EUBACTERIA

Agrobacterium Agrobacterium is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria that uses horizontal gene transfer to cause tumors in
plants. Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the most commonly studied species in this genus. Agrobacterium is well
known for its ability to transfer DNA between itself and plants, and for this reason it has become an important
tool for genetic engineering.

A. tumefaciens causes crown-gall disease in plants. The disease is characterised by a tumour-like growth or gall
on the infected plant, often at the junction between the root and the shoot. Tumors are incited by the conjugative
transfer of a DNA segment (T-DNA) from the bacterial tumour-inducing (Ti) plasmid.

Escherichia Escherichia is a genus of Gram-negative, nonspore forming, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria. In
those species which are inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tracts of warm-blooded animals, Escherichia species
provide a portion of the microbially derived vitamin K for their host. A number of the species of Escherichia are
pathogenic.

While many Escherichia are commensal gut flora, particular strains of some species are known as the most
common cause of urinary tract infections, significant sources of gastrointestinal disease, ranging from
simple diarrhea to dysentery-like conditions.
Rhizobium Rhizobium is a genus of Gram-negative soil bacteria that fix nitrogen. Rhizobium species form an
endosymbiotic nitrogen-fixing association with roots of legumes.

The bacteria colonize plant cells within root nodules, where they convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia and
then provide organic nitrogenous compounds such as glutamine or ureides to the plant. The plant, in turn,
provides the bacteria with organic compounds made by photosynthesis. Thus, it acts as a natural fertilizer for the
plants.

Salmonella Salmonella is a genus of rod-shaped (bacillus) Gram-negative bacteria of the Enterobacteriaceae family.

S. enterica subspecies are found worldwide in all warm-blooded animals, and in the environment. S. bongori is
 restricted to cold-blooded animals, particularly reptiles. Strains of Salmonella cause illnesses such as typhoid
fever, paratyphoid fever, and food poisoning (salmonellosis).

Anabaena Anabaena is a genus of filamentous cyanobacteria that exist as plankton. They are known for nitrogen-fixing
abilities, and they form symbiotic relationships with certain plants, such as the mosquito fern. They are one of
four genera of cyanobacteria that produce neurotoxins, which are harmful to local wildlife, as well as farm
animals and pets. Production of these neurotoxins is assumed to be an input into its symbiotic relationships,
protecting the plant from grazing pressure.

They have heterocysts, which convert nitrogen into ammonia. Certain species of Anabaena have been used on
rice paddy fields, proving to be an effective natural fertilizer.

Under nitrogen-limiting conditions, vegetative cells differentiate into heterocysts at semiregular intervals along
the filaments. Heterocyst cells are terminally specialized for nitrogen fixation. The interior of these cells is micro-
oxic as a result of increased respiration, inactivation of O2-producing photosystem (PS) II, and formation of a
thickened envelope outside of the cell wall. Nitrogenase, sequestered within these cells, transforms dinitrogen
into ammonium at the expense of ATP and reductant—both generated by carbohydrate metabolism, a process
supplemented, in the light, by the activity of PS I. Carbohydrate, probably in the form of glucose, is synthesized
in vegetative cells and moves into heterocysts. In return, nitrogen fixed in heterocysts moves into the vegetative
cells, at least in part in the form of amino acids.

Bacillus Gram‐positive, rod shaped, obligate or facultative aerobes, produce

dormant endospores (dehydrated thick membrane enclosed shells) when under stress (anthrax).
 Streptomyces Streptomycetes are Gram-positive, and have genomes with high GC content. Found predominantly in soil and
decaying vegetation, most streptomycetes produce spores, and are noted for their distinct "earthy" odor that
results from production of a volatile metabolite, geosmin.

Streptomycetes are characterised by a complex secondary metabolism. They produce over two-thirds of the
clinically useful antibiotics of natural origin (e.g., neomycin, cypemycin, grisemycin, bottromycins and
chloramphenicol). Streptomycetes are infrequent pathogens, though infections in humans, such as mycetoma, can
be caused.

Thermus Thermus is a genus of thermophilic bacteria.

ARCHAEA
Methanobacterium Anaerobic, non‐motile, use carbon dioxide to oxidize hydrogen gas to make methane, rod shaped, found
in the GI tract of herbivores.
Halobacterium The genus Halobacterium ("salt" or "ocean bacterium") consists of several species of the Archaea with an
aerobic metabolism which requires an environment with a high concentration of salt; many of their proteins
will not function in low-salt environments. They grow on amino acids in their aerobic conditions. Their cell
walls are also quite different from those of bacteria, as ordinary lipoprotein membranes fail in high salt
concentrations.

They reproduce using binary fission (by constriction), and are motile.

Thermoplasm Thermoplasma is a genus of archaea. It belongs to the Thermoplasmata, which thrive in acidic and high-
temperature environments. Thermoplasma are facultative anaerobes and respire using sulfur and organic
carbon.

They do not contain a cell wall but instead contain a unique membrane composed mainly of a tetraether
lipoglycan containing atypical archaeal tetraether lipid attached to a glucose- and mannose-containing
oligosaccharide. This lipoglycan is presumably responsible for the acid and thermal stability of the
Thermoplasma membrane.
Sulfolobus Sulfolobus species grow in volcanic springs with optimal growth occurring at pH 2-3 and temperatures of
75-80 °C, making them acidophiles and thermophiles respectively. Sulfolobus cells are irregularly shaped
and flagellar.
EUKARYA
PROTISTA
Euglenozoa Euglena Euglena is a genus of single-celled flagellate Eukaryotes. Species of Euglena are found in fresh and
salt waters.

Most species of Euglena have photosynthesizing chloroplasts within the body of the cell, which
enable them to feed by autotrophy, like plants. However, they can also take nourishment
heterotrophically, like animals. Thus, they are mixotrophs.

They possess chloroplasts through secondary endosymbiosis of green algae (thus their chloroplasts
have three membranes).

No cell wall, but pellicle made of proteins.

Pyrenoids store paramylon (carbohydrate

similar to starch).

It has a crystalline rod in the flagella.

Trypanosoma Trypanosoma is a genus of kinetoplastids (class Kinetoplastida), a group of unicellular, parasitic,

flagellate protozoa. Most trypanosomes are heteroxenous (requiring more than one obligatory host to
complete life cycle) and most are transmitted via a vector. The majority of species are transmitted by
blood-feeding invertebrates, but there are different mechanisms among the varying species. In an
invertebrate host, they are generally found in the intestine, but normally occupy the bloodstream or an
intracellular environment in the mammalian host.
 The mitochondrial genome of the Trypanosoma, as well as of other kinetoplastids, known as the
kinetoplast, is made up of a highly complex series of catenated circles and minicircles and requires a
cohort of proteins for organisation during cell division.

Stramenopiles Paheophyta (Brown Algae) Sargasum Any number of the normally benthic
species may take on a planktonic,
often pelagic existence after being
removed from reefs during rough
weather.

Possess xanthophyll called

fucoxanthin,
giving distinctive color.

Body called a thallus with holdfast

“root” and stipe “Stem”.

Pneumatocysts provide buoyancy.

Bacillariophyta (Diatoms) Diatoma Diatoms are a major group of algae,
and are among the most common
types of phytoplankton. Diatoms are
unicellular, although they can form
colonies in the shape of filaments or
ribbons. Diatoms are producers within
the food chain.

A unique feature of diatom cells is that

they are enclosed within a cell wall
made of silica (hydrated silicon
dioxide) called a frustule.

Only male gametes of centric diatoms

are capable of movement by means of
flagella. Diatom communities are a
popular tool for monitoring
environmental conditions, past and
present, and are commonly used in
studies of water quality.

Sexual reproduction involves the

formation of an auxospore.

Four‐membraned chloroplasts (all

stremenophiles).
Alveolates Apicomplexa Plasmodium While a large portion of the
apicomplexans are known parasites of
virtually all vertebrates including
humans, they are equally diverse in
both marine and terrestrial
invertebrates.

The apicoplast is a remnant non-

photosynthetic plastid characteristic of
apicomplexans consisting of a 35kb
circular genome.

The basic life cycle of the

apicomplexan parasite is typically
complicated. Generally, there are four
transformations to complete the cycle:
the zygote, a sporozoite, a merozoite,
and a gametic stages. The typical
lifecycle of apicomplexa is well
established as they all undergo a series
of asexual and sexual reproduction
involving either one or two hosts
whereby a diploid zygote is formed by
the union of gametes. It then
undergoes a meiotic division to form
infective haploid sporozoites. Within
the body, sporozoites are thought to
target specific cells by the use of a
range of molecular armaments which
include surface adhesions such as
parasite surface proteins and binding
antigens to enter host cells.

The sporozoites then transform to

form merozoites within the host cells,
followed by several additional
generations of asexual division to
produce more merozoites and
eventually sexual gametes are
produced leading to fertilization and
the production of a diploid zygote
followed by formation of infective
diploid sporozoites.
Ciliates Paramecium Unicellular cells. Paramecia are
widespread in freshwater, brackish,
and marine environments.

Cells are typically ovoid, elongate,

foot- or cigar-shaped. The body of the
cell is enclosed by a stiff but elastic
membrane (pellicle), uniformly
covered with simple cilia, hairlike
Paramecium reproduces asexually, by
binary fission. During reproduction, the
macronucleus splits by a type of
amitosis, and the micronuclei undergo
mitosis. The cell then divides
transversally, and each new cell obtains a
copy of the micronucleus and the
macronucleus.
During conjugation, the micronuclei of
each conjugant divide by meiosis and the
haploid gametes pass from one cell to the
other. The gametes of each organism
then fuse to form diploid micronuclei.
The old macronuclei are destroyed, and
new ones are developed from the new
micronuclei. Autogamy or conjugation
can be induced by shortage of food.
Like all ciliates, Paramecium has a dual
nuclear apparatus, consisting of a
polyploid macronucleus, and one or more
diploid micronuclei. The macronucleus
controls non-reproductive cell functions,
expressing the genes needed for daily
functioning. The micronucleus is the
generative, or germline nucleus,
containing the genetic material that is
passed along from one generation to the next.
organelles which act like tiny oars to
move the organism in one direction.
Nearly all species have closely spaced
spindle-shaped trichocysts embedded
deeply in the cellular envelope
(cortex) that surrounds the organism.
Typically, an anal pore (cytoproct) is
located on the ventral surface, in the
posterior half of the cell. In all species,
there is a deep oral groove running
from the anterior of the cell to its
midpoint.
Paramecia live mainly by
heterotrophy, feeding on bacteria and
other small organisms. A few species
are mixotrophs, deriving some
nutrients from endosymbiontic algae
(chlorella) carried in the cytoplasm of
the cell.
Osmoregulation is carried out by
contractile vacuoles, which actively
expel water from the cell to
compensate for fluid absorbed by
osmosis from its surroundings.
Dinoflagellates Ceratium Dinoflagellates are common
organisms in all types of aquatic
ecosystems. Roughly half of the
species in the group are
photosynthetic, the other half is
exclusively heterotrophic and feeds
via osmotrophy and phagotrophy.

