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BUILDING PHYSICS
Stavebná fakulta
BUILDING PHYSICS
Stavebná fakulta
2
Building Physics – Module 1
ISBN 978-80-553-1261-3
3
Building Physics – Module 1
4
Building Physics – Module 1
Content 5
Module 1 Content, mission, entry conditions for passing the module, bibliography 5
1. Introduction to Building Physics, steady state temperature, calculation of temperature,
evaluation of homogeneous, multilayer structures and structures with air cavities 8
1.1 Basic physical factors 11
1.1.1 Criterions for assesment 11
1.1.2 Physical units 12
1.1.3 Conversion of units – multiples and submultiples 15
1.1.4 Factors affecting the thermal properties of building materials 15
1.2 Development of the Department of Building Thermal Engineering 16
1.3 Basic models of heat transfer 17
1.3.1 Conduction 18
1.3.2 Convection 20
1.3.3 Radiation 21
1.3.4 Transition 24
1.4 Calculation and graphical determination of temperature rates in the construction 27
1.5 Inhomogeneous structures 29
1.6 Air cavities 31
1.6.1 Enclosed air cavities 31
1.6.2. Opened air cavities 32
Self-evaluation questions, Summary 35
2. The concept of building envelope in terms of thermal transient response, moisture
tolerance, thermal effusivity of the floor 36
2.1 Thermal transient response 36
2.1.1 Detailed analysis of thermal transient response 37
2.1.2 Schimdt´s differential method of heat conduction differential equation solution 39
2.1.3 Temperature damping 40
2.1.4 Phase shift of temperature damping amplitude 43
2.2 Moisture tolerance at the envelope level at night 44
2.2.1 Humidity sources 44
2.2.2 Air humidity 45
2.2.3 Vapour diffusion 47
2.2.4 Interstitial condensation 47
2.2.5 Consequences and requirements for the building fabric 53
2.2.6 Building fabric evaluation of moisture limiting 56
2.3 Floor constructions performance 58
2.3.1 Building Physics´ performance of the floor 59
2.3.2 Thermal effusivity performances of floor structures 60
2.3.3 Decrease in contact surface temperature of floor 62
2.3.4 Floor above grade 67
5
Building Physics – Module 1
6
Building Physics – Module 1
∆
Mission
Module 1 mission is to introduce students to the issue of building physics and building
thermal engineering. Building physics consists of several disciplines such as
construction, urban and spatial acoustics, daylighting and insolation of buildings,
aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, water-proofing technology, optics etc. In the first part,
which deals with the issues of building thermal engineering, are solved issues of
thermal protection of buildings. The mission is to pass and gain knowledge that affect
the design, evaluation and assessment of building structures for thermal protection, i.e.
design of building envelope (exterior, roofs, transparent parts - windows, doors; and
the floor above grade) with aim to create a suitable heat-air-moisture microclimate.
δ
Entry conditions for passing the module
Knowledge gained from 1st year:
B-501101 Civil engineering,
B-502102 Building materials,
B-502103 Building and environment,
B-502177 Architectural drawing.
Bibliography
1. Hagentoft, C. E. Introduction to Building Physics, Studentlitteratur AB, 2001.
2. HENS, H. Building Physics – Heat, Air and Moisture, 2007.
3. HENS, H. Applied Building Physics, Boundary Conditions, Building Performance and
Material Properties, 2010.
4. Pitts, D., Sissom L. E. Schaum's Outline of Heat Transfer, Mcgraw-Hill Professional,
2011.
5. Incropera, F., Dewitt, D. Introduction to Heat Transfer, John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
6. BLOMBERG, T.: Heat conduction in two and three dimensions computer modeling
of building physics applications, 1996.
7
Building Physics – Module 1
∆
Mission
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce students to the problems of building
physics describing its basic parts, which are the building thermal technology,
daytime running lights and building acoustics. The entire section is devoted to the
construction of heating technology. The mission is to describe the evolution of
structures and the internal environment of the construction of thermal equipment
and basic chapter give way to spread the heat in homogeneous and
inhomogeneous, multilayer packaging structures possible in structures with air
cavities (open and closed).
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should know:
- Describe the basic physical factors to explain the basic physical units of
shares and multiples,
- Basic methods of heat transfer, heat flow density,
- Explain the basic criteria for evaluation of structures in terms of steady-state
temperature (UTS),
- Assess building structures homogeneous, heterogeneous, multi-layer,
- To assess the structure using open and closed air spaces.
ζ
Introduction
Buildings are inextricably linked with the natural environment must therefore be
designed to meet the criteria imposed on them. Last but not least is the thermal
protection of buildings. The building is to create a suitable internal environment,
among others Hygrothermal microclimate. This environment is made up of not only
building structures as well as technology environment (hardware installations of
buildings - heat, heating, cooling, ventilation, air conditioning, etc.).
This part of the physics building will be devoted to the description of processes in
nature (heat and moisture flow, the movement of matter (air) - on the basis of
temperature, humidity, pressure and their changes.
The first chapter is devoted only to idealized steady thermal state, i.e. such a state
when the temperature change with time.
8
Building Physics – Module 1
A
Key to symbols and abbreviations
b
symbol value unit
θg
calculation of soil temperature adjacent to the
°C
building structures
θm,e average annual ambient temperature °C
amplitude of temperature fluctuations on the soil o
(θ ni)0 C
surface
θp average temperature at the depth of soil °C
θsi,80
critical surface temperature on the formation of
°C
mold
λ thermal conductivity W/(m.K)
λn thermal conductivity of unfrozen soils W/(m.K)
λz thermal conductivity of frozen soils W/(m.K)
ν propagation speed of thermal waves m/s
νa air velocity m/s
ρ
3
density kg/m
ρs
3
density of dry soil kg/m
χ point thermal transmittance W/K
Ψ linear thermal transmittance W/(m.K)
Ψg
linear thermal transmittance of contact walls and
W/(m.K)
floors
Ψg,e
linear thermal transmittance for marginal thermal
W/(m.K)
insulation floor
wm mass of soil moisture %
φ relative humidity %
basic heat loss heat transfer
Qo W
(STN 06 0210)
9
Building Physics – Module 1
Λ
(surface) thermal transmittance (surface) thermal 2
W/(m .K)
conductivity
number of harmonics in the measured curve of
n -
periodic temperature fluctuations
P perimeter floor m
2
R thermal resistance (construction) m .K/W
normalized value of thermal resistance 2
RN m .K/W
(construction)
2
Rse thermal resistance on the outside of construction m .K/W
2
Rsi thermal resistance on the inside of construction m .K/W
2
Rsg thermal resistance on the outside (ground) m .K/W
s (w) thickness of the peripheral (outer) walls m
t time (time) s
t´ period of temperature fluctuations h, deň, rok
2
U Thermal transmittance W/(m .K)
thermal transmittance of the floor without 2
U0 W/(m .K)
boundary insulation (base value)
2
UN normalized value of thermal transmittance W/(m .K)
X depth m
10
Building Physics – Module 1
Temperature, light and sound are among the physical factors of the environment in buildings where a long
and active again. Therefore, a temperature has significant impact on working and resting, ultimately the
health of users of building. Nowadays people spend most of their time indoors.
According to WHO (World Health Organization), it is up to 90%. The design and construction of buildings is
to create an environment whose parameters should be for humans:
- More favorable than the state of the natural environment outdoors.
- Construction and building protects us:
from extremes of temperature,,
moisture,
excessive noise.
In contrast, allows:
access to daylight into the interior,
and where necessary - sunlight into the interior,
building solution can also affect desirable listening to audio signals and
productions.
Physical factors are not only for users of the building but the building itself, its construction and the
equipment. In this regard, individual departments of construction physics differ significantly:
The sound is perceived by hearing of living organisms including humans, while the influence on the
construction in this case is virtually eliminated
Daylight perceive visually living organisms including humans, in this respect is also considered
daylight. In particular, direct solar radiation can sometimes affect the function and durability of structures
and objects are located in the interior due to temperature and chemical changes induced by the action of
ultraviolet and infrared components of sunlight
Temperature affects the hygrothermal state of the environment and in our latitudes (climates) is
associated with energy demand for heating (cooling). Therefore, thermal engineering design of the building
significantly affects fuel economy of the building, because the temperature is very closely related to the
transition structures of water vapor (water vapor diffusion), condensation of water vapor, resulting in effects
on engeneering solution, the function of structures and their life.
Knowing the importance of physical factors leading to create the gradually need for legislation to control the
state of environment in buildings. Selected physical quantities are: sanitary regulations, technical
standards as set out criteria for assessing buildings and their external environment and their ability to
ensure the protection status or influence.
11
Building Physics – Module 1
value is closely related to exposure evaluation of physical factors on the construction and building
users. Sound and light are evaluated solely in terms of their effect on humans.
• The criteria therefore reflect the degree of influence of acoustic and visual comfort and
health of people using the building.
• They can’t therefore describe only the actual physical phenomena (sound, light), but not
necessarily respond to the physiological and psychological circumstances of human perception of these
phenomena. Account of the sensitivity of sensory organs (hearing and vision).
The design of the building is reasonably available and reasonably accurate method of predicting values
of demanding criteria calculation, which takes into account all relevant factors affecting the value of the
criteria.
To put the building into a permanent use for the current control is suitably challenging and reasonably
accurate method of control values, criteria for measuring the realized buildings.
Criteria for the limit values to be fair to all participants of construction investment, ie particularly
compatible with the relevant provisions of the Civil Code. Using criteria to effectively contribute to the health
and quality of life for building users and users of premises and their surroundings. In developing the criteria
and the establishment of limit values is necessary to exclude all other interests than the efforts to ensure an
optimal environment in buildings.
Comply with all requirements imposed on the criteria is not easy.
Each of the criteria are appropriate limits. These can be basically threefold nature:
the lowest (minimum) required value (napr. č.d.o. D %)
the highest (maximum) acceptable – (napr. the equivalent sound pressure level LAeq (dB))
acceptable range (interval value) - a standard reverberation time T (s)
The limit value is a criterion that at any given time in the company and the territory is considered
borderline between satisfactory and unsatisfactory condition. The choice is always a compromise. Basic
criteria imposed on the building structures. According to the Act. no. 50/1976 those are:
- mechanical resistance and stability of the structure,
- fire safety of buildings,
- hygiene and health and the environment,
- security building with its use,
- protection against noise and vibration,
- energy efficiency and heat buildings.
Basic physical SI units are meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, candela and supplementary
units radian, steradian.
12
Building Physics – Module 1
B. single name
• coulomb (electric charge ) : C / s.A
-2 -1 4 2
• farad (capacity ) : F / m .kg .s .A
-1
• hertz (frequency ) : Hz / s
2 -2
• joule (energy work) : J / m .kg.s
-2
• lux ( light ) : lx / m .cd.sr
-2
• newton ( force ) : N / m.kg.s
-1 -2
• pascal (pressure) : Pa / m .kg.s
-2 -1 3 2
• siemens (electrical conductivity) : S / m .kg .s .A
2 -3 -1
• volt (voltage) : V / m .kg.s .A
2 -3
• watt ( power) : W / m .kg.s
C. by unit
outside the SI, but the so-called. legal entity permitted by standard hours., min., h, l, t, and so on.
• time : minute ( min) 1 min = 60 s
hour ( h ) 1 h = 3 600 s
day (d) 1 d = 86 400 s
2
• surface area: hectare (ha) 1 ha = 10 000 m
3 -3 3
• volume : liter ( l) 1 l = 1 dm = 10 m
3
• weight : tonne (t) 1 t = 10 kg
• temperature : Celsius degree (°c) T = t + 273,15 K
T .. thermodynamic temperature
13
Building Physics – Module 1
water boiling
temperature
room temperature
water freezing
temperature
The comparison
0 °C or 273 K
0 K or – 273 °C
VACUUM
SEA LEVEL AIR PRESSURE
MERCURY
AIR
PRESSURE
MERCURY
Combination of units
6
• work : kilowatt-hour (kWh) 1 kWh = 3,6.10 J
14
Building Physics – Module 1
-1 -1
• speed: kilometer per hour 1 km.hod = 0,27 m.s
-1 3 -3
• density: 1 kilogram per liter 1 kg.l = 10 kg.m
Ab
Glossary the text 1.1
Definitions
candela – the intensity of black body in a direction perpendicular to the surface, whose
2
size is 1 / 600 000 m , at a temperature of freezing platinum under a pressure of 101 328
pascals.
radian - plane angle is sandwiched by two radial ray that Vytina arc of a circle has the
same length as its radius.
steradian – the cone angle, with a peak in the center of the sphere Vytina surface of a
sphere with a surface equal to the square of the radius.
