composition of the sample.

It is emphasised that scanning electron microscopy can play a valuable

reconnaissance role, thus providing an indication of the broad character
of the soil microfabric, over a wide range of magnification, which aids in
the selection of the appropriate programme and methods of
quantification. It is also demonstrated that scanning electron microscopy
observations are extremely useful in the interpretation of, and for
providing the very necessary background to, quantitative data such as that
yielded by optical thin section and mercury porosimetry M studies.

Principles and capacities

The signals used by an SEM to produce an image result from interactions

of the electron beam with atoms at various depths within the sample.
Various types of signals are produced including secondary electrons (SE),
reflected or back-scattered electrons (BSE), characteristic X-rays and
light (cathodoluminescence) (CL), absorbed current (specimen current)
and transmitted electrons. Secondary electron detectors are standard

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 equipment in all SEMs, but it is rare for a single machine to have
detectors for M all other possible signals.

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 2. X-ray Diffraction
X-ray crystallography is the experimental science determining the atomic
and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure
causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions.
The dominant effect that occurs when an incident beam of
monochromatic X-rays interact with a target material is the scattering of
those X-rays from atoms within the target material. In materials with
regular structure (i.e., crystalline), the scattered X-rays undergo
constructive and destructive interference.

The directions of possible diffractions depend on the size and shape of the
unit cell of the material. The intensities of the diffracted waves depend on
the kind and arrangement of atoms in the crystal structure. However,
most materials are not single crystals, but are composed of many tiny
crystallites in all possible orientations called a polycrystalline aggregate
or powder. When a powder with randomly oriented crystallites is placed
in an X-ray beam, the beam will see all possible interatomic planes. If the
experimental angle is systematically changed, all possible diffraction
peaks from the powder will be detected.

3. Differential Thermal Analysis

DTA is a technique in which the difference in temperature between the

sample and reference pan is monitored against time or temperature while
the temperature, in a specified atmosphere, is programmed. DTA
measures the temperature difference between a sample and a reference as
temperature is increased. A plot of the temperature difference
(thermogram) reveals exothermic and endothermic reactions that may
occur in the sample. Temperature for thermal events such as phase
transitions, melting points, crystallization temperatures, and others can be
determined.

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 4. Infrared Analysis

The IR spectrum of a soil sample can be readily interpreted to give

information on the nature and proportions of the organic matter and the
minerals present the method or technique of infrared spectroscopy is
conducted with an instrument called an infrared spectrometer (or
spectrophotometer) which produces an infrared spectrum. An IR
spectrum can be visualized in a graph of infrared light absorbance (or
transmittance) on the vertical axis vs. frequency or wavelength on the
horizontal axis.

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Challenges associated

1. Damage to foundations
Expansive soils can cause heaving of structures when they swell and
differential settlement when they shrink. Damage to a structure is
possible when as little as 3% volume expansion takes place (Jones
2002), especially where these changes are distributed unevenly
beneath the foundations.

2. Damage to Pipelines
Pipes and other structures that are buried in montmorillonite soils also
are subject to damage caused by large hydration pressures (Day,
1994). With numerical modelling, Sorochan and Kim (1994) showed
that wetting an expansive soil creates vertical and horizontal stresses
that can ultimately crack objects enclosed in the soil. Moreover, the
pressure component associated with swelling increases with an
increasing vertical load. The load prevents loosening of the soil,
leading to a stress increase in the backfill around the structure. This is
especially true of water and sewage lines, where even minor damage
can create leaks. Once a leak occurs, the water saturates the material
next to the leak, compounding the problem by causing continued
expansion or movement.

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Foundation on expansive soils

A low value of safe bearing capacity is recommended apparently because of

poor performance of the foundation due to poor supporting power of soil.
Foundation designed for such small bearing pressure is totally unable to
counteract the swelling of the expansive soil. It is shocking that it is seldom that
heavily loaded structures have problems with swelling soil while the lightly
loaded structure with single and two storeyed building experience maximum
damage.
The rational methods of foundation design which are being used now to reduce
or prevent the effects of swelling can be grouped into three categories –
 Isolation of the structure from the swelling soil.
 Designing a structure to withstand the effects of swelling, and
 Preventing the swelling.
The important factor which influences the expansive soil is swelling pressure. It
indicates the property of the soil. From the below table of swelling potential, we
can easily identify the soil as swelling type or not.