Dinoflagellates are perhaps best

known as causers of harmful algal
blooms. About 75-80% of toxic
phytoplankton species are
dinoflagellates, and they cause “red
tides” that often kill fish and/or
shellfish either directly, because of
toxin production, or because of effects
caused by large numbers of cells that
clog animal gills, deplete oxygen, etc.

They are second only to diatoms as

marine primary producers. As
phagotrophic organisms they are also
important components of the microbial
loop in the oceans and help channel
significant amounts of energy into
planktonic food webs. As
zooxanthellae, dinoflagellates have a
pivotal role in the biology of reef-
building corals.

Motile cells possess two dissimilar

flagella arising from the ventral cell
side = dinokont flagellation.
 Cells can be athecate (naked) or
thecate (posses a wall). In athecate
species the vesicles are either empty or
contain amorphous material. In walled
dinoflagellates, close-fitting cellulosic
plates - which together form the theca
- are contained within the alveolae,
one per vesicle.

Photosynthetic pigments include

chlorophylls a and c2 as well as
peridinin (a type of carotenoid only
found in dinoflagellates), b-carotene,
small amounts of diadinoxanthin and
dinoxanthin.

Rhodophyta (Red Algae) Chondrus Red algae are ecologically significant

as primary producers, providers of
structural habitat for other marine
organisms, and their important role in
the primary establishment and
maintenance of coral reefs. Some red
algae are economically important as
providers of food and gels.

Red algae have a number of general

characteristics that in combination
distinguish them from other eukaryotic
groups:

• absence of flagella and

centrioles
 • floridean starch as a storage
product and the storage of starch in the
cytoplasm
• phycoerythrin, phycocyanin, and
allophycocyanin as accessory
pigments
unstacked thylakoids in plastids

Chlorophyta Chlorophyceae Chalmydomonas Chlamydomonas is a genus of green

(Green Algae) algae consisting of unicellular
flagellates, found in stagnant water
and on damp soil, in freshwater,
seawater, and even in snow as "snow
algae".

One of the many striking features of

Chlamydomonas is that it contains ion
channels, (channelrhodopsins), that
are directly activated by light.

• Motile unicellular algae.

• Generally oval in shape.
• Cell wall is made up of
glycoprotein and non cellulosic
polysaccharides instead of
cellulose.
• Two anteriorly inserted
whiplash flagella. Flagella
originates from a basal granule
located in the anterior papillate
or non-papillate region of the
cytoplasm.
• Contractile vacuoles found at
near the bases of flagella.
• Prominent cup or bowl-shaped
chloroplast is present. The
chloroplast contains bands
composed of a variable number
of the photosynthetic thylakoids
which are not organised into
grana-like structures.
• The nucleus is enclosed in a
cup-shaped chloroplast, which
has a single large pyrenoid
where starch is formed from
photosynthetic products.
• Eye spot (stigma) present in the
anterior portion of the
chloroplast.
 Zygnematales Spirogyra Spirogyra (common names include
water silk, mermaid's tresses, and
blanket weed) is a genus of
filamentous charophyte green algae of
the order Zygnematales, named for the
helical or spiral arrangement of the
chloroplasts that is diagnostic of the
genus. It is commonly found in
freshwater areas. Spirogyra is very
common in relatively clean eutrophic
water, developing slimy filamentous
green masses.
Charales Chara They are multicellular and
superficially resemble land plants
because of stem-like and leaf-like
structures. They are found in fresh
water, particularly in limestone areas
throughout the northern temperate
zone, where they grow submerged,
attached to the muddy bottom. They
prefer less oxygenated and hard water
and are not found in waters where
mosquito larvae are present.

They are covered with calcium

carbonate deposits and are commonly
known as stoneworts. Cyanobacteria
have been found growing as epiphytes
on the surfaces of Chara, where they
may be involved in fixing nitrogen,
which is important to plant nutrition.
Embryophytes Bryophyta Sphangnum Sphagnum is a genus of mosses,
commonly known as peat moss.
Accumulations of Sphagnum can store
 water, since both living and dead
plants can hold large quantities of
water inside their cells. The empty
cells help retain water in drier
conditions. Hence, as sphagnum moss
grows, it can slowly spread into drier
conditions, forming larger mires, both
raised bogs and blanket bogs.

Sphagnum and the peat formed from it

do not decay readily because of the
phenolic compounds embedded in the
moss's cell walls. In addition, bogs,
like all wetlands, develop anaerobic
soil conditions, which produces slower
anaerobic decay rather than aerobic
microbial action. Peat moss can also
acidify its surroundings by taking up
cations, such as calcium and
magnesium, and releasing hydrogen
ions.
Polytrichium Polytrichum is a genus of mosses —
commonly called haircap moss or hair
moss. The Polytrichum genus has a
number of closely related sporophytic
characters. The scientific name is
derived from the Ancient Greek words
polys, meaning "many", and thrix,
meaning "hair". This application
specifically refers to the hairy
calyptras found on young sporophytes.
While mosses are considered non-
vascular plants, those of Polytrichum
show clear differentiation of water
 conducting tissue. One of these water
conducting tissues is termed the
hydrome, which makes up the central
cylinder of stem tissue. It consists of
cells with a relatively wide diameter
called hydroids, which conduct water.
This tissue is analogous to xylem in
higher plants. The other tissue is called
leptome, which surrounds the
hydrome, contains smaller cells and is
analogous to phloem.

Marchantiophyta Marchantia Marchantia is a genus in the family

Marchantiaceae, a group of
liverworts.
The Marchantia thallus shows
differentiation into two layers: an
upper photosynthetic or assimilatory
region and a lower storage region with
a well-defined upper epidermis with
air channels (barrel-shaped). The
thallus features tiny cup-like structures
called gemmae cups, which are used
for asexual reproduction. Multicellular
purple colored scales and unicellular
rhizoids are present on the ventral
surface of the thallus.
Lycopodiopsida Lycopodium Lycopodium is a genus of
clubmosses, also known as ground
pines or creeping cedar. They are
flowerless, vascular, terrestrial or
epiphytic plants, with widely
branched, erect, prostrate or creeping
 stems, with small, simple, needle-like
or scale-like leaves that cover the stem
and branches thickly. The leaves
contain a single, unbranched vascular
strand and are microphylls by
definition. The kidney-shaped or
reniform spore-cases (sporangia)
contain spores of one kind only
(isosporous, homosporous) and are
borne on the upper surface of the leaf
blade of specialized leaves
(sporophylls) arranged in a cone-like
strobilus at the end of upright stems.
The club-shaped appearance of these
fertile stems gives the club mosses
their common name.
Lycopods reproduce asexually by
spores. The plants have an
underground sexual phase that
produces gametes, and this alternates
in the lifecycle with the spore-
producing plant. The prothallium
developed from the spore is a
subterranean mass of tissue of
considerable size and bears both the
male and female organs (antheridia
and archegoniae).
Polypodiopsida Equisetum Equisetum is the only living genus in
Equisetaceae, a family of vascular
plants that reproduce by spores rather
than seeds.
Equisetum is a "living fossil" as it is
the only living genus of the entire
class Equisetopsida. Some
 Equisetopsida were large trees
reaching to 30 meters tall.

The stems are coated with abrasive

silicates, making them useful for
scouring (cleaning) metal items such
as cooking pots or drinking mugs,
particularly those made of tin.

Pteridium A Pteridium is a member of a group of

vascular plants that reproduce via
spores and have neither seeds nor
flowers. They differ from mosses by
being vascular, i.e., having certain
tissue that conducts water and
nutrients, and having branched stems.
Like other vascular plants, ferns have
leaves, and these are "megaphylls",
which are more complex than the
"microphylls" of clubmosses. Most
ferns are leptosporangiate ferns,
sometimes termed "true ferns"; they
produce what are called "fiddleheads"
that uncoil and expand into fronds.
Spermatopsida Ginkgophyta Ginkgo Ginkgo is a genus of highly unusual
non-flowering plants. The closest
living relatives of the clade are the
cycads, which share with the extant G.
biloba the characteristic of motile
sperm.
Pinophyta Pinus A pine is any conifer in the genus
Pinus of the family Pinaceae. Pine
trees are evergreen, coniferous
resinous trees (or, rarely, shrubs).

The bark of most pines is thick and

scaly, but some species have thin,
flaky bark. Pines are mostly
monoecious, having the male and
female cones on the same tree.
Cycadophyta Cycas The plants are dioecious, and the
family Cycadaceae is unique among
the cycads in not forming seed cones
on female plants, but rather a group of
leaf-like structures called
megasporophylls each with seeds on
the lower margins, and pollen cones or
strobilus on male individuals. Living
cycads are found in the tropical,
subtropical and warm temperate
 regions of both the north and south
hemispheres.

The foliage leaves are pinnate (or

more rarely bipinnate) and arranged
spirally, with thick and hard
keratinose.

Often considered a living fossil, the

earliest fossils of the genus Cycas
appear in the Cenozoic.

Within the living seed plants, they are

nearly unique in that they produce
motile sperm cells, and thus are an
important link to the earliest of the
ancient seed plants.
Magnoliophyta Magnoliids Magnoliaceae Magnolia Members of the magnoliid clade are
(Angiosperms) widespread throughout tropical and
temperate areas of the world and can
be large trees, shrubs, vines, lianas,
and occasionally herbs.

Magnolia is an ancient genus.

Appearing before bees did, the flowers
are theorized to have evolved to
encourage pollination by beetles. To
avoid damage from pollinating
beetles, the carpels of Magnolia
flowers are extremely tough.

Another aspect of Magnolia

considered to represent an ancestral
state is that the flower bud is enclosed
 in a bract rather than in sepals; the
perianth parts are undifferentiated and
called tepals rather than distinct sepals
and petals.