The limit value is a criterion that at any given time in the company and the territory is
considered borderline between satisfactory and unsatisfactory condition. The choice is
always a compromise.
The tables provides an overview of the multiples and submultiples of units used, the meaning and
calculation of measures of length, volume and rate of conversion to m3, mass expression and conversion
2
of 1 kg, pressure units and conversion of Pa, as well as land units and their conversion to m .
The „λ“ depend mainly on the structure and building materials. It can still be influenced by:
1. density – that is to say the content of the pores in the mass of the substance
15
Building Physics – Module 1
λθ = λθ=0 . (1 + 0,0025 . θ)
4. direction of heat flow in layered substances in the direction perpendicular to the value „λ“
less than in a direction parallel
Thermal conductivity "λ" as you can see there is a constant value, is influenced by many factors. Therefore,
it must be defined according to certain rules - according to EN ISO 10456th To ensure the thermal
properties of building structures and thermal protection of buildings in the construction equipping of thermal
insulation. Certified products have the certificate of conformity with the thermal conductivity "λ" expressed
the declared value, but to characterize the products built in the state of the specific boundary conditions is
necessary to establish the design - the calculated value of the coefficient of thermal conductivity "λ".
declared value of thermal variables - expected values of thermal properties of building material or product
(product certification)
♦ estimated from measured data at reference conditions of temperature and humidity
The certificate of conformity according to the declared value must be alleged in one of two sets of conditions
o o
with reference temperature + 10 C (I) or + 23 C (II) and the moisture content corresponding to the steady-
state moisture sorption (conditioning at least 6 hours before the test) relative humidity of 50%. Declared
o
values are given mostly at+ 23 C v II. grup.
Building Thermal Engineering Department is dealing with thermal protection of structures and buildings.
Science dealing with the heat-technical issues of building structures. It deals with the general spread of
heat, mass transfer of moisture, the accumulation of heat, moisture conditions and prievzdušnosťou.
16
Building Physics – Module 1
I. stage of development
to 1950 - Heavy, Material - classic brick exterior walls with a weight m > 500 kg/m2
since 1950 - External walls - panels of silicate-based direction with a weight between 100 to
500 kg/m2
since 1960 - Assembled and light prefabrication - exterior walls with a weight m < 100 kg/m2
V. stage of development
reduction of total energy (heat demand for heating, hot water, lighting, etc.).
Fig. 3 The development of science of the Building Thermal Engineering Department and other
constructions
∆θ = θ1 – θ2 ≠ 0
Heat is spread in any environment is always from higher temperature to lower temperature.
a Conduction – conduction
b Convection – convection
c Radiation – radiation
d Transition – transmissions
17
Building Physics – Module 1
1.3.1 Conduction
Heat is spread mainly in solids, in liquids and gases only under certain conditions. It's the gradual transfer of
kinetic energy oscillations of one molecule (around the equilibrium position) when striking the second
molecule. This energy is gradually transferred from the direction of higher energy state (high temperature) to
lower.
q – heat flow
Φ
q= 2
[W/m ]
A
at θ1 > θ2
dθ
q≈ = grad θ
dx
18
Building Physics – Module 1
Fourier law:
∂θ ∂ 2θ
= a. 2
∂t ∂x
dθ
q = − λ. = − λ .grad θ 2
[ W/m ]
dx
θ1 − θ 2 θ −θ2
Q= λ. . A.t = 1 . A.t
d R
Thermal resistance
d 2
R= [ m .K/W ]
λ
represents the amount of heat in the "J", which moves in direction "1 sec" through the material (s) thickness
∆θ = θ1 – θ2 = 1 K [ W/(m .K)]
a – thermal diffusivity
λ 2
a=
c.ρ
[m /s ]
19
Building Physics – Module 1
1.3.2 Convection
The heat spreads only in fluids, so that the particles of substances move - move while transmitting heat.
Local heating or cooling of air causes the movement of particles
⇒ natural (free) convection. The natural air movement is bounded by the speed of movement.
20
Building Physics – Module 1
q = hk . (θs – θa)
2
[ W/m ]
α k .l
= c.(Gr . Pr )
n
Nuselt´s number Nu =
λ
β .g .l 3 .∆θ
Gr =
ϑ
Grashof´s number
heat flux
ϑ
Prandtl´s number Pr =
a
β=
1
273
1.3.3 Radiation
Heat radiation is dependent on the thermal state of body and character of its surface.
Radiation heat transfer - the transfer of electromagnetic waves with a length of about 760-3000 nm. Radiant
bodies ability at a given temperature is limited by the maximum value. At the same temperature or the same
substance (bodies) do not have the ability radiant.
Φ α Φ ρ Φτ
+ + = α+ρ+τ=1
Φ Φ Φ
α - absorption of radiation
ρ - ray reflectivity
τ - throughput radiation
21
Building Physics – Module 1
The density of radiant energy flow - describes the radiation of absolutely black bodies
⇒ qč = Cč .T
4 2
Stefan - Boltzmann law [W/m ]
In fact, they occur in nature only "gray" - real bodies that are unable to absorb all radiant energy incident
wave.
The ratio between the radiant flux density gray body "qs" radiant flux intensity and black body "qč" is the
qs
emissivity ε=
qč
Every body that has power ⇒ its surface radiates this energy into the environment. On the surface of
another body there is a decomposition of the re-radiating energy and the mutual influence of the radiation
energy of the body. The mutual radiation consists of multiple repetition of absorbing and passing on the
22
Building Physics – Module 1
Fig. 10 Heat transfer by radiation to A / Parallel walls, B / put arbitrary surfaces - surface surrounded by a
surface A1 A2 Φ1-2 = Cvs . A1 . (T14 - T24 ) . ϕ 1,2
if A1 / A2 very small
⇒ Cvs = C1
23
Building Physics – Module 1
Ab
Glossary of Text 1.3
Definitions
represents the amount of heat in the „J“, which moves in direction „1 sek“ hrough the
material (s) thickness „1 m“ from warmer places to colder temperature difference
∆θ = θ1 – θ2 = 1 K [ W/(m .K)]
Density (specific) heat capacity„c“ - shows how much heat in the „J“ s to be added
to the unit amount of substance in „kg“ („m3“), was heated to about o 1 K.
Q = c . m. (θ2 – θ1 ) [J]
Q
c=
m.∆t
3
physical dimension [J/(kg.K)] alebo [J/(m .K)]
1.3.4 Transition
If the temperature at various points of the body - structure constant over time, then such a state is said
∆θ = θ1 - θ2 ≠ 0 ⇒ tructure passes through the heat flow direction from higher to lower temperatures. The
density of heat flux "q" passing through the structure is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between air „∆θa“ and further depends on the thermal properties of partition structures
24
Building Physics – Module 1
θi = const.
θe = const.
θi > θe
q ∼ θi - θe
q = U . (θi - θe)
q = qi = qv = qe
Temperature gradient indicates that the temperature drop is from a higher temperature „θi“ already on the
internal surface „θsi“, inside structure „θx“, on the outer surface „θse“ to the outside temperature „θe“. This
resistance of structure to the transfer of heat flow is called Thermal resistance ⇒ Thermal resistance of
structures in terms of transition of heat – which is made of:
25
Building Physics – Module 1
1 1 1 1
Rse = = 2
[m .K/W] Rsi = = 2
[m .K/W]
qe he qi hi
θ si − θ se ∆θ ∆θ
qv = λ .
2
= = [W/m ]
d d R
λ
surface thermal conductivity
λ
Λv = L =
1 2
= [W/m K]
R d
∑λ ∑R
d k dj k
2
R= = = [m .K/W]
λ
j
j =1 j j =1
How much heat passed through the crossing structure, given the characteristics of the interior to the
exterior?
1
qi = hi . (θi –θsi ) ⇒ . qsi = Rsi . qi = (θi –θsi )
hi
26
Building Physics – Module 1
θ si − θ se θ si − θ se
. qv = R . qv = (θsi – θse )
d
qv = = ⇒
d R λ
λ
1
qe = he . (θse – θe ) ⇒ . qse = Rse . qe = (θse – θe )
he
1 d 1
q.( + + ) = q . ( Rsi + Rj + Rse )
hi λ he
⇒ q . Ro = (θi – θe )= q/U
θi − θe
q= = U . (θi – θe)
Ro
1 q
⇒
2
θi − θe
U= = [ W/(m .K) ]
Ro
thermal transmittance of the structure – „U“
It expresses the amount of heat in the „J“, which passes per time unit in the “s“ from a warmer environment
over a given area in „m “ to a cooler environment in terms of temperature difference ∆θ = 1 K. - [ W / m .K ].
2 2
The equality of heat flow densities in the construction we give computation of temperatures at steady state
temperature.
27
Building Physics – Module 1
θ si − θ se
q = U . (θi – θe) = hi . (θi –θsi ) = = he . (θse –θe )
d
λ
θ si − θ x θ si − θ x
q = U . (θi – θe) = =
dx Rx
λ
θx = θsi - U . (θi – θe) . Rx
together to determine the temperature at any point of construction „θx“ from the source computing in
temperature between the interior and exterior „θi – θe“
28
Building Physics – Module 1
Ab
Glossary of text 1.4
Definitions
It expresses the amount of heat in the „J“, which passes per unit time in
2
the “s“ from a warm environment over a given area in a design unit „m “ to a cooler
environment for a temperature difference ∆θ = 1 K. - [ W / m .K ]
2
Proper selection of the structure is divided into sections parallel to the direction of heat flow (single-layer,
multi-layer), assuming that the sections do not affect each other. Representation of individual sections is
expressed by the areal proportion of the total area of selection fa + fb + fc = 1
Further characteristic design selection is divided into layers perpendicular to the direction of heat flow
(homogeneous, heterogeneous)
layers
sections
The upper limit of resistance to heat transfer is determined by assuming one-dimensional heat flow
perpendicular to the surface sections of the building structure
29
Building Physics – Module 1
1 fa fb fc
= + +
RT/ RTa RTb RTc
where d5 = d6 = d2 + d3
d1 d6 d4
λ1a λ6 a λ4 a
RTa = Rsi + R1a + R6a + R4a+ Rse = Rsi + + + + Rse
d1 d2 d3 d4
λ1b λ2b λ3b λ4b
RTb = Rsi + R1b + R2b + R3b + R4b+ Rse = Rsi + + + + + Rse
d1 d5 d4
λ1c λ5c λ4c
RTc = Rsi + R1c + R5c + R4c+ Rse = Rsi + + + + Rse
The lower limit of resistance to heat transfer is determined by assuming that all parallel planes (layers) of
the building structure surfaces are isothermal
In the diagram is 1. a 4. layer is homogeneous throughout the section with layers behind
d1 d4 2
λ1 λ4
R1 = R4 = [m .K/W]
it is advisable to first determine for each inhomogeneous layer in the whole area of the equivalent thermal
//
conductivity „λ “
d2
λ 2 = λ6a . fa + λ2b . fb + λ5c . fc
λ//2
//
R2 =
RT/ + RT// 1
RT = [m2.K/W] 30 U= [W/ (m2.K)]
2 RT
Building Physics – Module 1
This approximate procedure for determining the structure of resistance to heat transfer is
appropriate if the criteria are respected for the accuracy of the calculated heat transfer design. The
relative error „e“ of this process is determined by calculating.
