Prospects and Challenges for traditional leaders in combating COVID-19 pandemic in

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rural Zimbabwe

Abstract

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The outbreak of the deadly COVID-19 disease caused by Coronavirus has drawn the attention of
researchers and policy makers to interrogate the utility of institutions in combating the pandemic.
This study adds to the emerging literature by elucidating the potential of traditional leaders in
localizing the fight against Coronavirus in rural Zimbabwe. As custodians and enforcers of

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traditional customs and values, endogenous leaders are widely relied on and respected in rural
communities such that their encouragements, orders and coercive means can positively combat
the deadly virus. With the fear for punishment in the form of cursing or rather be ostracized,

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ruralites often listen and abides to traditional leaders’ calls and pleas to stay at home, practice
personal hygiene and social distancing. Based on these cutting edge advantages, chiefs and their
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decentralized structures can be relied on in community mobilization, awareness raising,
dispelling pandemic rumors and myths, vaccine utilization and in pushing for compromization of
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measures incompatible with local traditions and cultural values and norms. The article vouches
for resourcing and capacitation of traditional leaders to effectively realize their capacities in
combating COVID-19 in rural areas.
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1. Introduction and background

The outbreak of COVID-19 caused by the dreaded coronavirus has paralyzed the lives and
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economies of many nations in the world. The pandemic is unprecedented in almost all its sorts,
including the speed at which it is spreading and the scale it is negatively impacting human lives
across the globe. Since its first outbreak in city of Wuhan, Hubei province of China in December
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2019, the disease has spilled over to the rest of the world. The WHO declared the disease a
Public Health Emergency of International Concern on the 30th of January 2020 and later on a
pandemic on 11 March 2020 (WHO 2020). As of 29 April 2020, the pandemic had been
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contracted by 3 034 059 and claimed 208 112 lives worldwide (WHO 2020). During the same
time, 40 Zimbabweans contracted it while 4 of them succumbed to the disease (Ministry of
Health & Child Care 2020).
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This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770
 The fight against this novel disease requires strong institutions and leadership to mobilize

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communities, resources and take a lead in raising awareness on the preventative measures for
combating this scourge. In face of the gigantic health crisis in developing countries, this article
critiques the potential of the institution of traditional leadership to combat the novel virus in rural

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areas. In Zimbabwe, the institution of traditional leaders includes the chiefs, headman and village
heads, who operate at lower levels of rural governance and development. At the lowest level,
there exist close to 2500 village heads across Zimbabwe, of which each of these village heads
govern close to 35 households (CCMT 2014). The 2500 village heads across the country’s rural

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areas report to over 452 headman countrywide (Musekiwa 2012). The headman is a sub-chief,
who are accountable about 271 paramount chiefs in the country. This decentralized nature of
traditional leadership institution makes it an immediate actor for local governance and

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development in rural Zimbabwe (Chigwata 2016; Logan 2013).

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In Zimbabwe, section 281 of the Constitution (2013) and the Traditional Leaders Act (2007)
recognizes traditional leaders as custodians of culture and tradition, and agents of community
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development. The ability of traditional leaders to exercise power, authority and deliver various
governmental responsibilities where the State has no or a limited presence makes them a strong
institution in rural governance and development (Chigwata 2016; Chakaipa 2010). Any effort to
ignore traditional authority in rural governance is, therefore, unconstructive and unsustainable as
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they command more support, legitimacy and respect in their areas of jurisdiction than elected
leaders (Chigwata 2018). Indeed, the traditional leaders’ proximity to communities and the
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respect they command in many rural and peri-urban areas makes them a port of call institution
when it comes to dealing with problems at grassroots levels (Chigwata 2016; Musekiwa 2012).
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Despite this recognition of traditional leaders’ utility in rural development, there exists a dearth
of studies on their potential in fighting infectious diseases. Available research on rural leadership
and the fight against diseases has so far concentrated on formal health workers, religious and
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traditional norms and values in determining community’s access to general health care and
reproductive health services in particular (Walsh et al 2015; Manguvo and Mafuvadze 2015). An
attempt was made by Manguvo and Mafuvadze (2015)’s study to focus on traditional leadership
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and the fight against the infectious EBOLA in West Africa. However, the study narrowly

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770
 focused on the influence of traditional and religious practices in treating and curbing the

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infectious EBOLA in West Africa. While these studies remain important in revealing the
influence of religious and traditional norms in determining rural people’s access to health
services, they are inadequate in arguing a case on the utility of traditional leaders in the broader

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response to the deadly coronavirus in peripheral areas of the society.