Eudicotyledons Ranunculaceae Ranunculus Ranunculus is a genus of about 600

species of plants in the
Ranunculaceae. Members of the genus
include the buttercups, spearworts, and
water crowfoots. The petals are often
highly lustrous, especially in yellow
species. Buttercups usually flower in
the spring, but flowers may be found
throughout the summer, especially
where the plants are growing as
opportunistic colonizers, as in the case
of garden weeds.

Ranunculus species are used as food

by the larvae of some Lepidoptera
species.

Ranunculaceae are mostly herbaceous

annuals or perennials

Most members of the family have

bisexual flowers which can be showy
or inconspicuous, and can be radially
or bilaterally symmetrical. The sepals
 and petals are generally free (unfused)
and typically number four or five. In
many species, the sepals are colorful
and appear petal-like. In these species,
the petals can be inconspicuous or
absent. The stems are unarmed. The
leaves are variable. Most species have
both basal and cauline (stem) leaves,
which are usually compound or lobed
but can be simple. They are typically
alternate, or occasionally opposite or
even whorled. Many species,
especially the perennials form
rhizomes that develop new roots each
year.

Rosaceae Rosa A rose is a woody perennial flowering

plant of the genus Rosa, in the family
Rosaceae, or the flower it bears.

Several economically important

products come from the Rosaceae,
including many edible fruits (such as
apples, pears, quinces, apricots, plums,
cherries, peaches, raspberries, loquats,
and strawberries), almonds, and
ornamental trees and shrubs (such as
roses, meadowsweets, photinias,
firethorns, rowans, and hawthorns).

Flowers of plants in the rose family

are generally described as "showy".
They are actinomorphic (i.e. radially
symmetrical) and almost always
 hermaphroditic. Rosaceae generally
have five sepals, five petals, and many
spirally arranged stamens. The bases
of the sepals, petals, and stamens are
fused together to form a characteristic
cup-like structure called a hypanthium.
They can be arranged in racemes,
spikes, or heads; solitary flowers are
rare.

Prunus Prunus is a genus of trees and shrubs,

which includes the plums, cherries,
peaches, nectarines, apricots and
almonds.

Members of the genus can be

deciduous or evergreen. A few species
have spiny stems. The leaves are
simple, alternate, usually lanceolate,
unlobed, and often with nectaries on
the leaf stalk. The flowers are usually
white to pink, sometimes red, with
five petals and five sepals. There are
numerous stamens. Flowers are borne
singly, or in umbels of two to six or
sometimes more on racemes. The fruit
is a fleshy drupe (a "prune") with a
single relatively large, hard-coated
seed (a "stone").
Fabaceae Pisum Pisum is a genus of the family
Fabaceae, native to southwest Asia
and northeast Africa.

Pisum sativum (the field or garden

pea), is a major human food crop (see
Pea and Split pea).

The flowers often have five generally

fused sepals and five free petals. They
are generally hermaphrodite, and have
a short hypanthium, usually cup
shaped. There are normally ten
stamens and one elongated superior
ovary, with a curved style. They are
usually arranged in indeterminate
inflorescences. Fabaceae are typically
entomophilous plants (i.e. they are
pollinated by insects), and the flowers
are usually showy to attract
pollinators.

The ovary most typically develops into

a legume. A legume is a simple dry
fruit that usually dehisces (opens along
a seam) on two sides.
Acacia Acacia, commonly known as the
wattles or acacias, is a large genus of
shrubs, lianas and trees in the
subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea
family Fabaceae.
Malvaceae Gossypium Gossypium is the cotton genus. It
belongs to the tribe Gossypieae, in the
mallow family, Malvaceae, native to
the tropical and subtropical regions.

Cotton is the primary natural fibre

used by modern humans. Cultivated
cotton is also a major oilseed crop, as
well as a main protein source for
animal feed.

Flower
• Pedicel jointed,
• Bracteate,
• Large,
• Showy,
• Pentamerous,
• Bracteolate,
• Bisexual,
• Dichlamydeous,
• Actinomorphic,
• Complete and
• Hypogynous and
• Mucilage exists in floral parts.
Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia The Euphorbiaceae, the spurge family,
is a large family of flowering plants.

The plants can be monoecious or

dioecious. The radially symmetrical
flowers are unisexual, with the male
and female flowers usually on the
same plant. The stamens (the male
organs) number from one to 10 (or
even more). The female flowers are
hypogynous, that is, with superior
ovaries.

The genera in tribe Euphorbieae,

subtribe Euphorbiinae (Euphorbia and
close relatives) show a highly
specialized form of pseudanthium
("false flower" made up of several true
flowers) called a cyathium. In the
middle of the cyathium stands a
female flower: a single pistil with
branched stigmas. This whole
arrangement resembles a single
flower.
The fruit is usually a schizocarp, but
sometimes a drupe.
Moraceae Ficus Collectively known as fig trees or figs,
they are native throughout the tropics
with a few species extending into the
semi-warm temperate zone.

The fruit of most other species are also

edible though they are usually of only
local economic importance or eaten as
bushfood.

Cactaceae Opuntia The Cactaceae are mostly spiny

succulents with photosynthetic. The
leaves are alternate, generally
extremely reduced and ephemeral or
absent, or rarely they are well
developed and fleshy. The leaves are
associated with highly modified
 axillary buds or shoots called areoles
that bear spines. The flowers are
mostly bisexual and actinomorphic
and have many weakly differentiated
perianth segments arising from an
epigynous zone. The androecium
typically consists of a very large
number of stamens arising from the
inner face of the epigynous zone. The
gynoecium consists of a compound
pistil of 3-many carpels, an equal
number of stigmas, and an equal
number of parietal placentae with
numerous ovules in the single locule
of the inferior ovary. The fruit is a
berry, often with spines or bristles.

Brassicaceae Brassica Brassica is a genus of plants in the

mustard family, the (Brassicaceae).
The members of the genus are
informally known as cruciferous
vegetables, cabbages, or mustard
plants. Crops from this genus are
sometimes called cole crops—derived
from the Latin caulis, denoting the
stem or stalk of a plant.

The genus Brassica is known for its

important agricultural and horticultural
crops and includes a number of weeds,
both of wild taxa and escapees from
cultivation. Brassica species and
varieties commonly used for food
 include broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage,
choy sum, rutabaga, turnip and some
seeds used in the production of canola
oil and the condiment mustard.

Arabidopsis Arabidopsis (rockcress) is a genus in

the family Brassicaceae. They are
small flowering plants related to
cabbage and mustard. This genus is of
great interest since it contains thale
cress (Arabidopsis thaliana), one of
the model organisms used for studying
plant biology and the first plant to
have its entire genome sequenced.
Changes in thale cress are easily
observed, making it a very useful
model.

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus Eucalyptus is a diverse genus of

flowering trees and shrubs (including a
distinct group with a multiple-stem
mallee growth habit) in the myrtle
family, Myrtaceae.

Many species, though by no means all,

are known as gum trees because they
exude copious kino from any break in
 the bark (e.g., scribbly gum). The
generic name is derived from the
Greek words ευ (eu) "well" and
καλύπτω (kalýpto) "to cover",
referring to the operculum on the
calyx that initially conceals the flower.

Flowers have numerous fluffy stamens

which may be white, cream, yellow,
pink, or red; in bud, the stamens are
enclosed in a cap known as an
operculum which is composed of the
fused sepals or petals, or both. Thus,
flowers have no petals, but instead
decorate themselves with the many
showy stamens.

Lamiaceae Lamium Lamium (dead-nettles) is a genus of

about 40–50 species of flowering
plants in the family Lamiaceae, of
which it is the type genus. They are all
herbaceous plants native to Europe,
Asia, and northern Africa, but several
have become very successful weeds of
crop fields and are now widely
naturalised across much of the
temperate world.

The flowers are bilaterally

symmetrical with five united petals
and five united sepals. They are
usually bisexual and verticillastrate (a
flower cluster that looks like a whorl
of flowers, but actually consists of two
crowded clusters).
Solanaceae Solanum The Solanaceae, or nightshades, are an
economically important family of
flowering plants. The family ranges
from annual and perennial herbs to
vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and
trees, and includes a number of
important agricultural crops, medicinal
plants, spices, weeds, and
ornamentals.

The most economically important

genus of the family is Solanum, which
contains the potato (S. tuberosum, in
fact, another common name of the
family is the "potato family"), the
tomato, and the eggplant or aubergine.
Another important genus, Capsicum,
produces both chili peppers and bell
peppers.

The flowers are usually

actinomorphic, slightly zygomorphic.
The flowers have a differentiated
perianth with a calyx and corolla (with
five sepals and five petals,
respectively) an androecium with five
stamens and two carpels forming a
gynoecium with a superior ovary (they
are therefore referred to as pentamers
and tetracyclic).

Rubiaceae Coffea The Rubiaceae are a family of

flowering plants, commonly known as
the coffee, madder, or bedstraw
 family. It consists of terrestrial trees,
shrubs, lianas, or herbs that are
recognizable by simple, opposite
leaves with interpetiolar stipules.

Most Rubiaceae are zoophilous.

Entomophilous species produce nectar
from an epigynous disk at the base of
the corolla tube to attract insects.
Ornithophily is rare and is found in
red-flowered species of Alberta,
Bouvardia, and Burchellia.
Anemophylous species are found in
the tribes Anthospermeae and
Theligoneae and are characterized by
hermaphroditic and/or unisexual
flowers that exhibit a set of specialized
features, such as striking sexual
dimorphism, increased receptive
surface of the stigmas and pendulous
anthers.
Although most Rubiaceae species are
hermaphroditic, outbreeding is
promoted through proterandry and
spatial isolation of the reproductive
organs.
Asteraceae Helianthus Helianthus or sunflowers is a genus of
plants comprising about 70 species in
the family Asteraceae.

Asteraceae or Compositae (commonly

referred to as the aster, daisy,
composite, or sunflower family) is a
very large and widespread family of
 flowering plants (Angiospermae).

Many members have composite

flowers in the form of flower heads
(capitula or pseudanthia) surrounded
by involucral bracts. When viewed
from a distance, each capitulum may
have the appearance of being a single
flower.

he "petals" or "sunrays" in a sunflower

head are actually individual strap-
shaped flowers called "ray flowers",
and the "sun disk" is made of smaller
circular shaped individual flowers
called "disc flowers".