RT/ + RT//
e= .100 < 20 %
2 . RT
1.6 Air cavities
The air has very little value „λ“ ⇒ good and cheap thermal insulation material
Air as a liquid substance with specific properties, allowing all modes of heat transfer under certain boundary
conditions
Here they combine all three modes of heat transfer ie conduction, convection (transfer) and radiation.
q= qv + qk + qr
31
Building Physics – Module 1
where
λ
qv = .(θ1 – θ2 )
d vv
heat transfer „hk“ depends on the width of the air cavity „d“. In narrow cavities may occur that hk = 0. When
increasing the width of the cavity increases air flow and increases the „hk“. For more accurate expression
„hk“ methodology is used similarity numbers
n
Nu = C . (Gr . Pr)
qs = hs . (θ1 – θ2 )
d vv
⇒
λekv
2
thermal resistance of air cavity Rvv = [m .K/W]
horizintal
vertical
32
Building Physics – Module 1
- Different density
caused by temperature
∆pv =A . 0,5 . v . ρm
2
∆p = ∆pv + ∆pθ
Q3 = Q1 – Q2
33
Building Physics – Module 1
Of temperature in a horizontal open air roof cladding layer is determined mainly at determining the possible
condensation.
U +Ue
A0 + [θ o .(U i + U e ) − A0 ]. exp − i .x
θx =
Gm .c
Ui +Ue
where A0 = Ui . θi . + Ue . θe
Note: For general purposes of calculating the thermal resistance of double-roof with a sufficient margin to
considering only the thermal resistance of the lower mantle roof structure. Orientation for current
2
computational methods are thermal resistance of air layer with Rev = 0,08 m .K/W.
If the air layer is sealed against the surroundings, or with small holes with the arrangement so that there is
no airflow in the air layer and cross-sectional area „Aot“. They are used tabulated values of „Rg“.
2
– Aot < 500 mm for each “bm” dĺžky he length of the vertical air layer, or
2 2
– Aot < 500 mm for each “m ” horizontal air layer
If the air exchange with the outside environment through openings made with cross-sectional „Aot“
2 2
– 500 mm < Aot < 1500 mm for each “bm” the length of the vertical air layer, or
2 2 2
– 500 mm < Aot < 1500 mm for each “m ” horizontal air layer
34
Building Physics – Module 1
If the air exchange with the outside environment through openings made with cross-sectional area „Aot“
2
– 1500 mm < Aot for each “bm” the length of the vertical air layer, or
2 2
– 1500 mm < Aot for each “m ” horizontal air layer
In that event, the note referred to the balance of horizontal layers of air.
Self-evaluation questions
? 1. Describe the basic physical factors that create the internal environment of
buildings. What are the limits to the assessment of building structures and indoor
environment in terms of construction of heating technology.
2. What are the basic methods of heat transfer. How do you calculate the density
of heat flow in various ways to spread the heat.
3. Describe the basic criteria for the assessment of structures in terms of steady-
state temperature and define them.
Σ
Summary
Buildings are inextricably linked with the natural environment must therefore be
designed to create suitable building has indoor environment including thermal-
moisture microclimate. The Chapter is devoted to the assessment, calculation of
criteria that are placed on buildings in terms of thermal insulation of buildings.
The first is to explain the basic physical units, their multiples, calculation,
comparison. The entire chapter is devoted to thermal steady state, ie such a
case, when the temperature in indoor environments or in exterior change. Task is
to assess the packaging structures, ie claddings, roofs and according to the
homogeneous one mA multi-layer, also using air cavities, but also the evaluation
of structures that are heterogeneous and can be assessed when considering
jednorzmerného heat distribution in a fragment of such structures.
35
Building Physics – Module 1
∆
Role
The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize students with the concept and design of
Building Structures in terms of transient thermal state, i.e. state when the temperature
varies with time. Since expression of this state is quite difficult and mathematically
impossible, evaluate design in terms of so-called quasi - stationary temperature state,
i.e., temperature varies only in the external environment. Within the calculation and
evaluation remains virtually constant. This is a review of packaging structures that are
exposed to the external environment, i.e. perimeter, roof deck and the ground floor. In
terms of transient conditions are also evaluated packing structures when exposed to
moisture conditions and evaluates the annual balance of condensed and evaporated
moisture to water vapor diffusion.
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should know:
- Evaluate building design in terms of transient thermal state
- Humidity regime, i.e., condensed and evaporated moisture by diffusion of water vapor in
the annual session
- Rate floor design in terms of trapping heat in the building
- Rate floor design in terms of thermal techniques for field
ζ
Introduction
In this chapter we will address the design and creation of construction building envelope
structures. Gradually, we will explain what it is unstable temperature condition, what are
the evaluation criteria, such as packaging design are evaluated in terms of heat storage,
heat absorption, the floor in terms of trapping heat, resulting in the evaluation of the
thermal inertia of building structures and their impact on internal environment of buildings.
Practically it can demonstrate to the specific example of heating the body over time. The body moved to a
warmer environment will gradually begin to heat.
36
Building Physics – Module 1
Temperature - Ɵ
θs - surface temperature
Time - t
For homogeneous and isotropic radiators heat transfer at the time describes the Fourier partial differential
equation of heat conduction
∂θ ∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ
= 2 + 2 + 2
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
a .
λ 2
ρ .c
with a= – thermal diffusivity [m /s]
For detailed analysis of thermal transient response need to find the dependence of temperature and heat
transfer in the amount of time at any place "x" housing - structures.
Assume that the heat spreads only in one direction (in flat structures perpendicular to the surface). This is
possible if we assume a sufficiently large area of the structure compared to its thickness. This is the most
common case in practice. In Figure 2 /:
dθ
σ1 = −
dx
−λ .
dθ
dQ1 = . A. dt [J]
dx
in section plane 2: temperature gradient “σ2”
37
Building Physics – Module 1
dθ
d θ + . dx
σ2 = −
dx
dx
dθ
d θ + . dx
dQ2 = − λ .
dx . A. dt [J]
dx
In section 1.
The heat flow passing through the first planes and 2 are not the same. Therefore in the layer of "dx" remains
a certain proportion of heat coming from the difference of heat flows.
dθ
dθ d θ + . dx
dQ = dQ1 - dQ2 = λ . (σ1 - σ2 ) A. dt = - λ − dx . A . dt
dx
dx
dθ dθ d 2θ d 2θ
dQ = - λ . dx − dx − 2 dx .A . dt = λ .
. A . dx . dt
dx dx 2
A.dx represents the product of a particular substance – density of material "ρ" and specific heat capacity "c"
in which the accumulated heat "dQ" difference of heat flows between the first planes and 2 As a result, the
time interval "dt" changed the temperature of the layer "x“.
38
Building Physics – Module 1
dθ d 2θ dθ λ d 2θ
dQ = A . dx . ρ . c . . dt = λ . . A . dx . dt ⇒
ρ .c
= .
dt dx 2 dt dx 2
λ
a – thermal effusivity ⇒ a =
2
ρ .c
with [m /s]
The practical tasks of modeling unsteady thermal state, using computer technology is used ⇒ Differential
method.
The simplest case is the solution of heat conduction in one-dimensional array with differential changes
∆θ ∆2θ
=a. 2
∆t ∆x
The left side of the differential equation – time change in temperature is first according to the time derivative
expressed in a differential form – according to the scheme
39
Building Physics – Module 1
∆θ θ x ,t +1 − θ x ,t
=
∆t ∆t
The right side – a local change in temperature has two first derivatives (in the middle layer "x")
∆θ θ x ,t − θ x −1,t ∆θ θ x +1,t − θ x ,t
left ⇒ = right ⇒ =
∆x − ∆x ∆x + ∆x
θ x ,t +1 − θ x ,t θ x + 1,t − 2 . θ x ,t + θ x − 1,t
= a.
∆t ∆x 2
adjustment equation for the unknown temperature at the "x" for “θ x,t+1” the elementary time increment “∆t”
2 . a . ∆t θ + θ x−1,t
. x+1,t − θ x ,t
∆x 2
θ x,t+1 - θx,t
=
2
δ constant δ/
2 . a . ∆t
δ = δ .
/
∆x 2
2 . a . ∆t
⇒
∆x 2
if =1
Once we receive final treatment relationship, which expresses the calculation or determination of
temperature at x but at the time t-1
θ x+1,t − θ x−1,t
θ x,t+1 =
2
40
Building Physics – Module 1
The outer temperature of the real environment is constantly changing, but every day we have a maximum
and a minimum ⇒ harmonic periodic action
External time variation of temperature causes the temperature fluctuations on the inner surface of the outer
partition structures ⇒ harmonic temperature changes in one-day period
How does the (fluctuating) temperature on the inner surface in relation to external temperature change
depends on the thermal storage properties of built-in materials
Bordering curves
ν - indicates how many times the temperature amplitude at the inner surface of the structure “Ais“ lower than
the amplitude of ambient temperature (outside air) “Ae“.
building construction is characterized in terms of thermal stability in the transient state. Thermal stability ≡
ability to maintain its temperature structural state at a time, then some time to external temperature changes
occurring in the inner surface of the decrease (increase) the surface temperature.
This design features is ⇒ thermal inertia
41
Building Physics – Module 1
h s h s 2.π
Θ = −i + . sinh . d + 1 + i cosh . d . λj . cj . ρ j . i
s
s he λ he λ
with sj =
t0
the complex shape of the absolute value of the temperature depression "Θ" is translated into real form using
D si + hi s 2 + U 1 s + U n −1 he + U n
ν = 0,7 . exp .
2 s1 + U 1 s 2 + U 2 sn + U n
. ..... n .
he
per layer Dj = Rj . sj
per layers:
D = ∑Dj = R1 . sj +R2 . s2 + R3 . s3 +. . . .
2.π
⇒
2
heat absorption of layer sj = . b j = 0,00853 . bj [W/(m .K)]
to
R j . s 2j + U j −1
Uj = s j for Dj = Rj . sj ≥ 1 Uj = for Dj = Rj . sj < 1
1 + R j . U j −1
U j −1
Per closed air cavity Uj =
1 + Rvv . U j −1
Lightweight envelope parts, windows and other fabrics have a negligible heat absorption (thermal inertia)
1
⇒ temperature damping ν = Ro /Rsi =
U . Rsi
42
Building Physics – Module 1
A B
Fig.5 Example of determination of temperature damping
The example clearly demonstrates a higher value of temperature depression and hence greater storage
capability envelope, which has thermal insulation located on the outer surface of the structure.
The structures that have the ability to store heat (thermal inertia) at the time the outside temperature change
in slow responding to these changes and their speech is time-shifted with respect to change of temperature
on the inner surface of the structure.
Calculation of phase shift of temperature damping amplitude „ψ“ may consider the following
“ψ“ gives
b
ψ = arctg + k .π [rad]
a
43
Building Physics – Module 1
For structures with negligible heat absorption (thermal inertia) - foil materials, sheet glass, etc.
ψ=0
Temperature - Ɵ (K)
Time - t (hours)
Building materials, with few exceptions, always contains moisture. Moisture may be present in all the states
of water. Humidity greatly affects the thermal properties of building materials, especially thermal conductivity
"λ" and specific heat capacity "c". Distribution of moisture in building structures is usually uneven and
depends mainly on water vapor pressure, temperature, structure of a substance or composition structures.
In seeking the causes of moisture is necessary to find out how the moisture got into the design and how
long it works. Moisture can manifest in several forms. Therefore, the source of moisture can be divided into
groups:
1. Built-in moisture ⇒ so. technological moisture, which in structure gets wet process (bricking,
concreting, plastering, etc.).
44
Building Physics – Module 1
2. Rising damp ⇒ enters the structure from the ground by capillary action through the
capillary structure of substances.
Possibility of removing ⇒ suitable design to the correct selection of materials, which is incorporated
into the construction
6. Operating humidity ⇒ penetrates into the construction of plants producing high-moisture
(washing, cooking, swimming, etc.)