This article builds a case for considering traditional leaders to be reliable partners in combating
the infectious COVID-19 disease in rural Africa in general and Zimbabwe, in particular.

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Specifically, the study untangles the varied cutting edge advantages and limitations of traditional
leaders in curbing COVID-19 in Zimbabwe’s rural areas. Studies of this nature inform policy
makers and stakeholders on the advantages of strengthening traditional leaders in combating

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community diseases in rural areas. Beyond this, stakeholders including health workers, policy

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makers and NGOs working in rural areas are informed on what it takes to empower and
strengthen the capacities of traditional leaders in the fight against infectious diseases in rural
areas.
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The article is divided into five sections. It commences with this introduction and background
section, followed by a section that reveals the vulnerabilities of rural areas to COVID-19.
Thereafter, the article analyses the potentiality of traditional leaders to combat the spread of
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COVID-19 in rural Zimbabwe. The fourth section envisages some of the impediments to be
faced by local leaders in their battle to curb COVID-19 in rural areas before concluding the
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article.

This qualitative study heavily relies on extant literature on traditional leadership in Zimbabwe.
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Even with a focus on Zimbabwe, the study will benefit many African countries in strengthening
rural local governance institutions in the fight against infectious diseases that include COVID19,
HIV and AIDS and EBOLA.
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2. COVID -19 Pandemic: A cause for concern for rural areas?

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The COVID-19 disease is a mild to severe respiratory illness caused by corona-virus. Its
symptoms include among others tiredness, dry cough, fever and shortness of breath that may

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770
 later develop into pneumonia and subsequent respiratory failure (WHO 2020). In a majority of

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cases, the virus is transmitted by contact with objects infected with respiratory droplets. The
disease has no cure as of April 2020.

Consequently, many of the response measures to coronavirus have concentrated on prevention

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means. Almost all countries that recorded cases of the virus have instituted varied measures
including lock downs, encouraging residents to quarantine, stay indoors, constantly wash hands
with soap, avoid touching the face, use of mask and face shields and practice social distancing.
People diagnosed and suspected of COVID-19 have also been quarantined at home and in health

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institutions. While in quarantine, COVID-19 patients are treated with a combination of drugs
based on the care given for influenza and severe respiratory illnesses. In extreme cases, seriously

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ill patients of the disease end up in Intensive Care Unit, with ventilators to assist them in their
breathing.

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Many questions have been raised regarding developing countries’ preparedness to combat this
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pandemic. Despite repeated assurances of preparedness by the Zimbabwean government,
evidence on the ground suggests limited capacity by the government to fight the disease
(Chingono 2020; Zaba 2020). These worries were substantiated by subsequent revelations by
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family members upon the death of Zororo Makamba, the first Zimbabwean causality to the
pandemic. Amongst other things, the Zororo case and many others recorded so far exposed
inadequacies at Wilkins Hospital, one of the only two infectious diseases hospitals in Zimbabwe.
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Likewise, emerging cases in Zimbabwe suggest limited access to the much needed ventilators
and protective clothing for health workers in the country’s public institutions. The Zimbabwe
Association of Doctors for Human Rights (ZADHR) took the Ministry of Health and Child Care
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to court over its failure to provide doctors working on the frontline of the Covid-19 pandemic
with protective clothing (Chingono 2020).
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While the shortages have become a major issue in urban areas, the picture is bleaker in rural
Zimbabwe. Coupled with an already less robust and ailing rural health system characterized by
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limited personnel, medical supplies and a dilapidated infrastructure, many rural areas remain ill-

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770
 prepared to curb the spread of COVID-19. Limited access to ventilators, test kits, sanitizers,

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protective clothing (masks, gloves, gowns) and other essential supplies is more pronounced in
rural health institutions than in urban areas. Likewise, many of the rural health centers do not
have isolation facilities for suspected COVID-19 cases.