Table: Prediction of the degree of expansion in fine-grained soils (IS 1498,

1970)

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Methods of Foundation
Practices

The following important methods are adopted while constructing foundation on

expansive soils.
 Footing with special cushions.
 CNS-MSM Technologies.
 Strip footing.
 Granular pile anchor.
 Stiffened mat foundation.
 Chemical stabilization.
 Moisture control.
Footing with special cushions

In this method, excavation is carried out up to a depth of greater than the depth
of foundation. After that freely draining soil, such as mix of sand and gravel is
filled up and compacted up to the base of foundation level. Reinforced concrete
footing is constructed at this level and brick wall may be constructed over the
footing. Mixture of sand and gravel is filled up loosely over the footing. This
cushion of granular soil absorbs the effect of swelling and so its effect on
foundation will considerably reduce.

Fig 1: Footing with special cushion

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CNS-MSM Technologies

CNS Technology or the concept is based on self-equilibrating phenomenon with

a difference that clay minerals present in CNS are non-expanding such as
kaolinite, chlorite etc. The thickness of CNS needed to prevent transmission of
swelling pressure and heave to the foundation. CNS can be obtained as a natural
material or can be made produced by blending two or more materials.
In MSM Technology, to improve the bearing capacity of the system the layer of
Mechanically Stabilized Mix is intercepted over CNS intercepting layer.
Normally MSM consists of graded aggregate, sand and fines with more
plasticity, similar to that allowed in water bounded macadam mix.

Fig 2: CNS-MSM Technology used in foundation

Strip footing

It was found that conventional strip foundations with sand cushions were
inadequate reinforcing the shallow strip footings was tried and inverted “T”
foundation is commonly used. The common types of strip footings that have
been used for light buildings are-
 Unreinforced with plinth band.

 Nominally reinforced with plinth band.

 Nominally reinforced inverted T.

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 Fig 3: Strip Footing

Granular pile anchor

Granular anchor pile is one which the foundation is anchored at the bottom of
Granular pile, to a mild steel plate through a mild steel rod. It helps in holding
the particulate granular medium and prevents the granular pile from swelling
and uplifting.

Fig 4: Pull out behaviour of Granular anchor Pile

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Stiffened mat foundation

The common method of stiffening consists of a slab cast beams 3-4 meters apart
both longitudinally and laterally. The rigidity of mat minimizes distortion of the
superstructure from both horizontal and vertical movements of the foundation
soil. Differential heave also reduced when stiffness of slab and superstructure is
increased.

Fig 5: Mat foundation

Chemical stabilization

Phosphoric acid combined with wetting agent can be used for stabilization of
expansive soils. Because it reacts with clay minerals and forms insoluble
aluminium sulphate which serves as a moisture proof. Some chemicals such as
sodium silicate, alkyl chloro-silanes, siliconate amines, chrome lignin can be
used for the water proofing of soils. The soils treated with calcium carbide do
not easily pickup water as it is deliquescent and hygroscopic. When sodium
chloride is added to the soil crystallization occurs in the pores of the soil and it
forms a dense hard mat. So, absorption of moisture is prevented.

Fig 6: Chemical stabilization of soil

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Moisture control

Swell and shrinkage can be reduced if water is prevented from moving into soil
under and near the building post construction. For this purpose, moisture
barriers are placed around the perimeter of the building. They efficiently reduce
the variations in water content and differential heave.

Fig 7: Moisture barrier for moisture control

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References
 Expansive Soils: Problems and Practice in Foundation and Pavement
Engineering By Debora J. Miller and John D. Nelson, Wiley Publication
 Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, by P. Purushothama Raj by
Pearson India
 https://www.codot.gov/programs/research/pdfs/1992/expansi vesoil.pdf
 http://www.iitg.ac.in/amurali/IGJ/IGS%20Annual%20Lectures/1
978%20Prof.%20Katti%20-IGS%20Annual%20Lecture.PDF
 https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/scanning-electron- microscope-
image-soil-matrix
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/001670
6183900708
 https://www.engineeringcivil.com/foundation-in-expansive-soil.html

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