Monocotyledons Liliaceae Lilium Lilium (members of which are true

lilies) is a genus of herbaceous
flowering plants growing from bulbs,
all with large prominent flowers.
Lilies are a group of flowering plants
which are important in culture and
literature in much of the world.

They are monocotyledonous,

perennial, herbaceous, often bulbous
geophytes. Plants in this family have
evolved with a fair amount of
 morphological diversity despite
genetic similarity. Common
characteristics include large flowers
with parts arranged in threes: with six
colored or patterned petaloid tepals
(undifferentiated petals and sepals)
arranged in two whorls, six stamens
and a superior ovary. The leaves are
linear in shape, with their veins
usually arranged parallel to the edges,
single and arranged alternating on the
stem, or in a rosette at the base. Most
species are grown from bulbs,
although some have rhizomes.
Amaryllidaceae Allium The Amaryllidaceae are a family of
herbaceous, mainly perennial and
bulbous (rarely rhizomatous)
flowering plants in the monocot order
Asparagales. The family takes its
name from the genus Amaryllis and is
commonly known as the amaryllis
family. The leaves are usually linear,
and the flowers are usually bisexual
and symmetrical, arranged in umbels
on the stem.

The petals and sepals are

undifferentiated as tepals, which may
be fused at the base into a floral tube.
Some also display a corona. Allyl
sulfide compounds produce the
characteristic odour of the onion
subfamily (Allioideae).
Orchidaceae Vanilla The Orchidaceae are a diverse and
widespread family of flowering plants,
with blooms that are often colourful
and fragrant, commonly known as the
orchid family.
Along with the Asteraceae, they are
one of the two largest families of
flowering plants.

The Orchidaceae are well known for

the many structural variations in their
flowers. Some orchids have single
flowers, but most have a racemose
inflorescence, sometimes with a large
number of flowers. As an apomorphy
of the clade, orchid flowers are
primitively zygomorphic (bilaterally
symmetrical).

The orchid flower, like most flowers

of monocots, has two whorls of sterile
elements. The outer whorl has three
sepals and the inner whorl has three
petals. The sepals are usually very
similar to the petals (thus called tepals,
1), but may be completely distinct.
The medial petal, called the labellum
or lip, which is always modified and
enlarged, is actually the upper medial
petal; however, as the flower develops,
the inferior ovary or the pedicel
usually rotates 180°, so that the
labellum arrives at the lower part of
the flower, thus becoming suitable to
form a platform for pollinators. This
characteristic, called resupination.
Poaceae Zea Poaceae or Gramineae is a large and
nearly ubiquitous family of
monocotyledonous flowering plants
known as grasses.

Poaceae includes the cereal grasses,

bamboos and the grasses of natural
grassland and cultivated lawns (turf)
and pasture. Grasses have stems that
are hollow except at the nodes and
narrow alternate leaves borne in two
ranks.

Flowers of Poaceae are

characteristically arranged in spikelets,
each having one or more florets. The
spikelets are further grouped into
panicles or spikes. The part of the
spikelet that bears the florets is called
the rachilla. A spikelet consists of two
(or sometimes fewer) bracts at the
base, called glumes, followed by one
or more florets.
Triticum
A floret consists of the flower
surrounded by two bracts, one
external—the lemma—and one
internal—the palea. The flowers are
usually hermaphroditic—maize being
an important exception—and
anemophilous or wind-pollinated. The
perianth is reduced to two scales,
called lodicules, that expand and
contract to spread the lemma and
 palea; these are generally interpreted
to be modified sepals. This complex
structure can be seen in the image on
the right, portraying a wheat (Triticum
aestivum) spikelet. The fruit of grasses
is a caryopsis, in which the seed coat
is fused to the fruit wall. A tiller is a
leafy shoot other than the first shoot
produced from the seed.

Bambusa
Cyperaceae Cyperus The Cyperaceae are a family of
monocotyledonous graminoid
flowering plants known as sedges,
which superficially resemble grasses
and rushes.

Features distinguishing members of

the sedge family from grasses or
rushes are stems with triangular cross-
sections (with occasional exceptions)
and leaves that are spirally arranged in
three ranks (grasses have alternate
leaves forming two ranks).

Arecaceae Cocos The Arecaceae are a botanical family

of perennial climbers, shrubs, acaules
and trees commonly known as palm
trees (owing to historical usage, the
family is alternatively called Palmae).

Palms have large, evergreen leaves

that are either palmately ('fan-leaved')
or pinnately ('feather-leaved')
compound and spirally arranged at the
top of the stem. The inflorescence is a
spadix or spike surrounded by one or
more bracts or spathes that become
woody at maturity. The flowers are
generally small and white, radially
symmetric, and can be either uni- or
bisexual. The sepals and petals usually
 number three each, and may be
distinct or joined at the base. The
stamens generally number six, with
filaments that may be separate,
attached to each other, or attached to
the pistil at the base. The fruit is
usually a single-seeded drupe
(sometimes berry-like).

Like all monocots, palms do not have

the ability to increase the width of a
stem (secondary growth) via the same
kind of vascular cambium found in
non-monocot woody plants. This
explains the cylindrical shape of the
trunk (almost constant diameter) that
is often seen in palms, unlike in true
trees. However, many palms, like
some other monocots, do have
secondary growth, although because it
does not arise from a single vascular
cambium producing xylem inwards
and phloem outwards, it is often called
"anomalous secondary growth".

Araceae Monstera Monstera is a genus of about 50

species of flowering plants in the arum
family, Araceae, native to tropical
regions of the Americas.
Species in the Araceae are often
rhizomatous or tuberous and are often
found to contain calcium oxalate
crystals or raphides. The leaves can
vary considerably from species to
 species. The inflorescence is
composed of a spadix, which is almost
always surrounded by a modified leaf
called a spathe. In monoecious aroids
(possessing separate male and female
flowers, but with both flowers present
on one plant), the spadix is usually
organized with female flowers towards
the bottom and male flowers towards
the top. In aroids with perfect flowers,
the stigma is no longer receptive when
the pollen is released, thus preventing
self-fertilization. Some species are
dioecious.
Many plants in this family are
thermogenic (heat-producing).

Bromeliaceae Ananas Ananas is a plant genus of the

Bromeliad family (Bromeliaceae),
native to South America and Central
America which includes the species
Ananas comosus, the pineapple.

The inflorescences produced by

bromeliads are also regarded as
considerably more diverse than any
other plant family. Some flower spikes
may reach 10 meters tall, while others
only measure 2–3 mm across. Upright
stalks may be branched or simple with
spikes retaining their color from two
weeks up to 12 months, depending on
species. In some species, the flower
remains unseen, growing deep in the
 base of the plants.

Root systems vary according to plant

type. Terrestrial bromeliad species
have complex root systems that gather
water and nutrients, while epiphytic
bromeliads only grow hard, wiry roots
to attach themselves to trees and rocks.
Ameobozoa Lobosea Amoeba An amoeba often called amoeboid, is a type of cell or organism which has the ability to alter its shape,
primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods. Specifically, the amoeba moves by extending a
pseudopod (a process known as “ballooning”), attaching it to the substrate and filling it with cytosol
and releasing its rear portion from attachment to the substrate which results in the organism being
propelled forward.

In older classification systems, most amoebas were placed in the class or subphylum Sarcodina, a
grouping of single-celled organisms that possess pseudopods or move by protoplasmic flow.
Amoebae move and feed by using pseudopods, which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the
coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.

Eumycetozoa Dictyostelium Slime mold or slime mould is an informal name given to several kinds of unrelated eukaryotic
(Slime molds) organisms that can live freely as single cells, but can aggregate together to form multicellular
reproductive structures. Slime molds were formerly classified as fungi but are no longer considered part
of that kingdom.

Many slime molds, mainly the "cellular" slime molds, do not spend most of their time in this state. As
long as food is abundant, these slime molds exist as single-celled organisms. When food is in short
supply, many of these single-celled organisms will congregate and start moving as a single body. In this
state they are sensitive to airborne chemicals and can detect food sources. They can readily change the
shape and function of parts and may form stalks that produce fruiting bodies, releasing countless spores,
light enough to be carried on the wind or hitch a ride on passing animals.
Fungi Zygomycota Mucor Zygomycete hyphae may be coenocytic, forming septa only where gametes are formed or to wall off
dead hyphae.

Zygomycota are defined and distinguished from all other fungi by sexual reproduction via zygospores
following gametangial fusion and asexual reproduction by uni-to-multispored sporangia within which
nonmotile, single-celled sporangiospores are produced.

Zygomycota, like all true fungi, produce cell walls containing chitin. They grow primarily as mycelia,
or filaments of long cells called hyphae. Unlike the so-called 'higher fungi' comprising the Ascomycota
and Basidiomycota which produce regularly septate mycelia, most Zygomycota form hyphae which are
generally coenocytic because they lack cross walls or septa.

The unique character (synapomorphy) of the Zygomycota is the zygospore. Zygospores are formed
within a zygosporangium after the fusion of specialized hyphae called gametangia during the sexual
cycle. A single zygospore is formed per zygosporangium. The mature zygospore is often thick-walled,
and undergoes an obligatory dormant period before germination. Most Zygomycota are thought to
have a zygotic or haplontic life cycle. Thus, the only diploid phase takes place within the zygospore.
Ascomycota Claviceps The Ascomycota, or sac fungi, is monophyletic and accounts for approximately 75% of all described
fungi. It includes most of the fungi that combine with algae to form lichens, and the majority of fungi
that lack morphological evidence of sexual reproduction. Among the Ascomycota are some famous
fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing
industries (not to mention molecular developmental biology), Penicillium chrysogenum, producer of
penicillin, Morchella esculentum, the edible morel, and Neurospora crassa, the "one-gene-one-
enzyme" organism.

The shared derived character that defines the Ascomycota is the ascus. It is within the ascus that
Penicillium
 nuclear fusion and meiosis take place. In the ascus, one round of mitosis typically follows meiosis to
leave eight nuclei, and eventually eight ascospores. Ascospores are formed within the ascus by an
enveloping membrane system, which packages each nucleus with its adjacent cytoplasm and provides
the site for ascospore wall formation.

Ascomycota are heterotrophs and obtain nutrients from dead or living organisms. The textbook
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or
mitospores). Following meiosis, the ascospores take shape inside the ascus when new cell walls
surround each nucleus.