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The vulnerability of rural areas to COVID-19 is exacerbated by increased urban to rural
migration since the outbreak and the lock down measures. Without any reported case from rural

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areas as of April 2020 in Zimbabwe, many have portrayed such areas as ‘safe heavens’ to hide
and reduce their chances of contracting COVID-19 (Chingono 2020; Nyoka 2020). The
Presidential announcement of the initial lockdown and extension (30 March to 3 May 2020), and

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the promulgation of S.I. 83 of 2020: Public Health (COVID-19 Prevention, Containment and
Treatment) closed all public and private institutions, and banned all gatherings. The order only
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allows for few people, under 50, to congregate in the event of a funeral or serious need while
observing social distancing. Travel restrictions were instituted except for essential visits and
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workers at essential service providers. As companies and institutions closed down in urban areas,
some people thronged to rural areas to be with their relatives and to supposedly hide from the
pandemic in urban areas. Thus, exposing rural areas and populations to the COVID-19 disease.
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Rural communities face many challenges so as to effectively implement lock-down measures.

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The pandemic hit Zimbabwe at a time when many rural communities are facing increased
poverty as exemplified in food insecurity and limited access to income. Estimates put 95 percent
to be those people living below the poverty datum line in rural Zimbabwe (Manjengwa, Kasirye
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& Matema 2012). With limited access to food and income, many rural dwellers are likely to defy
the lock-down and stay at home call to work in farms and pursue their survival schemes, thereby
exposing themselves and others to the risk of the infectious COVID-19.
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Due to increased poverty levels, many families hardly get disposable income to purchase
requisite protective clothing including gloves, face masks and sanitizers. The same applies to
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retail shops and service centers in many rural areas: who will find it difficult to offer sanitizers
and practice good hygiene whilst conducting their businesses. Furthermore, the call to practice

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770
 good hygiene will be hampered by limited access to running water in rural communities. More

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often than not, communities rely on water from communal boreholes and wells. Having received
less rainfall, residents of many rural communities queue to fetch water at communal sources.
This makes many of these communities vulnerable to contracting coronavirus.

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The vulnerabilities of rural areas are also worsened by limited information on COVID-19 disease
and preventative measures (Mangirazi 2020). Access to reliable broadcasting and print
information remains a challenge in many rural communities of the global South. In Zimbabwe,

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very few elites periodically access print newspapers. For broadcasting media, the barriers remain
such as limited access to television sets, radios and smart phones; poor transmission and power
shortages (Ndlovu 2008; Dziva & Dube 2014). As such, communities who wish to access

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information on national programmes and pandemics such as COVID-19 often rely on hearsay
from local leaders, relatives and social media platforms. When such information is circulated on

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social media platforms, there will be more distortions and misinformation. Despite providing
cheap and quick access to information, social media creates an un-regulated flow of information
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which may have both positive and negative effects to communities (Dziva and Shoko 2018:
253). Due to its limited regulation, anyone who is technologically literate can take to the
cyberspace to post or rather circulate whatever COVID-19 related information they come across
and sign off as a journalist or health expert (Dziva & Shoko 2018).
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3. Prospects for traditional leaders to curb COVID-19 in rural Zimbabwe

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Amid community challenges to access credible broadcasting and print media, traditional leaders
remain one of rural people’s reliable sources of information about pandemics. The institution of
traditional leadership is respected and carries a broad mandate in community governance and
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development. In Malawi, some communities regard traditional leaders as sources of wisdom in

all facets of life (Walsh et al 2018). When faced with problems and calamities of Coronavirus’
nature, such communities run to traditional leaders for wisdom and answers. Having benefited
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from the government’s rural electrification programme, many chiefs in Zimbabwe have access to
television and radio transmissions where factual information is often shared about COVID-19.
With this information, chiefs can use their networks, sub-leaders (headman and village heads) to
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motivate, mobilise and impart coronavirus information and knowledge to their communities

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770
 (Mohlala et al. 2011). As participants and chairs in various community development committees

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including the Ward Development Committee, Village Development Committee, Ward Assembly
and Village Assembly, traditional leaders can use such platforms and contacts to effectively
disseminate credible COVID-19 information to ruralites.