Atmospheric air is always a mixture of dry air and water vapour. The total pressure and air mixture is the
sum according to Dalton law of partial - the partial pressures of the components (O2, N2, CO2, H2O vapour,
etc.), from our perspective is needed analysis for assessing the mixture of dry air and water vapour
pb = pa + pd [Pa]
amount of absolute humidity "v“ in the air (water vapour) in unit volume "V"
3
v=m/V [kg/m ]
or with a relative humidity “ϕa“ or partial - partial pressure (actual) vapor "pd", or partial pressure of saturated
water vapor “psat“
-5 p sat .ϕ a -3
pd 3
273 + θ a 273 + θ a
v = 2,16642 . 10 . = 2,16642 . 10 . [ kg/m ]
air can saturate only after a certain threshold that depends on temperature. After crossing the border there
is the condensation of vapour. This follows from the equation of gas:
p . V = (pa + pd ) . V = k . T [Pa]
45
Building Physics – Module 1
if the temperature of the assessment "θ" will θ < θdp ⇒ condensation occurs
relative humidity "ϕa” [%] expresses at a given temperature level of saturation by vapour
pd
ϕa = .100 [%]
p sat
23,589991.θ + 1513,86688
psat = exp for θ ≥ 0
236 + θ
[Pa]
28,9205 .θ + 1751,21042
psat = exp θ ≤ 0
273 + θ
for [Pa]
93.θ ae − 3153,5
ϕe = – 21 C ≤ θ ≤ + 25 C
o o
θ ae − 39,17
for
ϕ .p
1513,86688 − 236. ln a sat
100
θdp = θ ≥ 0
ϕ .p
o
100
ϕ .p
1751,21042 − 273. ln a sat
θdp = 100 θ ≤ 0
ϕ .p
o
for [ C]
ln a sat − 28,9205
100
46
Building Physics – Module 1
The different air temperatures in the environment and the same relative humidity "ϕ” ⇒ are partial vapour
pressure "pd" different (gas equation of state), even though the moisture content in a given space is
constant. Therefore, there is a displacement of molecules of vapour from sites with higher pressure to
places of lower pressure ⇒ vapour diffusion.
If the indoor air temperature will change ⇒ also the “pd” will change
therefore pd = f { θ }
⇒ diffusion of vapour carried by the same physical laws as heat flow rate and diffusion flow rate “qd”
∆p d
qd = −δ . 2
[ kg / (m .s) ]
dx
represents the amount of vapour in "kg", which passes by diffusion in the thickness of the fabric of the unit
"m" per unit of time in "s" in per unit difference of partial vapour pressure in 'Pa'
δ ⇒ [s]
expresses the relative ability of a material vapour transmittance. Indicate how many times the diffusion
resistance of the substance (layer structure) is larger than equal layer of air at the same temperature.
⇒ for air µ = 1
transfer ⇒ µ . δ = 0,18824 . 10
-9
the air layer thickness, which is the same as the diffusion resistance of the material (foil, cardboard)
sd =µ . d
Diffusion of water vapour carried from the higher partial pressure to a lower value through a structure that
separates areas with different partial pressures. The partial vapour pressure "pd" is dependent on
temperature "θa” and the water vapour air saturation - "ϕa”, and therefore the direction of "qd" is the same
way with "q" as opposed to air filtration.
47
Building Physics – Module 1
pdi − pde
pdx = pdi - . Rdx [Pa]
Rd
Diffusion resistance
∑ = ∑ dj . µj . N
d k d j
Rd = = [m/s]
δ j =1 δ j
Surface condensation
θs < θdp
48
Building Physics – Module 1
p sat , si { θ si }
ϕai,max ≤
p sat ,ai { θ ai }
.100
Interstitial condensation
It is determined from the mathematical - a graphical procedure, when compared with each other for places
in all courses of construction “pdx” and “psat,x”
⇒ condensation zone
9 9
Rdsi = 0,1 . 10 m/s Rdse = 0,05 . 10 m/s
Since the resistance values for the transfer of water vapor on the inside "Rdsi" and the outside "Rdse" both of
the frame are very small in relation to the diffusion resistance layer structure, the calculations we neglect
them.
⇒ Rdo = Rd [m/s]
49
Building Physics – Module 1
condensation
zone
tangents
partial pressures of
water vapor pd,x
A.
50
Building Physics – Module 1
partial pressures of
water vapor psat,x
[Pa]
B.
SELF COMPARISON OF PARTIAL VAPOUR PRESSURES COURSES
pdx a psat,x
C.
51
Building Physics – Module 1
D.
CONDENSATION SCOPING
teoretical range
of condensation
E.
52
Building Physics – Module 1
Determination of
condensation zone
condensation zone
F.
Fig.9 Graphic determination of condensation zone, steps A – F – process
Moisture in the structures deteriorates their thermal properties. It is therefore necessary to design
building structures where possible, to avoid condensation. Depending on the type of internal
operations humidity in indoor environments can be divided into operations
From an economic point of view is not always possible to design structures without condensation.
If the condensed moisture in the structure does not interfere with the character design in terms of
static safety, durability or service life and so on. is possible within the construction permit a certain
amount of condensation. In no case is it possible surface condensation (with selected exceptions).
If construction occurs in the condensation must be satisfied.
for ∆θa = θi - θe
53
Building Physics – Module 1
Fig.10 Determination of the diffusion flow rate at the beginning and the end of condensation zone
pdi − pdA
gdA =
RdA
p dB − p de
gdB =
RdB
annual balance according to the number of days with the duration of the occurrence of
characteristic temperatures in cloudy or clear sky "t" [s]
gk = ∑ ∆gdk . t
gv = ∑ ∆gdv . t
In terms of frequency of occurrence of temperatures to determine the duration of the annual moisture
balance of the territory of Slovakia is divided according to the calculation of outside temperature “θe” for two
zones table 3. [STN730540/3]
θe ≥ - 15 C θe < - 15 C
o o
54
Building Physics – Module 1
Annual moisture balance without affecting the solar radiation is determined from the total duration of
temperatures in the abundance of selected "j" - intervals of ambient temperatures "θe". Usually determines
the difference ∆θe = 5 K in the range defined in Table 3. (from – 20 °C to 25 °C).
condensation
evaporation
Fig.11 The moisture balance courses ∆g inside structure for different temperature intervals.
The annual moisture balance of solar radiation, the calculation carried out in parts, taking only the frequency
of the outside air temperatures
The part of calculation for overcast sky conditions is carried out without solar radiation, only the
calculation of values instead of the total abundance of "t" to insert the table 3 values “tz”.
The second part of calculation for clear sky conditions is realised with values “tj” from table 3 and outside air
temperature is enhanced by solar radiation and sol-air temperature “θej” is at stake. It is given by:
θej = θe + α . Im . Rse
55
Building Physics – Module 1
Sol-air temperature “θej” is posed into calculation of the outside partial vapour pressure “pde”.
gk < gv positive
gk > gv negative
Note:
If the annual moisture balance calculated without the impact of solar radiation is positive, such a
construction is still reserve for potential further drying in the course of solar radiation.
critical surface temperature for the hygienic evaluation criteria, especially the critical details of relating it to
80% relative humidity at the inner surface of the structure, which is to prevent the formation of mould
“θsi,80”.
p sat ,i
psat{ θsi,80 } ≥ > psi ;+
0,8
i. e., that the partial saturation vapour pressure “psat,si“ for surface temperature indoors “θsi“ have to be
higher value than the partial saturation vapour pressure “psat,ai“ for air temperature indoors “θai“ with relative
air humidity ϕai = 50 %.
56
Building Physics – Module 1
For the fixed value of partial vapour pressure p = 1460,5 Pa temperature is calculated in relation to the
saturation state θ = 12,6 C (equals to the dew point temperature θpd ).
o
For the fixed indoor conditions, critical surface temperature indoors “θsi,80“ is approximately given by:
p
237 ,3 . ln di
θsi,80 = 488,4 for pdi ≥ 488,4 Pa
p
17 ,269 − ln di
488,4
p
265,5 . ln di
488,4
θsi,80 =
p
for pdi < 488,4 Pa
21,875 − ln di
488,4
Under certain conditions, the structures there may be condensation. Condensation is undesirable in the
structures, in which the condensed vapour affects the required function (formation of mold, static strength,
reduced service, etc.). Therefore, full-year amount of condensed amount in the construction “gk“ should be
gk = 0.
tangents
In structures where there is no threat desired function can accept a limited condensation of water vapour,
but during the whole year of operation, the annual balance of condensed water vapor “gk“ and evaporated
moisture “gv“ has to be positive.
gk ≤ gv
2
[kg/(m .year)]
gk ≤ 0,1
2
[kg/(m .year)]
gk ≤ 0,5
2
[kg/(m .year)]
57
Building Physics – Module 1
Ab
Glossary of text 2.2
Definitions
represents the amount of vapour in "kg", which passes by diffusion in the thickness of the
fabric of the unit "m" per unit of time in "s" in per unit difference of partial vapour pressure
in 'Pa'
δ ⇒ [s]
expresses the relative ability of a material vapour transmittance. Indicate how many times
the diffusion resistance of the substance (layer structure) is larger than equal layer of air at
the same temperature. ⇒ for air µ = 1
transfer ⇒ µ . δ = 0,18824 . 10
-9
the air layer thickness, which is the same as the diffusion resistance of the material (foil,
cardboard)
sd =µ . d
● ground floors,
● basement floors,
● outside floors above outer stand in terms of outside environment (ramps, terraces, etc.),
● outside floors above outer stand in terms of inside environment (ceilings etc.).
Performance quantities, metrics and values at building level from STN 73 0540-2:
58
Building Physics – Module 1
● thermal resistance,
● thermal transmittance,
These functional requirements will reflect the transfer of heat, moisture and air, building structure, thermal
stability of room and net energy demand.
● thermal resistance,
● moisture tolerance,
● thermal effusivity,
In the design of the floor construction is necessary to pay particular attention to the following criteria:
● temperature difference of indoor air and surface temperatures in the upper floors because of this
difference depends on the amount of heat loss floor,
● choice of material walk able floor layer, which should have low thermal conductivity, and thermal
storage capability,
● appropriate choice and deployment of the individual layers of floor structure, due to the type of
operation and the use / purpose of the building.
Thermal effusivity is solved in terms of cold climate thermal transient response in winter, which is given:
The contact between foot and floor involves ⇒ sense of cool, sense of well-being heat, etc.
These senses are dependent on the average surface temperature of foot θs,n = 33 C by :
o
59
Building Physics – Module 1
Figure illustrates the decrease in contact temperature at the time. Some authors distinguish three stages in
surface temperature over the legs:
warm
drop in contact temperature
floor
cold
floor
Time (minutes)
● The initial stage - characterized by a nearly instantaneous drop in surface temperature on foot minimum.
● The first stage of the reaction - characterized by expression of the human body thermoregulation process.
The size of the supplied heat flux to the surface of the foot and the floor, the paid, either by foot surface
temperature increases (warm floors) or decreases (cold floors).
● The second stage reaction - characterized by either a new equilibrium legs or feet fall in surface
temperature to a level floor surface temperature.
Types of floor construction are usually multilayered. The layers below the top layer may contribute to
remove heat from the feet, which is involved in trapping heat in the floor as a whole.
Fig.14 The floors are applied numbering floor layers from the surface layer down
60
Building Physics – Module 1
This affects the thermal effusivity of top layer of the floor (thermal inertia). The foot contact with the floor
surface to the touch with defined duration of contact t = 600 sec ⇒
2 .π b 1 d2 λ .c. ρ d2
.λ.c.ρ=R . ⇒
2 2 2 2 2
.
λ2
D =R .s =R . = =
t0 t FO t a .t
λj
cj . ρ j
with aj = thermal diffusivity of the layer “j“ of floor.
One-layer – if,
2
λ1 . c1 . ρ1
d1
≥ 3 ⇒
0,5 2
b = b1 = [W . s / (m .K)]
a1 . t
b = b1 = λ1 . c1 . ρ1 [W . s
0,5 2
/ (m .K)]
Two-layer – if,
2 2
d1 d2
≥ 3 ⇒
0,5 2
+ b = b1 . ( 1 + K1,2 ) [W . s / (m .K)]
a1 . t a2 . t
K1,2 – coefficient expressing rate of influence of the second layer of the floor to remove
b d2
f 2 , 1 = f ( x2, y1 )
b1 a1 . t
heat to the floor surface K1,2 =
Three-layer – if,
2 2 2
d1 d2 d3
≥ 3 ⇒
0,5 2
+ + b = b1 . ( 1 + K1,2,3 ) [W . s / (m .K)]
a1 . t a2 . t a3 . t
K1,2,3 – coefficient expressing rate of influence of the second layer, which is already influenced by third layer,
of the floor to remove heat to the floor surface.