Ascomycota are either single-celled (yeasts) or filamentous (hyphal) or both (dimorphic). Yeasts grow
Saccharomyces by budding or fission and hyphae grow apically and branch laterally. Most yeasts and filamentous
Ascomycota are haploid, but some species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae for example, can also be diploid.
Mitospores may simply reproduce the parent, or may also act as gametes to fertilize a compatible
partner. Some Ascomycota must outbreed (heterothallic), others can also self, and some can only self
(homothallic).
Basidiomycota Agaricus Symbiotic lifestyles (intimate associations with other living organisms) are well developed in the
Basidiomycota. Symbiotic Basidiomycota include important plant pathogens, such as "rusts"
(Uredinales) and "smuts" (Ustilaginales), which attack wheat and other crops. Other symbiotic
Basidiomycota cause diseases in animals, including humans.

Basidiomycota are unicellular or multicellular, sexual or asexual, and terrestrial or aquatic. The most
Puccinia diagnostic feature is the production of basidia (sing. basidium), which are the cells on which sexual
spores are produced, and from which the group takes its name. A long-lived dikaryon, in which each
cell in the thallus contains two haploid nuclei resulting from a mating event, is another characteristic
feature.
The basidium is the cell in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) and meiosis occur, and on which
haploid basidiospores are formed (basidia are not produced by asexual Basidiomycota). Many
Basidiomycota produce basidia on multicellular fruiting bodies (e.g., mushrooms), but basidia can also
be formed directly from yeasts or other single cells. Typically, four spores are produced on each
basidium, at the tips of minute stalks called sterigmata. Each spore usually contains one or two of the
haploid meiotic products.

Basidiospores germinate to form hyphae (filaments) or yeast cells that are typically haploid and
uninucleate. The hyphae of Basidiomycota are septate. Ultrastructural features of the septa, visible
with transmission electron microscopy, have been important in developing phylogenetic hypotheses in
Basidiomycota. Mating in Basidiomycota involves fusion of haploid cells, but fusion of the nuclei is
usually delayed until the basidia are formed. Thus, the dominant phase of the life cycle in most
Basidiomycota is a dikaryon, in which the two nuclei brought together in mating exist side-by-side in
each cell.
Metazoa Porifera Spongia Sponges (phylum Porifera) are an exclusively aquatic and, with a few exceptions.
(Animalia)
It is also often mentioned that sponges lack many characteristics associated with other animals,
including a mouth, sensory organs, organized tissues and neurons and muscle cells, which are
otherwise ubiquitous in Metazoa. It is difficult to say, however, whether the lack of aforementioned
features represents a primitive condition of sponges or a secondary loss due to their sedentary and
water-filtering lifestyle.
The body plan of a sponge is simple: a Traditionally, sponges have been
single outer layer of cells (the regarded as a monophyletic group
pinacoderm) separates the inner cellular defined by several synapomorphies,
region (mesohyl) from the external including the presence of:
environment. The pinacoderm lines the
internal canals and is eventually • choanocytes
replaced by the choanoderm, a layer of • an aquiferous system with
characteristic flagellated collar cells external pores
(choanocytes) grouped in chambers. • mineral spicules
Choanocytes make up the principle • high cellular mobility and
‘pump’ and’ filter’ of the system, totipotency
driving water through the sponge, • absence of tissues
trapping and phagocytizing suspended
bacteria and other particulate food,
which is then digested and nutrients
distributed among the cells of the
mesohyl that facilitate the functions of
feeding, respiration and reproduction.
The flow of water inside a sponge is
unidirectional: the water is drawn in
through tiny pores (ostia) in the
pinacoderm and exits through one or
more larger openings (osculae). The
aquiferous system of a sponge is usually
supported by a combination of two
types of skeletal elements: mineral
spicules (either calcareous or siliceous)
and special protein fibers (spongin),
although either one or both of these
elements can be absent.

Cnidaria Anthozoa Anemonia The exclusively aquatic phylum Cnidaria is represented by polyps such as
sea anemones and corals, and by medusae such as jellyfish. A polypoid or a
medusoid cnidarian is a radially or biradially symmetrical, uncephalized
 animal with a single body opening, the mouth. The mouth is surrounded by
tentacles studded with microscopic stinging capsules known as
nematocysts that are the agents of offense and defense. The possession of
intrinsic nematocysts is the defining characteristic of the phylum;
nematocysts are the most diverse and widespread of three types of cnidae
(cnidos = thread) -- hence the preferred name of the phylum.
Corallium

Scyphozoa Aurelia

Cnidarians are diploblastic -- that is, the body and tentacles consist of two
cell layers, the endoderm (sometimes referred to as the gastrodermis) and
the ectoderm (the epidermis). Between the two cell layers is the mesoglea,
which ranges from little more than a glue to bind the layers (for example, in
Hydra) to the vast bulk of the animal (for example, in jellyfish of Class
Scyphozoa). The body encompasses a single sac-like body space, the
coelenteron (koilos = cavity; enteron = intestine), which communicates
with the surrounding medium through the mouth. The less preferred name
of the phylum, Coelenterata, is based on this attribute. The coelenteron
(also termed the gastrovascular cavity) serves for gas exchange and
digestion.

All cnidarians are carnivorous, with cnidae and tentacles active in prey
capture. Because polyps are typically sessile, and only some medusae
possess sensory structures, cnidarians are generally believed to be passive
predators, feeding on prey items that blunder into their tentacles. Some
cnidarians can absorb dissolved organic matter directly from seawater, but
it is not known how widespread this ability is. Living within the tissues of
anthozoans of many species and hydrozoans and scyphozoans of a small
number of species are unicellular algae from which the animals derive
reduced carbon. Dinoflagellate symbionts, termed zooxanthellae, are by far
the most common algal symbionts; they are exclusively marine. Green
algal symbionts, termed zoochlorellae, occur in both marine and freshwater
cnidarians.

The text-book depiction of the typical cnidarian life cycle is an alternation

between a medusa and a polyp (termed metagenesis), the former the
sexually reproductive stage and the latter the asexual stage. In fact, an
attribute of the entire class Anthozoa is the absence of a medusa. At least
some individuals of all anthozoan species form gametes; those of some
species may reproduce vegetatively as well. The other three classes --
Cubozoa, Hydrozoa, and Scyphozoa -- are often grouped as the
"Medusozoa" because the medusa phase is present in them all. Indeed, the
medusa dominates the life cycle of members of the classes Cubozoa and
Scyphozoa (Cubozoa was formerly considered an order of Scyphozoa, and
some specialists still consider it as such). Life cycles of the Hydrozoa are
the most diverse in the phylum: although the polyp is the more conspicuous
and persistent stage in most taxa, some lack the medusa phase, whereas
others lack the polyp phase. Hydra, which is used in many textbooks to
illustrate the phylum, is utterly atypical: a hydrozoan, it lacks a medusa, it
has aggregations of gametogenic tissue that function as gonads, and it is
among only a handful of freshwater cnidarian species.

The cnidarian larva is the planula, a pear-shaped, entirely ciliated animal.

In the "typical" cnidarian life cycle, male and female medusae spawn freely
into the sea, where fertilization occurs and a planula develops. At
metamorphosis, the planula settles on and attaches to the substratum, where
it metamorphoses into a polyp. The primary polyp produces additional
polyps asexually, by budding, stolonic outgrowth, or some other process, to
form a clone or a colony. At the appropriate time, determined perhaps by
size of the colony or environmental conditions, rather than or in addition to
polyps, medusae are produced asexually (in Cubozoa, each polyp
metamorphoses into a medusa). They are released to take up a pelagic
existence and the cycle begins anew.

The cnida, or nematocyst, which is the sine qua non of the phylum, is
secreted by the Golgi apparatus of a cell termed a cnidoblast. A cnida
therefore is technically not an organelle, but, rather, the most complex
secretory product known. Upon receiving the appropriate physical and/or
chemical stimulus, a cnida fires, everting a tubule many times the length of
the capsule. The tubule may deliver a toxin, may stick to a prey item, or
may entangle an object, depending on the type of cnida. A cnida can fire
but once. There are three major types of cnidae: nematocysts, spirocysts,
and ptychocysts. Nematocysts occur in all classes of Cnidaria, but some of
the 30-plus varieties of nematocysts are restricted to members of certain
classes. Spirocysts are found only in Anthozoa; they are adhesive in nature.
Ptychocysts are the most taxonomically restricted in distribution, occurring
only in the anthozoan order Ceriantharia; their function is to entangle bits
of mud among their robust tubules to form the feltwork that constitutes the
tube of these burrowing animals.

Two body forms are characteristic of cnidarians -- the polyp and the
medusa. With a few exceptions, a columnar polyp is sedentary, being
attached to or burrowed into the substratum by the end opposite the mouth.
Thus, its tentacles are typically considered to point upward and outward.
Polyps of some species propagate vegetatively, forming colonies (if the
progeny remain attached to one another) or clones (if the progeny separate).
Polymorphism occurs in colonies of some species of hydrozoans and
anthozoans, the polyps being specialized for functions such as feeding,
defense, and sexual reproduction. Polyps of some taxa form a skeleton
within or external to their tissues; some skeletons are mineralic (of calcium
carbonate), others are organic (of chitin or another carbohydrate), and some
are both. The spheroidal or discoidal medusae are solitary, and those of
most species are pelagic. Although typically depicted as living with mouth
and tentacles pointing down, medusae assume all orientations in the water.
Medusae of few species possess the ability to propagate vegetatively. The
common name of medusae, jellyfish, alludes to the massive amount of
mesoglea that contributes to their buoyancy.

All cnidarians have hydrostatic skeletons, regardless of whether they also

have mineralic and/or organic exoskeletons or endoskeletons. The muscles
of the body wall operate against the fluid in the coelenteron to extend
individual polyps and to affect the swimming of medusae, for example. The
hollow tentacles of anthozoans are extended through hydrostatic action as
well.
 Hydrazoa Hydra

Ctenophora Mertensia Ctenophores (Greek for "comb-bearers") have eight "comb rows" of fused cilia arranged along the
sides of the animal, clearly visible along the red lines in these pictures. These cilia beat synchronously
and propel ctenophores through the water. Some species move with a flapping motion of their lobes or
undulations of the body. Many ctenophores have two long tentacles, but some lack tentacles
completely.