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In this age of technology, chiefs and their decentralized structures may take advantage of local
people’s increased access to smart phones to make phone calls, WhatsApp and text messages to
disseminate coronavirus messages in vernacular languages. Taking advantage of these platforms,

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chiefs can frequently encourage good hygiene, social distancing and quarantining of sick
villagers. As a state funded institution, with state fueled and provisioned vehicles, chiefs are
better resourced to travel across communities sharing preventative methods for the COVID-19

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disease. It is based on this assumption that the article views traditional leaders to be well-placed

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to combat coronavirus through the dissemination of credible COVID-19 information.

The institution of traditional leadership can be the primary link between rural communities and
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primary health providers in the fight against COVID-19. Humanitarian and societal norms often
require and expect organizations operating in rural areas to first of all inform local leadership of
their interventions. Government ministries and NGOs supporting community heath often
capitalize on local chiefs’ networks to effectively fight community problems and diseases. This
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also applies to the fight against coronavirus, where external organizations can depend on local
leaders in mobilizing people and rolling out awareness raising on the disease’s preventative
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measures. With their contacts and knowledge of their respective areas, local leaders can mobilize
and link external experts to key persons who can strategically cascade information to wider
society and help combat the deadly COVID-19.
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Similarly, Information Education and Communication (IEC) materials on COVID-19 prevention

measures and symptoms can be distributed to traditional leaders for onward circulation in their
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respective communities. For them to effectively distribute such materials, chiefs can take
advantage of their decentralized structures (headmen and village heads) and messengers to place
posters at strategic community points such as schools, health centers, shops, dip-tanks,
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community water sources and even on trees for easy reach to community members. A study by

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770
 Walsh et al (2018) found how community health workers and NGOs operating in rural Malawi

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relied on chiefs for delivering services to communities including the distribution of IEC
materials. In the Malawi based study, traditional leaders also offered free transport for the sick to
access health facilities. Concomitantly, local chiefs can also provide isolation rooms and food

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from their Zunde RaMambo (chiefs’ granaries) schemes to feed COVID-19 patients in isolation
and health centres. These interventions by traditional leaders can go a long in combating the
spread COVID-19 pandemic in rural communities.

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When national lockdowns are enforced by governments, traditional leaders can interpret to
ruralites and monitor compliance to such declarations while taking cognizance of their local
contexts. Thus, the information will get to reach varied religious, traditional and customary

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groups to provide guidance as to how they need to compromise their activities under lock-down

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periods and until the disease is combated. Expectedly, traditional leaders can negotiate with
communities to cancel some functions and to reduce numbers of attendees to critical functions
and meetings. Moreover, local leaders can emphasize the need to observe hygiene and social
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distancing during these crucial community funerals and gatherings. Likewise, local leaders are
well-placed to interpret national and WHO COVID-19 guidelines and advise subjects on the
implications of such declarations to local cultures and traditions. In cases where local
communities clash with health officials, and the government, traditional leaders will be there to
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mediate, strike balance, make their communities compromise for effective implementation of
COVID preventive measures.
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The potential of traditional leaders to combat COVID-19 lies in their power and coercive
abilities to enforce preventative measures. Traditional leaders derive their powers from laws,
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tradition and customs to sanction and fine community members that fail to abide by set COVID-
19 guidelines. With their decentralized structures, chiefs are able to oversee, enforce and track
non-compliance to set COVID-19 curfews in their areas of jurisdiction. For failing to comply, a
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community member can be summoned to the local leader’s court for reprimanding or fine
payment. Depending on the gravity of the matter, traditional leaders can demand those found
guilty of contravening guidelines by giving the leader a cow, goat and chicken or money
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equivalent to the value of the charged livestock. These fear inducing fines and coercion have for

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770
 long been relied on to govern affairs in rural communities, and will go a long way to make

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communities comply with COVID 19 preventative measures.