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Building Physics – Module 1
b2,3 d12
= f ( x2,3, y1 )
1
K1,2,3 = f ,
b a1 . t
EQUIVALENT THERMAL EFFUSIVITY OF FLOOR STRUCTURES
with
b d2
f 3 , 2 = f ( x3, y2 )
b2 a 2 . t
b2,3 = b2 . ( 1 + K2,3 ) K2,3 =
In general:
Kj,j+1 can be determined from tables or by calculation from the following relation:
x −1
∑ (
. exp − n . y j ) d 2j
∞ n
b j+1 1
n −1 x + 1
2
Kj,j+1 = 2 . xj = yj = =
b1 aj .t FO j
In terms of thermal effusivity we do not solve these types of floor structures, in which:
When touching the floor with, foot can significantly cool down. To avoid this as much, be sure to have the
required design floor surface temperature. But even the appropriate surface temperature of the floor
structure does not eliminate feeling cold feet. It depends on the thermal effusivity of floor construction.
Thermal effusivity reflects the ability of agents to receive or release heat.
foot
floor
Fig.15 Representation of the foot contacts the floor structure
62
Building Physics – Module 1
This figure represents a decrease of temperature θk touch the point in time t = 10 min. Contact temperature
can be characterized as temperature of feet in contact with the floor construction. ∆θ10 touch temperature
drop reflects the time period t = 10 min.
After foot contacts the floor there are two possibilities:
● a person moves freely in the room 1 ~ 2 min.,
● man stands unmoved 1 ~ 2 min. at one point, then change the position of several feet.
In the first case hits the floor after each step. Touch takes about 2 seconds. The latter takes a touch longer.
Sensations of heat and cold and heat loss in the body are both dependent on the temperature of the floor
and thermal properties of material the surface layer. The heat flow between the feet and the floor will vary
depending on the frequency of leg movements and duration of foot contact with the floor. The statistical
observation that the most frequently occurring contact time 2 min.
Active boundary layer of the floor, which participates in the heat exchange in the current multi-layer floor
construction is usually within the first two - three active layers and the thickness of the floor is typically less
than 3.0 mm.
Heat flow between the booted feet and the floor surface is different from the heat flow between bare feet
and the floor, that also depends on the material of shoes. Since footwear material is usually a bad conductor
of heat, the intensity of heat removal at ground tires lower leg.
Cooling or heating of different parts of the human body does not act as the overall condition of the body.
Hygienists aim to the harmfulness of removing heat from the feet to the floor. The feet are very sensitive to
the temperature of the floor surface and the flow of cold air above the floor. The measurements confirmed
that the change in temperature environment, the body temperature varies little, but the temperature of the
feet can change quite significantly. In addition, the temperature of the floor structure significantly affects the
mean radiant temperature in the interior. The temperature at the surface of the floor structure depends
mainly on the thermal properties of its layers, but also by its location (on the ground, above the basement,
the typical floor) and functions (e.g. floor heating). It is therefore very important to know what the
temperature on the surface of a person accepts the floor construction, during what long feet touch the floor
and in what kind of shoes.
The thermal effusivity of floor "b" is not possible to determine the temperature drop touch "∆θ 10" on the floor
during a standard duration of contact with feet t = 600 sec:
33 − θ s , podl
∆θ10 = b.
1117 + b
I.
Very warm below 350 ≤ 3,8
63
Building Physics – Module 1
II. warm
351 to 700 3,81 to 5,5
III.
less warm 701 to 850 5,51 to 6,9
IV. cold 850 more > 6,9
Table 5 – Values bN
II. residential buildings: living room, living kitchen, halls and other
spaces which are separated by a door from the living room,
warm
school: classrooms, drawer, features, gyms, cabinets,
Hospital: room adult patients, examination rooms, pantries,
surgeries, waiting rooms, corridors, service rooms, 351 to 700
other civic buildings: offices, office, theaters, concert halls,
cinemas, restaurants rooms, hotel rooms,
manufacturing industrial buildings: space residing persons with
sedentary work,
IV. no demands
850 more
cold
Based on the theory of heat have been identified and experimentally verified the optimum temperature
values at the surface of the floor structures, as well as recommendations for various types of flooring.
64
Building Physics – Module 1
The following table shows the optimum temperature of floor used by barefoot people who stand on the floor
for some time (1-10 minutes) without shoes.
The floor temperature in normal operation using normal footwear (slippers, slippers) recommended 25 ° C
for occupant and 23 ° C for standing and walking pe ople.
When thus considered optimal floor temperature feels local thermal discomfort around 6% of users. The
relationship between percentage of dissatisfied and temperature floor graphically shown in Fig. 16. Based
on experimental measurements, it is recommended that for ease of operation (especially sitting), the floor
surface temperature in the range of 19 to 26 ° C.
PPD
65
Building Physics – Module 1
The confrontation with this proposal, Figure 16 shows that the thus selected range of temperatures on the
surface of the floor would be approximately 10% of dissatisfied users. The intensity of heat removal floor at
her feet touched is directly proportional to the temperature gradient in the shoe sole. The short contact is
greater than the debt. The time of uninterrupted touch of feet with the floor (i.e., one-touch) is mainly no
longer than 10-20 minutes.
thermal properties of each layer (from the appropriate thickness of each layer), the fluctuations in external
temperatures, the temperature of the indoor air from indoor air flow, from time to temperatures of air, but
mostly on the material layer walk able floor structure that characterize the material capability walk able layer
in contact with the foot to absorb heat (determining the intensity of heat flow). In this context, it is necessary
to distinguish whether it touch the floor barefoot or booted feet.
Heat flow between the booted feet and the floor surface is different from the heat flow between bare feet
and the floor that also depends on the material of shoes. Since footwear material that is usually a bad
conductor of heat, the intensity of heat removal of the floor at the foot smaller tires.
Active boundary layer of the floor, which participates in the heat exchange in the current multi-layer floor
construction is usually within the first two - three active layers and the thickness of the floor is typically less
than 3.0 mm.
The pattern of changes of heat flow in each leg touching the tires is determined by the following boundary
conditions:
● intervals of continuous contact is constantly changing, moving legs is random, the length of contact need
not be repeated,
● foot in the shoe does not affect directly the floor, the heat flow takes place through the thick sole of about
2 ~ 3 mm,
● temperature field in the floor is due to the continuous contact time and geometry uncertain three-
dimensional shape of the sole.
Thermal effusivity among other things shows the change in surface temperature due to the development of
heat flow density on that surface.
ρo (kg/m )
3 1/2 2
Material b (W.s /(m .K))
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Building Physics – Module 1
The table shows that most (in this section referred to) building materials in terms of thermal effusivity of floor
construction is a textile flooring - carpet, reinforced concrete is the worst possible (one of the most
frequently used building materials for floor slabs).
As for the floor structure, what is its higher thermal effusivity, the more heat floor removes from foot and vice
versa. Floor construction is said of the more favorable terms, the smaller the amount of thermal effusivity
are (hence the need for their proposal to use the lightest materials, viz. Table). Such materials often have
other desired properties, which must have a floor structure (water resistance, impact, abrasion, etc.).
Therefore, floor slabs as proposed complex. It must comply with the principle: if you cannot layer with the
smallest amount of thermal effusivity placed first, then layer placed above it should have the minimum
thickness to be the least affected the value of the layer with low thermal effusivity. For this reason, sorting
plays an important role of the individual layers. It follows that the floor slabs, which have the same wear
layer, can have different levels of thermal effusivity and depending on the composition of layers beneath it.
In considering the floor construction of heated area on the ground is based only on the requirements for
thermal resistance R, as the trial floor above grade structure in terms of thermal resistance causes less
uncertainty as assessed for UTS – i.e. thermal transmittance U.
This is because the value of thermal resistance depends on a smaller number of factors (thickness d, the
value of coefficient of thermal conductivity λ). In the case of thermal transmittance values U, enters the
calculation in addition to the thermal resistance R value and thermal resistance on the outside of Rse and Rsi
inside of the frame (in case the procedure laid down in standard EN ISO 13370 enters into the calculation of
many other factors).
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Building Physics – Module 1
● Thermal resistance of floor construction on natural terrain shall be deposited in layers of hydro insulation
against soil moisture (see Fig. 17)
● The thermal transmittance of the structure in contact with the soil shall be determined according to STN
th
73 0540-4 or BS EN ISO 13370
The standards currently directly related to the design and assessment of structures and structural details of
the lower structure (and thus the floor construction) include:
● STN EN 12831
● STN 73 0540-1/4
envelope thickness
soil (grade)
floor structure
Insulated and uninsulated floors installed on ground, which amount to, or near the amount of surrounding terrain
shall be evaluated in terms of heat-air-moisture for thermal permeance - "Ls" in accordance with STN EN ISO
13370. In terms of temperature difference, the contact of the floor with the building envelope or the foundations
creates two-and three-dimensional heat transfer. Heat transfer is involved in its thermal properties of each
element isolating structure (floor, cladding, base construction) - Fig. 4. 12.
In determining the heat losses in the energy balance of buildings should be based on the nature of three-
68
Building Physics – Module 1
dimensional heat flow in contact with the floor and outer wall foundations. Therefore, heat transfer affect the
dimensions of the building, size and shape of the floor and thermal conductivity of the soil - the soil.
Cooling effect above grade, mainly due to its contact with the edge of the outer surface of the cooling
envelope structure is dependent on defining the proportion of floor area to the district and reflects the
"characteristic dimension of the floor - B' ",
with:
P - outer perimeter of the building [m] that separates heated space from the outside or unheated
spaces (lobbies, warehouses unheated garage, ...).
To simplify the expression of thermal permeance floor introduces the concept of "equivalent thickness",
which is equivalent to the thickness of the soil with the same thermal resistance, in the calculations stands
as the "equivalent thickness of the floor - dt".
The following procedure applies for calculating the floor bare or insulated evenly over the surface (the
construction, under construction or inside the structure).
with:
The values corresponding to the actual site, averaged over a depth corresponding to the width of the
building and corresponding to the normal moisture content;
when we know the kind of soil or soil type determines the values used in the following table, in other cases it
is used λ = 2,0 W/(m.K).
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Building Physics – Module 1
Thermal conductivity
λ (W/(m.K))
Category Specification
Rf – thermal resistance of any insulating layers above, below and within the construction of floor
including the wear layer. Thermal resistance of the concrete layers and thin layers of landmines can be
neglected. Thermal resistance is calculated by a layer of waterproofing against ground moisture, older
buildings in the separation layer of the embankment (gravel, rubble, slag ...).
2
Rsi, Rse – the thermal resistance between interface and the outside, and the inside, m .K/W
A - Floor area
P - Outer perimeter of a building
N - Unheated space
O - Other heated spaces
To calculate the basic values of thermal transmittance 'Uo', the following relations according to the quality of
the insulation:
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Building Physics – Module 1
2.λ π . B´
. ln + 1
dt
2
π . B´
Uo = W/(m .K)
λ 2
Uo = W/(m .K)
0,457 . B´ + d t
U = Uo W/(m2.K)
Hg = A . Uo + P . Ψg W/K
Floor above grade with insulation only the edges. Floor above grade insulation can be placed around the
edges either horizontally or vertically on the perimeter of the floor. The procedure for calculating the usable
width or height "D" of insulation on the edge of a small in proportion to the width of the building.