Ctenophores, variously known as comb jellies, sea gooseberries, sea walnuts, or Venus's girdles, are
voracious predators. Unlike cnidarians, with which they share several superficial similarities, they lack
stinging cells. Instead, in order to capture prey, ctenophores possess sticky cells called colloblasts. In a
few species, special cilia in the mouth are used for biting gelatinous prey.
Bilateria Platyhelminthes Trematoda Schistosoma Characteristics of Platyhelminthes:
1)Bilaterally symmetrical.
2)Body having 3 layers of tissues with organs
and organelles.
3)Body contains no internal cavity.
4)Possesses a blind gut (i.e. it has a mouth but
no anus)
5)Has Protonephridial excretory organs instead
of an anus.
Turbellaria Pseudoceros 6)Has normally a nervous system of
 longitudinal fibres rather than a net.
7)Generally dorsoventrally flattened.
8)Reproduction mostly sexual as
hermaphrodites.
9)Mostly they feed on animals and other
smaller life forms.
10)Some species occur in all major habitats,
including many as parasites of other animals.

Cestoda Echinococcus While they remain fairly morphologically

simple the Platyhelminthes show several
advance in body structure over the simple
radial phyla that came before them. They have
a definite congregation of of sensory organs(a
few have light sensing organs) and nervous
tissues at one end of their body giving them a
distinct head and tail. They also have distinct
upper and lower (dorsal and ventral) body
surfaces. They have a number of organs and
even the beginnings of organ systems and a
more distinct 3rd layer of cells in their body
plan. The evolution of this connective tissue,
called parenchyma, the cells of which serve as
storage reservoirs as well as protecting the
internal organs, is a major step forward toward
the more complex body plans of higher
animals, such as humans.
Lophotrochozoa Mollusca Gastropoda Arion Most gastropods have separate sexes but some
groups (mainly the Heterobranchia) are
hermaphroditic. Most hermaphroditic forms do
not normally engage in self-fertilization. Basal
gastropods release their gametes into the water
column where they undergo development;
Achantia derived gastropods use a penis to copulate or
exchange spermatophores and produce eggs
surrounded by protective capsules or jelly.

The first gastropod larval stage is typically a

trochophore that transforms into a veliger and
then settles and undergoes metamorphosis to
form a juvenile snail. While many marine
species undergo larval development, there are
also numerous marine taxa that have direct
development, this mode being the norm in
freshwater and terrestrial taxa. Brooding of
developing embryos is widely distributed
throughout the gastropods, as are sporadic
occurrences of hermaphrodism in the non-
heterobranch taxa.
Gastropods are characterized by the possession
of a single (often coiled) shell, although this is
lost in some slug groups, and a body that has
undergone torsion so that the pallial cavity
faces forwards. They have a well-developed
head bearing a pair of cephalic tentacles and
eyes that are primitively situated near the outer
bases of the tentacles. In some taxa the eyes are
located on short to long eye stalks. The mantle
edge in some taxa is extended anteriorly to
form an inhalant siphon and this is sometimes
associated with an elongation of the shell
opening (aperture) — this is shown in the photo
of the caenogastropod Conus bullatus below.
The foot is usually rather large and is typically
used for crawling. The foot typically bears an
operculum that seals the shell opening
(aperture) when the head-foot is retracted into
the shell (see photos below). While this
structure is present in all gastropod veliger
larvae, it is absent in the embryos of some
direct developing taxa and in the juveniles and
adults of many heterobranchs. The nervous and
circulatory systems are well developed with the
concentration of nerve ganglia being a common
evolutionary theme.

The shell is typically coiled, usually dextrally,

the axis of coiling being around a central
columella to which a large retractor muscle is
attached. The uppermost part of the shell is
formed from the larval shell (the protoconch).
The shell is partly or entirely lost in the
 juveniles or adults of some groups, with total
loss occurring in several groups of land slugs
and sea slugs (nudibranchs).
Cephallopoda Nautilus Cephalopods are the most intelligent, most
mobile, and the largest of all molluscs. Squid,
octopuses, cuttlefish, the chambered nautilus,
and their relatives display remarkable diversity
in size and lifestyle with adaptations for
predation, locomotion, disguise, and
communication.
Sepia
Sexes are separate and mating usually includes
a courtship that often involves elaborate color
changes. This is followed by the transfer of a
spermatophore (sperm packet) by a male to a
female through her mantle opening. The
Bivalvia Pinctada spermatophore is transferred by the male using
either a penis or a modified arm called a
hectocotylus. Most females then lay large
yolky eggs in clusters on the ocean floor or on
any other hard substrate. Eggs develop by
dividing unequally instead of in the spiral
pattern of other molluscs. It is thought this is a
derived mode of development. After a period of
development within the egg, juveniles hatch
out directly without the swimming larval stage
common to many other molluscs. Most males
and females die shortly after spawning.

Cephalopods are the only mollusks with a

closed circulatory system. Coleoids have two
gill hearts (also known as branchial hearts) that
move blood through the capillaries of the gills.
A single systemic heart then pumps the
 oxygenated blood through the rest of the body.
Like most molluscs, cephalopods use
hemocyanin, a copper-containing protein,
rather than hemoglobin, to transport oxygen.
As a result, their blood is colorless when
deoxygenated and turns blue when exposed to
air.
Annelida Polychaeta Nereis The Polychaeta also known as the bristle
worms or polychaetes, are a paraphyletic class
of annelid worms, generally marine. Each body
segment has a pair of fleshy protrusions called
parapodia that bear many bristles, called
chaetae, which are made of chitin.
Clitellata Hirudo All clitellata are hermaphrodites. During
(Oligochaeta) reproduction, the clitellum secretes a coat
which hardens. The worm then creeps out
backward from the coat and deposits either
fertilized zygotes or both ova and sperm into
the coat, which is then packed into a cocoon.
The zygotes then evolve further directly in the
cocoon without passing through a larva
Lumbricus stadium (as opposed to other annelids, e.g.
polychaeta.)
Ecdysozoa Nematoda Caenorhabditis Nematodes were once classified with a very large and heterogeneous
cluster of animals grouped together on the basis of their overall
worm-like appearance, simple structure of an internal body cavity
called a pseudocoelom, and the lack of features such as cilia and a
well-defined head that are found in most animals. This group,
variously known as Aschelminths or Pseudocoelomata, is today no
longer recognized as a natural one. It is quite likely that the simple
body plan of these organisms has resulted from reduction and
simplification from more than one group of ancestral organisms, and
so the pseudocoelom is neither a uniquely derived nor useful
character. Current studies indicate that nematodes are actually related
to the arthropods and priapulids in a newly recognized group, the
Ecdysozoa.

The body of a nematode is long and narrow, resembling a tiny thread

in many cases, and this is the origin of the group's name. The
epidermis (skin) of a nematode is highly unusual; it is not composed
of cells like other animals, but instead is a mass of cellular material
and nuclei without separate membranes. This epidermis secretes a
thick outer cuticle which is both tough and flexible. The cuticle is a
 feature shared with arthropods and other ecdysozoans. As in those
other groups, the cuticle is periodically shed during the life of a
nematode as it grows, usually four times before reaching the adult
stage. The cuticle is the closest thing a roundworm has to a skeleton,
and in fact the worm uses its cuticle as a support and leverage point
for movement. Long muscles lie just underneath the epidermis. These
muscles are all aligned longitudinally along the inside of the body, so
the nematode can only bend its body from side to side, not crawl or
lift itself. A free-swimming roundworm thus looks rather like it is
thrashing about aimlessly.

The muscles are activated by two nerves that run the length of the
nematode on both the dorsal (back) and ventral (belly) side. Unlike
other animals, where the nerves branch out to the muscle cells, a
nematode's muscle cells branch toward the nerves. The ventral nerve
has a series of nerve centers along its length, and both nerves connect
to a nerve ring and additional nerve centers located near the head.

The head of a nematode has a few tiny sense organs, and a mouth
opening into a muscular pharynx (throat) where food is pulled in and
crushed. This leads into a long simple gut cavity lacking any muscles,
and then to an anus near the tip of the body. Food digested in the gut
is not distributed by any specialized vascular system, and neither is
there a respiratory system for the uptake or distribution of oxygen.
Rather, nutrients and waste are distributed in the body cavity, whose
contents are regulated by an excretory canal along each side of the
body.
Many nematodes are able to suspend their life processes completely
when conditions become unfavorable; in these resistant states they
can survive extreme drying, heat, or cold, and then return to life when
favorable conditions return. This is known as cryptobiosis, and is a
feature nematodes share with rotifers and tardigrades.
Arthropoda See below
ARTHROPODA
Chelicerata Opiliones Phalangium The subphylum Chelicerata is one of the five subdivisions of the phylum Arthropoda, with members
characterized by the absence of antennae and mandibles (jaws) and the presence of chelicerae (a pincer-like
mouthpart as the anterior appendage, composed of a base segment and a fang portion). Extant chelicerates
include spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites (class Arachnida), horseshoe crabs (class Xiphosura or
Merostomata), and sea spiders (class Pycnogonida).

As with all arthropods, chelicerates are characterized by the possession of a segmented body, a pair of
jointed appendages on each segment, and an exoskeleton.

In the Chelicerata, the body is divided into two parts. The anterior part is called a prosoma (or
Scorpionida Pandinus cephalothorax) and is composed of eight segments plus a presegmental acron. The posterior part is called a
opisthosoma (or abdomen) and is composed of twelve segments plus a postsegmental telson.

The prosoma usually has eyes. The first two segments of the prosoma bear no appendages; the third bears
the chelicerae. The fourth segment bears legs or pedipalps, and all subsequent segments bear legs. The legs
on the prosoma are either uniramous or have a very reduced gill branch, and are adapted for walking or
swimming. The appendages on the opisthosoma, in contrast, are either absent or are reduced to their gill
branch.
Acari Sarcoptes
As in other arthropods, the mouth lies between the second and third segments, but whereas in other groups
there is usually a pair of antennae on the last preoral segment, here there are none.

The chelicerae, which give the group its name, are pointed appendages that grasp the food in place of the
chewing mandibles most other arthropods have. Most chelicerates are unable to ingest anything solid, so
they drink blood or spit or inject digestive enzymes into their prey.

Ixodes
 Araneae Haplopelma
Nephila

Myriapoda Chilopoda Scolopendra Centipedes have long, flattened, worm-like, segmented bodies. They can have 12-100 body segments. They
(centipedes) have long, jointed antennae on their heads. The next segment of their bodies has a pair of modified legs.
These legs are not used for walking, they have sharp poisonous claws on them that the centipede uses to
capture and paralyze its prey. Each of the remaining segments of their bodies has a pair of jointed walking
legs. In many species, the walking legs end in a sharp claw.