4. Impending challenges of traditional leaders in combating COVID-19

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Despite the much touted potential of traditional leaders in curbing the deadly COVID-19 in rural
areas, there exist many barriers in need of concrete solutions. One such barrier relates to their
limited knowledge amid fear about COVID-19. With news from across the globe showing
patterns of transmission and rate of coronavirus contagion, many people’s sense of safety has

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been disturbed. The fear in many people including traditional leaders is worsened by the fact that
WHO is yet to confirm a cure for this pandemic. Thus, this makes many of the local leaders fear

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to move around relaying COVID-19 information to communities. Amid these fears, the activities
of such leaders will be limited to virtual activities including phone calls and messages to
decentralized community leaders.
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The ability of traditional leaders to curb the spread of COVID-19 rural areas hinges on their
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improved capabilities. The ability of local leaders to comprehend and be able to effectively
disseminate COVID-19 information is also compromised by the high levels of illiteracy amongst
these leaders. Appointment to chieftainship is hereditary in Zimbabwe, and does not take into
consideration one’s educational attainment. Hence, a majority of chiefs are uneducated and often
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find it difficult to comprehend, disseminate, let alone to demystify controversies surrounding the
outbreak and prevention of COVID-19 in their communities.
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Well-informed traditional leaders can potentially play crucial roles in reducing the spread of
infectious diseases including COVID-19 and Ebola (Manguvo & Mafuvadze 2015). Efforts by
the office of the President of Zimbabwe and the COVID-19 Taskforce to have met, disseminated
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and enlightened some chiefs on the pandemic at State House in Harare on 4 April 2020 are
therefore commendable. It was, however, prudent if the initiative had reached all chiefs and took
more time than just being a half day meeting to effectively impart knowledge to traditional
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leaders.

The inadequacy of traditional leaders to fight COVID-19 in rural areas is compounded by

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resource constraints. Despite them having motor vehicles and fuel to perform these roles, local

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770
 leaders have limited access to IEC materials for distribution and easy awareness in respective

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communities.

Concomitantly, traditional leaders lack protective clothing (overalls, gloves and face masks) and
sanitizers for use whilst performing their duties. The inadequacy of protective clothing for health

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officials in Zimbabwe speaks volumes of the challenges for other institutions such as traditional
leaders in rural areas. Access to protective clothing was going to enhance the ability of
traditional leaders to disseminate COVID-19 information in communities. Likewise, access to
sanitizers ensures distribution in communities for realization of proper and hygienic practices at

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community level gathering including funerals.

Another barrier to traditional leaders’ increased and influential role in fighting COVID -19

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relates to strong religious and cultural overtones. Some leaders and their communities cling on to
strong religious and traditional beliefs that may affect the fight against COVID- 19. In many
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orthodox religious and traditional communities, the ability by congregants to discontinue
gatherings, something that is inherently human and traditional to them is a bit challenging.
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Evidently, the ultra-orthodox Hasidic Jewish communities in Israel continue to disregard calls
for social distancing despite explosive coronavirus infection rates (Smith 2020). In times of
pandemics, such traditions require communities to come together and perform rituals to their
supposed angry ancestors to intervene in dealing with such calamities.
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A clash of cultures and mistrust is also likely to arise between health officials and rural
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communities regarding the burial of relatives who succumb to COVID-19. Burials for COVID-
19 victims like those for Ebola death are supposed to be rapidly done by trained health officials,
sometimes without relatives’ consent (Manguvo and Mafuvadze 2015). This contradicts many
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local cultures, a situation that is likely to brew conflicts between health officials and rural
communities. At the peak of the Ebola outbreaks in West Africa, communities suspected and
linked the rapid burial of their deceased relatives without their consent to the need by medical
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professionals to use corpses for nefarious purposes (Manguvo and Mafuvadze 2015).
Resultantly, communities attacked health officials and barred them from executing required
scientific measures aimed at combatting the spread of the disease.
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This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770
 With increased misinformation about COVID-19 on social media, many religious and traditional