First, determine the underlying value of the coefficient of heat transfer floor "Uo" according to the previous
procedure without considering the edge insulation. Subsequently, the loss determined correction factor
"Ψg,e” either for isolation of peripheral horizontal or the vertical peripheral isolation. Thermal transmittance is
then determined for the floor with insulation around the edges
U = Uo + 2 . Ψg,e / B´
2
W/(m .K)
e i w
Rf dn
Hg A
podlaha
podložie
Fig.20 Calculation scheme for steady heat transfer coefficient of soil (Hg) in different positions along the
edge of the insulation
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Building Physics – Module 1
In determining the loss factor correction '∆Ψ' in the evaluation shall include the additional impact of effective
thickness "d" "- induced by thermal insulation around the edges
d´= R´. λ
with:
R´- additional thermal transmittance involved by edges insulation, i.e. the difference between the
2
thermal resistance of edges insulation and thermal resistance of soil (structure), m .K/W
R´= Rn – dn / λ
2
m .K/W
dn – thickness of insulation, m
with horizontal edges thermal insulation (above and below the floor or outside wall) is given by:
λ D D
∆Ψ = .ln + 1 ln + 1
π dt d t + d ´ W/(m.K)
with vertical position (inside or outside of fundamental wall) edges thermal insulation
λ 2D 2D
∆Ψ = − .ln + 1 − ln + 1
π dt d t + d ´
W/(m.K)
The structural formation of the lower structure depends not only on the geological and hydrological
conditions, but also on climatic conditions and the difficulty of building top operation. The structures
surrounding interiors of buildings, most often touch the floor. The internal microclimate is influenced mainly
by inappropriate choice of the wear layer floor construction. Most of the existing floor structure is a ceramic
or silicate-based. It is therefore the cold floor of the structure. Among the most critical point of the floor
construction is the area around the outer envelope, where the bare floor structures leads to overcooling of
these structures around the perimeter.
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Building Physics – Module 1
The floor surface without contact with the soil above crawlspaces – ventilated and unheated interior space
(basement, open spaces naturally ventilated outside air) - Fig. 4.15. provides thermal permeance - "Ls" as
follows
Ls = A . U [W/K]
1 1 1
= + 2
[W/(m .K)]
U U f Ug + Ux
In determining the thermal transmittance of the floor "U" process is common as mentioned above. Calculate
the characteristic dimension of the floor 'b' "and the equivalent thickness of the floor "dg" in unheated spaces
with: Rg - thermal resistance of any insulation on the underside of the space, usually in the basement
floor area is no insulation value and Rg = 0.
Basement
soil (grade)
Uf – thermal transmittance of crawlspace floor between indoor environment and unheated space
2
under the floor, W/(m .K)
Ux - equivalent thermal transmittance between the area under the crawlspace floor and the outdoor
2
environment in which heat flow of walls and ventilation is accounted, W/(m .K)
h .U w ε . v . fw
Ux = 2 . ´
+ 1450 . 2
[W/(m .K)]
B B´
2
Uw - thermal transmittance of basement walls above ground level, W/(m .K)
h - height of the upper edge of the floor above the surrounding terrain, m
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Building Physics – Module 1
for z ≤ 0,5 m
π . B´
. ln + 1
2.λ
π . B´ + d g d
2
g
Ug = [W/(m .K)]
z . P . U bw
Ug = U bf + 2
[W/(m .K)]
A
2
Ubf - equivalent thermal transmittance of floors in contact with soil, W/(m .K) depending on the
thermal insulation of the basement floor
2.λ π . B´
. ln + 1 [W/(m2.K)]
π . B´ + d t + 0,5 . z d t + 0,5 . z
Ubf =
λ 2
Ubf = [W/(m .K)]
0,457 . B´ + d t + 0,5 . z
2.λ z
. 1 + . ln + 1
0,5 . d t
π .z dt + z dw
2
Ubw = [W/(m .K)]
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Building Physics – Module 1
Efficient thermal transmittance “U´ “characterizing the whole of the basement in contact with the soil shall be
determined from the following relation
A . U bf + z . P . U bw 2
U´ = [W/(m .K)]
A+ z.P
Self-evaluation questions
? 1. What is a transient thermal response, what are the basic criteria for evaluation of
structures in terms of thermal transient response, what methods of calculation you know?
3. Describe the basic criteria for the assessment of floor construction. What is
thermal effusivity of floor construction and how to detect?
4. How would you rate the floor structure above grade in terms of HAM
performance?
Σ
Summary
The prediction, the design and evaluation of building structures, this chapter deals with the
design and production of building enclosure in terms of thermal transient response. Step
by step explanation of the terms is unstable temperature condition (NTS), criteria of
evaluation, as assessed in terms of packaging design NTS, i.e. heat storage, heat
absorption, trapping, floor heat in terms of construction techniques, the differences in
evaluation of floor to the ceiling and floor on the ground. The result is knowledge - what
impact has the thermal inertia of building structures on the internal environment of
buildings.
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Building Physics – Module 1
∆
Mission
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce students to the problems of multi-dimensional
spread of heat, which occurs in thermal bridges. This is the explanation of the
assessment of thermal bridges (edges, corners of rooms, construction joints with multiple
building materials, etc.). The chapter is transparent assessment of structures which are
windows and doors and assess the air permeability of building materials, structures and
joints and joints of windows and doors .
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should know:
- describe the basic types of thermal bridges,
- as there is a spread of heat in two-dimensional sense, ie the temperature fields
in a space called. 3D assessment of structures,
- explain the basic assessment criteria transparent filler structures such as
windows and doors,
- evaluate the building design in terms of mass transport - air, ie assess building
structures in terms of air permeability.
ζ
Introduction
This part of building physics, thermal construction techniques will be given a description
of heat and moisture flow, the movement of matter (air) - on the basis of temperature,
humidity, pressure and their changes.
The first chapter is devoted solely to thermal steady state, ie, when the temperature
change with time, but while there is a multidirectional spread the heat in the details of
building structures. This is the assessment of thermal fields, transparent panes
(windows, doors) and the installation of the packaging structures. Assessment of joints
and joints of these structures in terms of transfer of air - the air permeability of materials
as well as contacts and joints.
Building construction in the corners, corners, with holes and made of different materials (different λ) are
deformed temperature field. Heat transfer is characterized by a multidimensional, two-and three-
dimensional heat transfer.
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Building Physics – Module 1
Thermal bridges - are places in structures where there is a reduction in surface temperatures. Thermal
bridges usually occur mainly in places where the local place of higher thermal conductivity. Thermal bridges
are divided:
geometric - enclosures
material
combined
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Building Physics – Module 1
Q - heat flux
Fig.4 Surface temperatures (on the outer surface) of a typical thermal bridge
Fig.5 Change of surface temperature (for i-surface) of a typical thermal bridge from inside the insulation
78
Building Physics – Module 1
Fig.6 Change of surface temperature (for i-surface) of a typical thermal bridge in insulation from the
outside
area A
[m2]
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Building Physics – Module 1
These structural parts usually brings an increase in thermal transmittance (increased heat loss) ⇒
additional heat loss, expressed by
Ψ=L - ∑ U i . li
2D
[W/(m.K)]
2D
L – thermal transmittance expressed in two-dimensional temperature field
Ψ - indicates the thermal-rate differential behavior of the structure (fragment) of undistorted field of thermal
properties of thermal bridge. It expresses the additional heat loss in watts per 1 m length of the linear
thermal bridge at
∆θ = θi - θe = 1 K
In order to increase the quality of thermal packaging design to reduce heat loss (U - value in fragments but
the structures are below average for the bridges and corners are higher. On the basis of the linear and point
loss coefficients also increase. Therefore, the thermal insulation attention should be paid to the design detail
(= Usually deformed temperature field ⇒ thermal bridge caused by the highest heat loss transmissions).
The heat balance of buildings, bridges share heat to increase the total heat losses are between about 5 to
25%.
∆U = ( ∑ Ψk . lk + ∑ χj ) / ∑ Ai = ∆HTM / ∑ Ai
External corners and corners of the rooms are very sensitive to thermal technology in terms of the place in
which it is applied at least two-dimensional heat transfer, although the whole structure of a homogeneous
material. Temperatures can be calculated using the circuit temperature fields.
a.)
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Building Physics – Module 1
Ai < Ae
b.) the corners of the air flow is lower, so the value is in the corner „Rsik“ higher compared to the value of
„Rsi“ (heat transfer is attenuated in the corner)
2D
L
2D thermal field
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Building Physics – Module 1
ψe = L
2D
- UAB . PB – UCD . PD
ψi = L
2D
- UAB . AK – UCD . KC
editing the outer corner to increase the temperature in the corner - „θsi,k“
pipe of
heating
system
Fig.10 Different types of thermal bridges - parts and edit - the insulation and the like.
Fig.11 Different modes of heat transfer - in the space of three directions in the plane in two directions
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Building Physics – Module 1
Two-dimensional Fourier heat transfer differential equation describing heat conduction in the form
∂ θ ( x, y ) ∂ 2θ (x, y ) ∂ 2θ (x, y )
+
∂t ∂x ∂ y 2
=a. 2
∂ 2θ (x, y ) ∂ 2θ (x, y )
+ =0
∂x ∂ y 2
the homogeneous form 2
Fig. 12 Cut a two-dimensional structure determination of heat transfer and heat flow determination
thermal equilibrium ⇒ Φ1 + Φ2 + Φ3 + Φ4 = 0
(θx,y – θx,y+∆ ) . Ly+∆ + (θx,y – θx+∆,y ) . Lx+∆ + (θx,y – θx,y-∆ ) . Ly-∆ + (θx,y – θx-∆,y ) . Lx-∆= 0
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Building Physics – Module 1
θ x , y + ∆ . L y + ∆ + θ x + ∆ , y . Lx+ ∆ + θ x, y −∆ . L y −∆ + θ x−∆ , y . Lx −∆
θx,y =
L y + ∆ + Lx + ∆ + L y −∆ + Lx − ∆
1 λ
L= .A = .A
R d
For the particular case of flow field between the nodes of the network surface thermal conductivity of the „L“
identifies the
In the following table:
Calculation of surface thermal conductivity Type of flow field between the peaks of the
differential system in the direction away x and
direction y
1 λ
Lx-1 = .A = .A
R d
where A = S . 1
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Building Physics – Module 1
1 λ
Lx-1 = .A = .A
R d
∆y
where A = S . 1 =
2
λ1 λ
Lx-1 = . A1 = 2 . A2
d d
where
A1 = S1.1
A2 = S2.1
where
A1 = S1.1
A2 = S2.1
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Building Physics – Module 1
condensation zone
Fig.18 Cut a two-dimensional structure determination of heat transfer and the determination of isotherm
thermal insulation
thermal insulation
Fig.19 Cut a two-dimensional structure determination of heat transfer and determination of the isothermal
external wall insulation
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Building Physics – Module 1
Boundary conditions:
current state
Hygienic criterion
Hygienic criterion
Fig.20 Addressing a two-dimensional heat transfer - details attic insulation before and after
Hygienic criterion
Boundary conditions:
proposed state
Hygienic criterion
Fig.21 Addressing a three-dimensional distribution of heat - a detail from the attic insulation
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Building Physics – Module 1
In terms of energy balancing is to be noted that the design of windows making the most significant share in
influencing heat loss.
Double windows - with two glasses with three glasses with double insulating glass
windows on the inside, possibly with an additional third glazing
Double-glazed windows - with two lenses, a combination of single glazing with double
glazing, insulation, ...
Classic windows in the previous development had mostly wood frames. Recent trends in use of new
materials such as plastics, metals, and combinations thereof.
he thermal technology in terms of opening structures are inhomogeneous composition of his own
construction (frame, sash, glazing, filling, ...).
Furthermore, the structure with minimal thermal storage capacity (immediately react to changes in external
climate). When mounted in the circuit design arises deformed temperature field (inhomogeneous structure)
caused by increasing heat loss. These additional heat flows in the calculation of temperature fields quantify
the circuit parameter 'linear thermal transmittance - ψg ".
Thermal hole quality design expresses the heat transfer coefficient „Uw“ ntire window (or door), which
included the area frame, sash, and glazing panels. This is added to the linear thermal transmittance „ψg“.
The linear thermal transmittance of glazing reflects the impact of contact and wings to heat flow, which
increases at a given location.
The value of coefficient „ψg“ indicates the increase of heat flow in the „W“ n the meter contact the perimeter
of the window temperature difference ∆θ = 1 K between interior and exterior.
Where known, the thermal-parameters frame, type of glazing and linear dissipation coefficient „ψg“ is not
possible to determine heat transfer coefficient „Uw“ the window as follows.