Centipedes are nocturnal and spend the day in moist, dark places like under leaf litter, rotting logs, bark, or
Diplopoda Glomeris rocks.It is a foot in length and lives in South America. Most centipedes are carnivores and eat insects.
(millipedes)
Millipedes have long, round, worm-like segmented bodies. They have round heads with very short
antennae. Millipedes have two pairs of legs on each segment of their body. They are usually 1-2 inches in
length and brown or black in color.

Millipedes don't have poison claws like centipedes. When they are threatened, they usually coil up in a ball.
Some species emit a poisonous or smelly secretion. Most species of millipedes are scavengers or
herbivores and eat decaying vegetation and leaf litter.
Crustacea Branchiopoda Daphnia Species of Crustacea such as the shrimp, prawn, crab, or lobster are familiar. However, there are many
 more with less common vernacular names such as the water fleas, beach fleas, sand hoppers, fish lice,
wood lice, sow bugs, pill bugs, barnacles, scuds, slaters, and krill or whale food. The Crustacea are one of
the most difficult animal groups to define because of their great diversity of structure, habit, habitat, and
development. No one character or generalization will apply equally well to all.

Crustaceans have segmented, chitin-encased bodies; articulated appendages; mouthparts known as

mandibles during some stage of their life, however modified they may be for cutting, chewing, piercing,
sucking, or licking; and two pairs of accessory feeding organs, the maxillules and maxillae. The Crustacea
are unique in having two pairs of antennae: the first pair, or antennules, and the second pair, the antennae
Triops proper. The latter are almost always functional at some stage of every crustacean's life.

A dorsal shield or carapace of variable length arises from the dorsum of the third cephalic somite and
covers the cephalon and cephalothorax to varying extent. The carapace reaches its greatest development in
the malacostracan Decapoda (shrimps, lobsters, and crabs).
The chitinous cuticle covering the crustacean body is its external skeleton (exoskeleton). The chitin is
flexible at the joints, in foliaceous appendages, and throughout the exoskeletons of many small and soft-
bodied species, but it is often thickened and stiff in others. It becomes calcified in many species as a result
of the deposition of lime salts.

The paired appendages are typically biramous and consist of two branches: the endopod and exopod. The
endopod is definitely segmented in the higher Crustacea. The endopods are variously modified to serve a
variety of functions and needs such as sensory perception, respiration, locomotion, prehension and
comminution of food, cleansing, defense, offense, reproduction, and sex recognition and attraction. If
retained in the adult, the exopod may remain leaf- or paddlelike, or become flagellated structures,
facilitating swimming or aiding respiration.

Crustacea take up oxygen by means of gills, the general body surface, or special areas of it. Some sow or
pill bugs have special tracheal developments in their abdominal appendages for the same purpose.
Malacostraca Homarus Malacostraca is a large and diverse taxon (generally class, but sometimes subclass or order) of marine,
freshwater, and terrestrial crustaceans, including many of the most familiar crustaceans, such as crabs,
lobsters, shrimps, which are characterized by a maximum of 19 pairs of appendages, as well as trunk limbs
that are sharply differentiated into a thoracic series and an abdominal series. Other familiar members of the
Malacostraca are the stomatopods (mantis shrimp) and euphausiids (krill), as well as the amphipods, and
the only substantial group of land-based crustaceans, the isopods (woodlice and related species). This
 Stenopus group represents two thirds of all crustacean species and contains all the larger forms.
The taxonomic status of the crustaceans has long been debated, with Crustacea variously assigned to the
rank of phylum, subphylum, and superclass level. As a result, the taxonomic status of Malacostraca is not
settled, generally being considered a class within the subphylum or superclass Crustacea, but sometimes
considered as an order or subclass under the class Crustacea.

As crustaceans, members of Malacostraca are characterized by having branched (biramous) appendages, an

exoskeleton made up of chitin and calcium, two pairs of antennae that extend in front of the mouth, and
Birgus
paired appendages that act like jaws, with three pairs of biting mouthparts. They share with other
arthropods the possession of a segmented body, a pair of jointed appendages on each segment, and a hard
exoskeleton that must be periodically shed for growth. Typical characteristics include:

• The head has 6 segments, with a pair of antennules and a pair of antennae, as well as mouthparts.
• They usually have 8 pairs of thoracic legs, of which the first pair or several pairs are often modified
into feeding appendages called maxillipeds. The first pair of legs behind the maxillipeds is often
modified into pincers.
Oniscus • There are 8 thoracic segments. The cephalothorax is covered by a carapace form via fusion of 3 of
them, letting the 5 other uncovered.
• The abdomen is behind and often used for swimming. There are 6 abdominal segments.
• They have compound stalked or sessile eyes.
• The female genital duct opens at the sixth thoracic segment; the male genital duct opens at the eighth
thoracic segment.
• They have a two-chambered stomach.
• They have a centralized nervous system.

However, this is a very diverse group. Although the term Malacostraca comes from the Greek for "soft
shell," the shell of different species may be large, small, or absent. Likewise, the abdomen may be long or
short, and the eyes may show different forms, being on movable stalks or sessile.
Hexapoda • 3 thoracic Collembola Podura Collembola – springtails
segments • Short legs, plump oval body, few abdominal segments
• 3 pairs of legs • Furcula ʻtailʼ held under tension under the body allows jumping
Metamorphosis
• Anamorphosis
• Simple
metamorphosis =
hemimetabolous
(Nymph, instar)
• True
metamorphosis =
holometabolous

Insecta Thysanura Lepisma A.k.a. Silverfish.

• Two lateral abdominal cerci and a caudal filament
Greek • Wingless
thysanos • Long flat body, simple mouthparts, reduced or no eyes, long antennae
oura – • Unique life cycle – effectively no metamorphosis
tassel tail • Continue to molt after sexual maturity
• Unspecialized chewing mouthparts
• Often mistaken for earwigs - Dermaptera

Pterygota Odonata Libellula A.k.a. Dragonflies.

Greek odontos – tooth • Toothed mandibles (bad name, lots of other insects also
have this)
• Carnivorous chewing mouthparts
• Large compound eyes
• Short filiform antennae
• Hemimetabolous development

Dictyoptera Blattaria Blatta • Latin blatta – cockroach

• Thickened forewings –
Greek diktuon pteron – net wing tegmina
• Also includes Mantodea, the • Prominent cerci, flat body,
mantids small head under extended
pronotum, long filiform

Orthoptera
Greek ortho ptera – straight wing
antennae
• Chewing mouthparts
• Hemimetabolous – young are
often very pale
Isoptera Macrotermes A.k.a. termites.
Iso pter – same wings
• Winged individuals have two
sets of nearly identical wings
• Typically wingless
• Winged alates are
reproductive
• Eusocial caste system
• Differential caste
morphology
• Thorax-abdomen connection
is often not distinct
Tettigonia • Prominent tympanum ʻeardrumʼ
• Chewing mouthparts
• Simple metamorphosis
• The main difference between a grasshopper and a cricket
is that crickets tend to have long antennae, grasshoppers
have short antennae.
• Crickets stridulate ("sing") by rubbing their wings
Schistocerca together, while grasshoppers stridulate by rubbing their
long hind legs against their wings.
• Grasshoppers detect sound by means of little 'ears' at the
base of their abdomen; in crickets these are on the front
legs.
• These insects go through incomplete metamorphosis (i.e.
egg, nymphs, adult, without a pupal stage).
• In both crickets and grasshoppers, the hind legs are large
 in proportion to their bodies, and this enables them to jump
really long distances.

Phthiraptera Pediculus • Obligate parasites of mammal and avian species

Greek phtheir a ptera – louse no • Biting/sucking mouthparts - parasitic
wings • Dorsoventrally flattened body
• Generally colorless
• Often eyeless, or very reduced eyes
• Reduced filiform antennae
• Adapted tarsal hooks

Hemiptera Aphis Generic ʻbugsʼ – cicadas, aphids, stink bugs

• Hemimetabolous
• Wingless young slowly develop wings through
successive instars
• Some have “half-and-half” forewings
• Half leathery and half membranous
• “X marks the bug”
• Donʼt mistake them for beetles!
• Visibly crossed wings
Cicadella • Piercing mouthparts – Rostrum
• Feed on fluids
• Varied antennae

Endoptergyota Coleoptera Carabus A.k.a. Beetles.

Greek Endo ptery – internal wings • Thickened forewings – elytra
• Wings develop within – true Greek koleos • Hind wings are membranous
metamorphosis = holometabolous pteron – sheath flight wings
• All orders of endopterygota are wing • Pronounced pronotum
holometabolous • Downward pointing head
• Often enlarged specialized
Agrilus mandibles

Curculio

Psylliodes
Hymenoptera Urocerus • Includes bees, wasps, ants
• Complete metamorphosis
Greek hymen • Two pairs of wings act as one
ptera – • Hamuli hooks on hind wings
membranous attach to forewings
wing • Some mouthparts modified to
sucking proboscis
• Distinctive pinched abdomen
Agaon • Major modification of ovipositor
to sting

Rhyssa
 Apis

Vespa

Lepidoptera Papilio Butterflies, moths

 • Larval chewing mouthparts,
Greek lepis ptera adult sucking mouthparts
– scale wing • Large compound eyes
• Proboscis
• Scaly wings

Macroglossum

Acronicta
 Geometra

Diptera Culex Includes flies and mosquitoes

• A winged insect with only one
Greek di ptera – pair of wings
two wings • Halteres – greatly reduced wings
• Highly modified mouthparts
• Short simple antennae
• Well developed eyes

Tabanus To distinguish sexes in

Drosophila:
 Male: Sex combs on forelegs,
rounder darker abdomen, dark
spots on wings in some species
Female: Pointed abdomen, often
larger

Eristalis

Drosophila

Siphonaptera Pulex A.k.a. Fleas.