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communities are skeptical about the need for social distancing and are not prepared to rely on
conventional medical methods in dealing with coronavirus. Expectedly, there will be a vaccine to
cure or rather mitigate the effects of COVID-19. However, many orthodox groups will find it

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difficult to utilize prescribed vaccines due to their beliefs and over reliance on traditional
medicine and divine interventions. In Nigeria, some communities boycotted polio vaccination
campaigns amidst rumors that the vaccine contained infertility drugs that resulted in HIV/AIDS
and polio-myelitis (Manguvo & Mafuvadze 2015). In Zimbabwe, such groups include the Johane

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Marange sects, who have always been at loggerheads with health officials for discouraging their
members from seeking formal health care.

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5. Conclusion

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The ability of Zimbabwe and African countries to contain and manage the spread of pandemics
such as COVID-19 in rural areas requires concerted efforts of varied stakeholders including local
traditional leaders. As the custodians of culture and tradition, traditional leaders play tremendous
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roles in preventing and managing pandemics such as COVID-19 and Ebola in rural communities.
With their decentralized structures, traditional leaders are potential partners to localize the global
and national measures to combat COVID-19 in rural areas. Taking advantage of state provided
resources, access to reliable information and the respect they command in rural areas, traditional
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leaders are positioned to raise awareness and dispel rumors, mistruths and myths which often
spread faster on social media about COVID-19. Traditional leaders are also strategically
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positioned to institute a regime of prevention methods including the promotion of good hygienic
practices, enforcement of lockdowns and restrictions of social gatherings in communities even
before the pandemic strikes.
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However, the potential of traditional leaders in fighting COVID-19 depends on the availability of
resources including protective clothing and sanitizers for use and onward distribution to their
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structures, and the wider community. One way to improve traditional leader’s adequacies is
through empowering them with equipment and COVID- 19 IEC materials in vernacular language
for onward distribution in respective communities. The article also implores for intensive
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capacitation of all chiefs and their structures on the COVID-19, and forging of partnerships
between such traditional leaders with formal health professions for increased community

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This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770
 preventative and management measures including in the burial of those who succumb to the

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disease.

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 Title page information

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Prospects and Challenges for traditional leaders in combating COVID-19 pandemic in rural
Zimbabwe

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Author names and affiliations.

Cowen Dziva, Nehanda Centre for Gender and Cultural Studies, Great Zimbabwe University,
P.O. Box 1235, Old Great Zimbabwe Road, Masvingo, Zimbabwe

Abstract

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The outbreak of the deadly COVID-19 disease caused by Coronavirus has drawn the attention of
researchers and policy makers to interrogate the utility of institutions in combating the pandemic.
This study adds to the emerging literature by elucidating the potential of traditional leaders in

r
localizing the fight against Coronavirus in rural Zimbabwe. As custodians and enforcers of

er
traditional customs and values, endogenous leaders are widely relied on and respected in rural
communities such that their encouragements, orders and coercive means can positively combat
the deadly virus. With the fear for punishment in the form of cursing or rather be ostracized,
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ruralites often listen and abides to traditional leaders’ calls and pleas to stay at home, practice
personal hygiene and social distancing. Based on these cutting edge advantages, chiefs and their
decentralized structures can be relied on in community mobilization, awareness raising,
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dispelling pandemic rumors and myths, vaccine utilization and in pushing for compromization of
measures incompatible with local traditions and cultural values and norms. The article vouches
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for resourcing and capacitation of traditional leaders to effectively realize their capacities in
combating COVID-19 in rural areas.
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Keywords

Combat; Traditional leaders, coronavirus; rural areas; social distancing; education

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Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the reviewers for this journal for finding time to review this
article.
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This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770
 Funding

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This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial,
or not-for-profit sectors.

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This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599770