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Building Physics – Module 1
U f . A f + U g . Ag + Ψg . l g 2
A f + Ag
U = Uw = [W/(m .K)]
where
2
Uf - thermal transmittance of frame and sash, W/(m .K)
2
Ug - thermal transmittance of glazing windows, W/(m .K)
ψg - Linear thermal transmittance of glazing contact, distance
profile and frame, W/(m.K)
lg - perimeter glazing sash windows, m
Fig.22 Diagram of the computational determination of geometric characteristics of the glass, frames and
glazing visible perimeter „l“.
To fill the openings (eg doors) and the opaque parts will add value for the calculation of the „Up“, „ψP“, „lP“ s
possible to determine the thermal transmittance „Uw“ follows
U f . A f + U g . Ag + U P . AP + Ψg . l g + ΨP .l P 2
Uw = [W/(m .K)]
A f + Ag + AP
where
2
Uf - hermal transmittance of frame and sash, W/(m .K)
2
Ug - thermal transmittance of glazing windows, W/(m .K)
2
UP - thermal transmittance of opaque panels, W/(m .K)
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Building Physics – Module 1
In determining the thermal transmittance of double windows should be based on the specifications of this
type of thermal compound window.
Fig. 23 Diagram of the computational determination of geometric characteristics of the double windows, the
definition Uw1 Uw2
1 2
Uw = [W/(m .K)]
1 / U w1 − Rsi + Rs − Rse + 1 / U w 2
where
2
Uw1 - heat transfer coefficient of the internal windows, W/(m .K)
2
Uw2 - heat transfer coefficient outside the window, W/(m .K)
2
Rs - hermal resistance of air layer glazing, m .K/W, standard values are listed in Table. Annexes.
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Building Physics – Module 1
2
Rsi - thermal resistance inside the outer box in his separate use, m .K/W
2
Rse - thermal resistance on the outside of the inner window in the case of single-use, m .K/W
Thermal transmittance of the double window consisting of a frame and two separate wings is calculated
from the basic equation
U f . A f + U g . Ag + Ψg . l g 2
A f + Ag
Uw = [W/(m .K)]
1 2
Ug = [W/(m .K)]
1 / U g1 − Rsi + Rs − Rse + 1 / U g 2
2
Ug1 - heat transfer coefficient of the internal glazing, W/(m .K)
2
Ug2 - heat transfer coefficient glazing, W/(m .K)
Rs - thermal resistance of air layer glazing, m2.K/W,
standard values are listed in Table. Annexes.
Rsi - thermal resistance inside the outer box
in his separate use, m2.K/W
Rse - thermal resistance on the outside of the inner window
in his separate use, m2.K/W
Rse + ∑
Ug =
dj
+ Rsj + Rsi
j λj
transfer of energy from solar radiation should be evaluated from two perspectives
a. in terms of light transmission
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Building Physics – Module 1
energy properties
2 2
Uok = 2,9 [W/(m .K)] Uok = 1,8 [W/(m .K)]
T = 61 % R = 11 % T = 54 % R = 13 %
A = 28 % g = 72 % A = 33 % g = 69 %
External shutters are an additional layer of air thermal resistance between the window and shutters, and
thermal resistance of the shutter itself.
1
1 / U w + ∆R
2
Uws = [W/(m .K)]
where
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Building Physics – Module 1
Fig.25 Diagram of the computational determination of geometric characteristics with sealable window
shutters definition Uw Rw and below.
Fig.26 Calculation of the temperature during the - isotherm in single glazed window
Fig.27 Calculation of the temperature during the - isotherm in the window with double glass exterior and
interior
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Building Physics – Module 1
thermal insulation
Fig.28 Calculation of the temperature during the - isotherm in the original box, in detail, and detail the
insulation
Air permeability is to be distinguished from the diffusion of water vapor, which takes place at a partial
pressure difference of water vapor ≡ ∆pd. Therefore, it may be the case when pi = pe, but the diffusion
occurs. Building construction separates the air environment that is different when there is pressure to flow
from the higher to lower pressure. For air flow through the structure was allowed, they must be agents of
porous, allowing air redundancy relations and air-permeable joints are tight.
Building construction separates the air environment that is different when there is pressure to flow from the
higher to lower pressure. For air flow through the structure was allowed, they must be
due to temperature difference between internal and external environment (change in air density)
⇒ the influence of gravity
action of wind
air permeability should be distinguished from diffusion, which takes place at a partial pressure difference of
water vapor ≡ ∆pd. Therefore, it may be the case when pi = pe, but the diffusion occurs.
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Building Physics – Module 1
winter
summer
heat flux
diffusion flux
exfiltration infiltration
difference of quantities
Fig.29 Heat, diffusion and mass flow of air through the envelope in winter and summer
ρa = 353 / (273 - θa )
Az ≅ - 0,3 lee)
2
g - acceleration due to gravity, [ m/s ]
dependent on the construction and structure of substances of which the structure is made
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Building Physics – Module 1
an air impermeable structures - dense materials (glass, metal sheets, ...) the laminar flow of air
through the steady state density structure mass flow of air „qm“
∆p
qm = εm . = εm .
pi − pe 2
[ kg/(m .s) ]
d d
εm ⇒ indicates the amount of air in kg, which goes for 1 second layer of the 1 m thickness of the
substance in air pressure differential of 1 Pa.
∆p
∑
dj
qm = Rm = [ m/s ]
Rm ε mj
∆p = ∆pθ + ∆pv
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Building Physics – Module 1
/ 2
R = Rx-e + Rse [m .K/W]
Ro = Rsi + R + Rse
In practice, assessing the rate of decrease of surface temperature due to air infiltration
When defining the characteristics of air permeability of windows and doors is not possible to determine the
amount of the replaced air „Vv“ in the room.
Vv = Σ (i . l) . ∆p
m 3
= n . Vm /3600 ( m /s )
n = 3600 . Vv / Vm (1/h)
n = 3600 .[ Σ (i . l) . ∆p ]/Vm
m
Hv = Vv . ρ . c = Vv . 1,205 . 1010
Hv = 0,264 . n . Vm
3 n
where i – gap of air permeability coefficient, ( m /(m.s.Pa )
l - ength of the joints of filtration, (m)
n – the air exchange rate for infiltration, (1/h)
3
Vm - volume of air in the room, (m )
(koeficent 0.8 = conversion from external dimensions )
3
Vv - volume flow of air, (m /s)
Basic hygiene requirements for complying with the state of the internal environment is adequate air
exchange for the operation of the internal environment of residential buildings
n N ≥ 0,5 1/h
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Building Physics – Module 1
the multi-storey buildings there is a filtration of air to the building of a change of air pressure difference „∆p“,
so the upper floors there may be unwanted exfiltration of air corridors and rooms below. therefore requires
internal doors, entrance doors to the flats of common corridors and the like. air permeability coefficient
values were „i“
i ≤ 0,5 . 10
-4 3 0,67
m /(m.s.Pa )
exfiltration
infiltration
Fig.32 Sample passage of air through cracks windows, seal in contact with the frame and sash
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Building Physics – Module 1
Fig.33 Sample passage of air through cracks in the contact window frame and sash
Especially in winter, low outdoor air temperatures are higher relative humidity „ϕe“, but the absolute water
vapor content is lower
Therefore, in the winter when ventilation occurs while drying the indoor air.
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Building Physics – Module 1
Ab
Glossary of text 3.4
Definitions
εm ⇒ indicates the amount of air in kg, which goes for 1 second layer of the 1 m
thickness of the substance in air pressure differential of 1 Pa.
3 m
where iL - coefficient of air Škárová prievzdušnosti [m /(m.s.Pa ) m≡cca 2/3]
Self-evaluation questions
? 1. Give examples of thermal bridges the divide-by-aspects, how would you assess
the thermal bridge construction.
3. Explain the basic assessment criteria transparent filler structures such as doors
and windows of thermo-technical point of view?
4. Spread the air structures, air permeability of materials, joints and joints.
Σ
Summary
This part of building physics, construction techniques, the heat given to the description of
heat and moisture flow, the movement of matter (air) - on the basis of temperature,
humidity, pressure and changes in multidirectional spread the heat and moisture in
building structures and their elements.
This chapter has been paid to the stable temperature condition, ie, when the temperature
change with time, but while there is a multidirectional spread the heat in the details of
building structures. This is the assessment of thermal fields, transparent panes (windows,
doors) and the installation of the packaging structures. Assessment of the details of these
structures in terms of transfer of air - the air permeability of materials, materials, building
structures, focusing also on transparent panels and their connections and joints.
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Building Physics – Module 1
∆
Role
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce students to the issue of continuing the
constant temperature condition. In the previous section are described some of the
principles of design of structures in terms of transient thermal conditions. This chapter
is continued, pointing to the assessment of internal comfort conditions, evaluate the
thermal stability of confined spaces, depending on physical factors in the summer and
winter climate period. Given that many areas do not accumulate sufficient internal
environment, it is necessary to address issues of overheating due attention to design
and carry out construction works so that we avoid this unpleasant phenomenon. A
similar situation is in winter when there is a disrupted heating and thermal stability and
inertia of packaging structures is small. This concluding chapter is the description of
the calculation of energy needs for heating. This is a brief overview of the calculation,
given that this issue during his studies at Faculty of Civil Engineering, particularly in the
field of building construction will be paid attention to many subjects. Conclusion The
entire chapter consists of the basic conditions that are imposed on the building
structures in terms of building thermal techniques.
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should know:
- Describe the basic physical factors affecting the thermal comfort of indoor environment
in summer and winter,
- How should we assess the thermal stability of confined spaces in the summer,
- Basic approaches to the evaluation of thermal stability in intermittent heating in winter,
- Evaluate the building design in terms of needs (heat) and energy needs for heating -
the basic principles of the approach to evaluation in project preparation (so-called
envelope method),
- Explain the basic criteria for evaluation of structures in terms of building thermal
techniques (such as a summary of previous lectures).
ζ
Introduction
It was mentioned several times that the main task is to protect human buildings from
adverse weather conditions and to create him an environment in summer and winter to the
confined space of the interior the best feeling. It is not always such a simple matter. The
building has provided sufficient thermal storage and thermal inertia properties, it is
necessary to help the technology environment. The building thermal technology but in
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Building Physics – Module 1
packaging structures of buildings and their physical properties have prescriptive rules that
must be met to ensure that we design to ensure a suitable environment in summer and
winter. Chapter shows such approaches to packaging design of the building structures, at
the end of the table, the basic principles of assessment of energy needs for heating
buildings and such mentioned above, there are basic criteria that must be a designer in the
design of buildings in terms of construction physics and especially to meet the thermal
protection of buildings.
Every room in relation to packaging structures has its own thermal state. Thermal comfort - determine the
thermal properties of structures that surround the room.
Thermal comfort of human is steady state with a sense of satisfaction with the thermal state of the
environment. People in such an environment do not feel either cold or excessive heat. t. no. the metabolic
heat produced by man in his work is in balance with heat removal from the body surface at a given clothes
without sweating).
The thermal balance of human - may be affected by the environment in a work activity of human ⇒ thermal
discomfort
Environment related:
Subject related:
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Building Physics – Module 1
θai + θsu ≥ 38
o
C
θsu =
θ s1 . A1 + θ s 2 . A2 + θ s 3 . A3 + ... ∑θ . Aj
∑
j
with: =
A1 + A2 + A3 + ... Aj
θai + θsu ≤ 51
o
C
θai ≤ 27 θsu ≤ 27
o o
with C C
Gross energy demand for heating „Q“– depends on heat-air-moisture performances at entire building level
and heating system (= necessary heat generated in the production, distribution and supply, but is not
directly useful in providing thermal comfort environment), which provides thermal comfort when the activity
in the interior of the building. Thermal comfort can disrupt especially outside weather conditions.
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Building Physics – Module 1
building
Gross energy
QT – net energy needed for covering transmission heat transfer trough the all envelope and separation
parts, kWh
Net energy
demand
Qs – net energy obtained by solar gains trough the transparent parts, kWh
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Building Physics – Module 1
Net energy demand for heating “Qh“ depends on heat-air-moisture properties at building and building
envelope level. It does not include properties of the heat source and heating system. Calculation of net
energy demand for heating is determined by the theoretical standard conditions for comparative and
reference heating season (= the value of a comparative evaluation of heat-air-moisture buildings´
performance). It expresses the amount of heat required to be delivered of room (to compensate for heat
loss through the building envelope) for maintaining the indoor air temperature. This value is the real power
consumption during operation of the building.
♦ To explain possible measures to improve the thermal protection in the reconstruction of existing
buildings
♦ To assess the heat-air-moisture performance at building level with required standard values.
losses gains
ENERGY DEMAND
QT – net energy needed for covering transmission heat transfer trough the all envelope and separation
parts,
Qv – net energy needed for covering ventilation and infiltration heat loss
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Building Physics – Module 1
Generally, the calculation methods to prediction the gross energy demand for heating energy can be divided
according to the method of expressing the net energy demand (heat output to maintain thermal comfort
conditions)
simulation methods - in which is balanced the gross energy demand usually at intervals of h = 1 ⇒
describe thermal transient response,
simplified calculation methods - when the net energy demand is balanced from the monthly main
values of variables, if necessary from entire the heating season ⇒ average steady-state conditions
evaluating.
Specific net energy demand is determined from the reference of standard conditions
per ∆θ = 1 K is given:
The same number of climate degree days ⇒ D = 3422
air exchange rate must always be greater than the hygienic minimum,
Enclosing surface “Ab“ determined by floor spaces of heated floors calculated by outer dimensions
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Building Physics – Module 1
heating season
daydegrees
month
Total net energy demand for heating “Qh“ (boiler and all systems have infinite capacity) is given:
∆U = 0,10 W/(m .K) for brick, panel and sandwich wall, light envelope parts, timber framed parts
2
b)
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Building Physics – Module 1
unheated space
heated space
Ls – thermal permeance of floor above grade determinate by an independent calculation by embedding into
the ground and the solution of contacting envelope structures.
bx = 1 - exterior walls, windows, doors, floor above grade, the ceiling above the open subway, roof
bx = 0,8 under-roof floor space (attic), walls between heated space and under-roof space
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Building Physics – Module 1
The average thermal transmittance "Um" through the heat transfer envelope area "Aj" (building enclosure),
characterizing the heat loss of built-up space of protected volume "Vb"
∑b .U j . A j + ∆U .∑ A j
∑A
HT
∑ Aj
xj 2
Um = = [W/(m . K)]
j
Building envelope area is the enclosure that surrounding the protected volume of residential floor space
heated from all sides (outer dimensions).
Aj ≡ cooled outer
The building envelope surface is building envelope area, and it is calculated from outer dimensions of the
building.
4.2.4. Ventilation heat transfer coefficient, passive solar gains, gains from
appliances and apparatus
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Building Physics – Module 1
Hv = 0,264 . n . Vb [W/K]
3
with Vb – protected volume (from outer dimensions) [m ]
Vm – air volume of the room, (coeff. 0,8 = recalculation from outer dimensions)
n = 25 200 .
∑ (i LV . l)
[1/h]
Vb
2 0,67
with iLV – air-leakage coefficient [m /(s . Pa )]
qi ≤ 4 W/m
2
residential house
qi ≤ 5 W/m
2
apartment building
qi ≤ 6 W/m
2
public building
with
2
Anj – transparent part area of opening structure [m ]
F = Fs. Fc . Ff ≅ 0,5 – actors diminishing solar gains (shading, shielding parts, window frames, …)
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Building Physics – Module 1
gw – total solar energy transmittance glazing, time-variable value of the normal permeability
⇒ gw ≅ 0,9 . gn
2
Isj - Heat gains from solar radiation energy on the surface of 1 m of glazing in the orientation of the cardinal
2
points (in tables) [kWh/m ]
2
Table: Heat gains from solar radiation energy on the surface of 1 m of glazing in the orientation of the
cardinal points.
Compactness – equals the ratio between the enclosing surface and the protected volume of building.
compactness =
∑ Aj
[1/m]
Vb
specific net energy demand for heating is by STN 730540–4 for total net energy demand
3
- related to 1 m of protected volume “E1“
E1 =
Qh
= 82,1 . Um .
∑ Aj
+ 21,674 . n -
0,95 . (Qs + Qi )
[kWh/m ]
3
Vb Vb Vb
2
- 1 m of specific floor surface heated floors “E2“ determine from outer dimensions
Qh 2
E2 = or E2 = hk,pr . E1 [kWh/m ]
Ab
Note: if the heat generated from internal sources lasted more than 25 W/m2 of internal space assessment of
specific net energy demand is not required!
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Building Physics – Module 1
NOTES:
1) Consumption determined by the standards used for mutual comparison of project design of buildings
takes into account the effect of embedding property in the world by heat-air-moisture material properties.
There is no assessment of actual energy consumption in terms of specific embedding of the building
2) Compactness S/V in 1/m determined according to STN 73 0540-4 equals the ratio between the enclosing
2
surface "A", which are conducted heat loss and heat gain) in m and the protected volume of building "Vb" in
3
m.
Intermediate values of S/V is determined by linear interpolation of tabulated values or are calculated
according to STN 73 0540-4
Extensions are evaluated according to criteria established energy requirements for new buildings
Occurs during heating and intermittent heating - heat supply. If the heating is interrupted for some time,
there is a drop in air temperature and decrease in surface temperature structures ⇒ under cooling
If the thermal state of the environment in a period of time the heating is interrupted within the acceptable
range
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Building Physics – Module 1
A/
B/
When assessing the thermal stability of buildings selected characteristics are audited - critical rooms in
terms of cooling (with the highest value "U") to be evaluated for thermal stability. Evaluated room will be
considered thermally stable if, during the cooling of the room at a time "t" (usually t = 8 hours = 28800
seconds) resulting decrease room temperature "∆ θ v" the
θi = θv(t=0) = 20 C
o
with
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Building Physics – Module 1
θ ai (t ) − θ e θ (t ) − θ e o
θv(t) = θai(t) – 650 . V . = θai(t) –0,1806 . n. Vm . ai
∑R ∑R
[ C]
Aj Aj
sij sij
θi − θe
Φ = ( HT+Hv ) .
1000
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Building Physics – Module 1
∑c . ρ k , j . d k , j . θ k , jm
n
∑A
m k, j
j =1
W= k . [ kWh ]
k =1 3,6 . 10 6
2
with Ak - area of ´”k“ part [m ]
ck,j - specific thermal capacity of “j” layer in “k” part [ J/kg.K ]
ρk,j – density of “j” layer in “k” part
3
[ kg/m ]
dk,j – thickness of “j” layer in “k” part [m]
θk,jm – main temperature in of “j” layer in “k” part
o
[ C]
a. outdoor weathering
b. the heat-air-moisture at building envelope level
c. orientation of buildings to the cardinal
a. Outdoor weathering
Increasing air temperatures is caused by solar radiation - the intensity of global solar radiation
2
Ig = IP + ID [ W.m ]
The surfaces of various building envelope absorb solar energy and due to the orientation ⇒
coefficient of absorption of solar radiation “α“
Ig absorption is influenced by air flow around a surface and air humidity and moisture in material.
α . Ig ϑo
Sol-air temperature θes = θae + -
he he
♦ Thermal storage
♦ Thermal inertia
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Building Physics – Module 1
roof
temperature
amplitude window
envelope
overheating does not take place immediately, but is time-shifted (ψ) and energy from sunlight is cushioning
the thermal inertia (ν). The intensity of overheating being different depending on the orientation of surfaces -
"2" and "3"
The energy passing through the structure (overheating) in the room "QiT" is expressed
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Building Physics – Module 1
In order to not disturb the thermal comfort in summer due to overheating of the internal environment without
air conditioning is determined by evaluating the parameter
2
for other buildings with boiler to 25 W/m
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Building Physics – Module 1
Q = Qs + Q i + Qe – Qv
F = F s. F c . F f –
factors reducing solar gains ( approximately F ≅ 0,5 ), ( shading, shielding parts, window frames, …)
gw - total solar energy transmittance of glazing, time-variable value (monthly averages for all impact angles
of radiation correction Fw ≅ 0.9)
⇒ gw ≅ 0,9 . gn
Qi - internal gains
2
A - room floor area (inside dimension) [m ]
qi ≤ 4 W/m
2
thermal gains houses
qi ≤ 5 W/m
2
apartment buildings
qi ≤ 6 W/m
2
public buildings
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Building Physics – Module 1
2
Aj - surface of “j“ envelope part ( by inside dimensions ) [m ]
∑c . ρ k , j . d k , j . θ k , jm
n
∑A
m k, j
j =1
W= k . [ kWh ]
k =1 3,6 . 10 6
2
with Ak - area of ´”k“ part [m ]
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Building Physics – Module 1
At the design stage to decide on the thermal stability of the interior in summer.
Overheating indoors affects the architectural, design and layout solutions of the building. The factors
affecting internal comfort:
a. The orientation of the building - the façade with the most windows oriented to the cardinal, with
smaller values of the "IG" (S, S, SZ). Contrast, the largest heat gains are "JZ", "J", "Z", "N".
b. Adjustments to the outer surfaces of packaging design - absorption of solar radiation is affected by
properties of substances on the external surfaces of the packaging structure (texture, color, tend to the
impact of solar radiation, ...), airflow
- Absorption of solar radiation - α = 0.89 concrete, limestone. plaster α = 0.93,
- Asphalt. cardboard α = 0.93, oxide. sheet α = 0.83, deceit. steel surface (Al), α = 0.20,
- Water, ice α = 0.92, clear of buildings. Glass α = 0.11 to 0.2, ....
c. breakdown of the outer surface of the packaging design - smooth surface = higher airflow, creating
a "corridor" of flow (vertical) air.
d. Optimizing the ratio of glazed and opaque packaging structures - windows minimal accumulation
ability, glazing transmits short-wave solar radiation than ⇒ the greenhouse effect.
e. Screening of the glazed structure - shielding elements can form different shielding devices (blinds,
curtains, ...), but also its own structure (awning, balcony, cornice, ...). The highest efficiency ⇒ mounted
outside.
g. Ventilation - The easiest system (increasing the air flow around the body = heat transfer increases
the surface!). Avoid drafts!
h.
2
Solar radiation intensity [ kWh/(m .day) ]
Orientation Thermal region A Thermal region B
north 1,737 1,711
east, west 3,030 2,779
south 2,792 2,603
horizontal surface 5,579 5,125
southeast, southwest 3,089 2,691
northeast, northwest 2,344 2,245
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Building Physics – Module 1
north 100
horizontal 340
Ab
Glossary of text 4.1
Definitions
Building envelope area is the enclosure that surrounding the protected volume
of residential floor space heated from all sides
(determined from external dimensions of the building).
Compactness - equals the ratio between the enclosing surface and the
protected volume of building.
The limit value is a criterion that at any given time in the company and the
territory is considered borderline between satisfactory and unsatisfactory
condition. The choice is always a compromise.
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Building Physics – Module 1
Self-evaluation questions
? 1. Evaluation of structures in terms of gross and net energy demand for heating -
the basic principles of approach to the evaluation in design process (so-called
envelope method)
2. Describe the basic physical factors affecting the thermal comfort of indoor
environment in winter with intermittent heating?
3. How do you determine the thermal stability of the internal environment of the
climate during the summer?
Σ
Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to introduce students to the issue of continuing the
thermal transient response. In the previous section are described some of the
principles of design of structures in terms of transient thermal conditions. Chapter
includes a description of the calculation of gross energy demand for heating. This is a
brief overview of the calculation, given that this issue during his studies at Faculty of
Civil Engineering, particularly in the field of building construction will be paid attention
to many subjects. The conclusion of this chapter is basic conditions that are imposed
on the building design in terms of heat-air-moisture performance in the evaluation of
net energy demand for heating buildings.
Continuation of this issue and its conclusion, the assessment shows the internal
comfort conditions; evaluate the thermal stability of confined spaces, depending on
physical factors in the summer and winter climate period. Given that many areas do
not accumulate sufficient internal environment, it is necessary to address issues of
overheating due attention to design and carry out construction works so that we avoid
this unpleasant phenomenon. A similar situation is in winter when there is a disrupted
heating and thermal stability and inertia of building envelope is small.
122