• Piercing/sucking mouthparts
Siphon a ptera – • Powerful jumping legs
tube no wing! • Elastic protein resilin stores
energy in tarsi
• Sexual maturity in fleas is
influenced by hormones in host
blood
• Laterally flattened body
• Allows movement between hairs
• Short recessed antennae
DEUTEROSTOMIA
Echinodermata Asteroidea Linckia Echinoderms form a well-defined and highly-derived clade of metazoans. They have
attracted much attention due to their extensive fossil record, ecological importance in the
marine realm, intriguing adult morphology, unusual biomechanical properties, and
experimentally manipulable embryos. The approximately 7,000 species of extant
echinoderms fall into five well-defined clades: Crinoidea (sea lilies and feather stars),
Ophiuroidea (basket stars and brittle stars), Asteroidea (starfishes), Echinoidea (sea
urchins, sand dollars, and sea biscuits), and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers).
Echinoidea Diadema Echinoderms are characterized by radial symmetry, several arms (5 or more, mostly
grouped 2 left - 1 middle - 2 right) radiating from a central body (= pentamerous). The
body actually consists of five equal segments, each containing a duplicate set of various
internal organs. They have no heart, brain, nor eyes, but some brittle stars seem to have
light sensitive parts on their arms. Their mouth is situated on the underside and their anus
on top (except feather stars, sea cucumbers and some urchins).

Holothuroidea Holothuria Echinoderms have tentacle-like structures called tube feet with suction pads situated at
their extremities. These tube feet are hydraulically controlled by a remarkable vascular
system. This system supplies water through canals of small muscular tubes to the tube feet
(= ambulacral feet). As the tube feet press against a moving object, water is withdrawn
from them, resulting in a suction effect. When water returns to the canals, suction is
released. The resulting locomotion is generally very slow.

Echinoderms are exclusively marine. They occur in various habitats from the intertidal
zone down to the bottom of the deep sea trenches and from sand to rubble to coral reefs
and in cold and tropical seas.

Some echinoderms are carnivorous (for example starfish) others are detritus foragers (for
example some sea cucumbers) or planktonic feeders (for example basket stars).

Reproduction is carried out by the release of sperm and eggs into the water. Most species
produce pelagic (= free floating) planktonic larvae which feed on plankton. These larvae
are bilaterally symmetrical, unlike their parents (illustration of a larvae of a sea star below).
 When they settle to the bottom they change to the typical echinoderm features.

Chordata Urochordata Ascidia The Urochordata, sometimes known as the Tunicata, are commonly known as "sea
(Tunicata) squirts." The body of an adult tunicate is quite simple, being essentially a sack with two
siphons through which water enters and exits. Water is filtered inside the sack-shaped
body. However, many tunicates have a larva that is free-swimming and exhibits all
chordate characteristics: it has a notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a
post-anal tail. This "tadpole larva" will swim for some time; in many tunicates, it
eventually attaches to a hard substrate, it loses its tail and ability to move, and its nervous
system largely disintegrates. Some tunicates are entirely pelagic; known as salps, they
typically have barrel-shaped bodies and may be extremely abundant in the open ocean.
Cephalochordata Branchiostoma With about twenty-five species inhabiting shallow tropical and temperate oceans, the
Cephalochordata are a very small branch of the animal kingdom. Known as lancelets or as
amphioxus (from the Greek for "both [ends] pointed," in reference to their shape),
cephalochordates are small, eel-like, unprepossessing animals that spend much of their
 time buried in sand. However, because of their remarkable morphology, they have proved
crucial in understanding the morphology and evolution of chordates in general -- including
vertebrates.

The anatomy of a cephalochordate is diagrammed at left. Note that cephalochordates have

all the typical chordate features. The dorsal nerve cord is supported by a muscularized rod,
or notochord. The pharynx is perforated by over 100 pharyngeal slits or "gill slits", which
are used to strain food particles out of the water. The musculature of the body is divided up
into V-shaped blocks, or myomeres, and there is a post-anal tail. All of these features are
shared with vertebrates. On the other hand, cephalochordates lack features found in most
or all true vertebrates: the brain is very small and poorly developed, sense organs are also
poorly developed, and there are no true vertebrae.
Vertebrata Hyperoartia Petromyzon Lampreys are anadromous or fresh water, eel-shaped jawless fishes.
They can be readily recognized by the large, rounded sucker which
 surrounds their mouth and by their single "nostril" on the top of their
head. The skin of lampreys is entirely naked ans slimy, and their seven
gill openings extend behind the eyes. Whether marine or fresh water,
lampreys always spaw and lay eggs in brooks and rivers. During most
of their life (about seven years), they are larval; then they undergo a
metamorphose and become an adult. Anadromous lampreys, when
adult, return to the sea, where they become mature, and live there for
one or two years. Then they return to rivers, reproduce and generally
die.

Many lampreys are parasites. They attach on other fishes by means of

their sucker, scrape their skin with their rasping tongue, and suck their
blood. All lampreys, however can also feed on small invertebrates. The
sucker is also for them a means to travel upstreams in rivers. They use
it to attach on stones to rest (Petromyzon, the name of the European
lamprey, means "stone sucker") or on more powerful fishes which trail
them. Although lampreys are sometimes regarded as a delicacy and
fished in Europe, the main cause of their disappearance is water
pollution, to which they (in particular larvae) are particularly sensitive.

Lampreys are characterized by:

• A large sucker surrounding the mouth, strengthened by an
annular cartilage.
• Spine-shaped processes on gill arches
• Lampreys are also unique among extant vertebrates in having a
median dorsal "nostril", the nasohypophysial opening, but some
other fossil vertebrates also display the same structure. It is
therefore not diagnostic of lampreys only.
• Lampreys are devoid of a mineralized skeleton, although traces
of globular calcified cartilage may occur in the endoskeleton.
Gnathostomata Chondrichthyes Carcharodon The Chondrichthyes or cartilaginous fishes are a major class of jawed
fish that includes the sharks, rays, and skates, and whose skeleton is
characterized by rubbery cartilage, which is very light and flexible,
rather than bone, as in the bony fishes (class Osteichthyes (such as cod
 or salmon)). The chondrichthyans have jaws, paired fins, paired
nostrils, scales, and two-chambered hearts.

The taxonomy of Chondrichthyes reveals both the connectedness of

living organisms and the diversity in nature. The Chondrichthyes,
Dayatis because of sharing common origin, all share particular features.
However, at the same time, they reveal a great diversity in forms, from
the fusiform great white shark, hammerhead shark and sawfishes, to the
flattened, disc-like stingrays and skates, to the electric rays with
powerful electrical organs. This diversity helps to add to the wonder
and beauty of creation experienced by humans.
Apristurus
As fish, members of Chondrichthyes are poikilothermic (cold-blooded),
water dwelling vertebrates with gills throughout life, and limbs in the
form of fins. Poikilothermic refers to the fact that the internal
temperatures of fish vary, often matching the ambient temperature of
the environment.

Chondrichthyans are characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton. The

cartilage is often partly calcified (mineralized with calcium, making it
harder and more bone-like, but it is seldom if ever ossified.

Both swim bladder and lungs are absent in members of Chondrichthyes.

Condrichthyans have digestive systems with intestinal spiral valves,
and with the exception of Holocephali, they also have a cloaca. A
spiracle is found behind each eye on most species.

As they do not have bone marrow, red blood cells are produced in the
spleen and special tissue around the gonads. They are also produced in
an organ called Leydig's Organ, which is only found in cartilaginous
fishes, although some lack it. Another unique organ is the epigonal
organ, which probably has a role in the immune system. The subclass
Holocephali, which is a very specialized group, lacks both of these
organs.
In the history of the class, the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which do not
contain any dermal elements, were considered to originally not be
connected. In later forms, each pair of fins became ventrally connected
in the middle when scapulocoracoid and pubioischiadic bars developed.
In rays, the pectoral fins have connected to the head and are very
flexible.

The tough skin of chondrichthyans is covered with dermal teeth.

Holocephali is an exception, as the teeth are lost in adults, and only
kept on the clasping organ seen on the front of the male's head. These
teeth, also called placoid scales or dermal denticles, making the skin
feel like sandpaper.

The oral teeth are usually not fused to the jaws, but are replaced
serially. It typically is assumed that their oral teeth evolved from
dermal denticles that migrated into the mouth, but it could be the other
way around as the teleost bony fish, Denticeps clupeoides, has most of
its head covered by dermal teeth (as do probably Atherion elymus,
another bony fish). This is most probably a secondary evolved
characteristic, which means there is not necessarily a connection
between the teeth and the original dermal scales. The old placoderms
did not have teeth at all, but had sharp bony plates in their mouth.

Modern forms practice internal fertilization, with males with pelvic

claspers that are inserted into the female cloaca and oviducts. The
embryo is encapsulated in a leather-like case and gestation periods of
up to two years are known, which is longer than any vertebrate.
Osteichthyes Actinopterygii Acipenser

Barbus

Anguilla

Salmo

Sarcopterygii Dipnoi Protopterus

 Coelacanthimor- Latimeria
pha

Tetrapoda SEE BELOW

TETRAPODA
Amphibi Caudata Salamandra To identify an animal as an amphibian, it should have each of these characteristics:
a
• Amphibians have a backbone. They are vertebrates.
• Amphibians are cold-blooded. They cannot regulate their own body temperature.
• Amphibians spend at least part of their lives in water and on land.
• Amphibians do not have scales and their skin is permeable (molecules and gases can pass through).
• Amphibians have gills for at least part of their lives. Some species have gills only as larvae, while
others can have gills throughout their lives.
Anura Rana • Most amphibians go through metamorphosis.
• Amphibians are frogs, toads, salamanders, caecilians and newts.

Amniota Testudine Testudo Turtles (including tortoises and terrapins) are characterized by a shell that completely encloses both of the limb
s girdles. The shell is composed of a dorsal carapace of dermal bone that incorporates endochondral
contributions from the vertebrae and ribs and a ventral plastron of clavicles and interclavicles anteriorly and
abdominal ribs posteriorly. No turtles have teeth on their jaws, and all have the external ear supported by a
large, semicircular quadrate.

Diapsida Squamata Gekko The Squamata, or the scaled reptiles, are the largest recent order of reptiles,
comprising all lizards and snakes.

Two characteristics that unite the squamates. The first is that they shed their
skin periodically. Some squamates, such as snakes, shed their skin in one piece.
Other squamates, such as many lizards, shed their skin in patches. In contrast,
non-squamate reptiles regenerate their scales by other means—for example
crocodiles shed a single scale at a time while turtles do not shed the scales that
cover their carapace and instead add new layers from beneath.
Phyton
The second characteristic shared by squamates is their uniquely jointed skulls
and jaws, which are both strong and flexible. The extraordinary jaw mobility of
squamates enables them to open their mouths very wide and in doing so,
consume large prey. Additionally, the strength of their skull and jaws provides
squamates with a powerful bite grip.

Archosauria Crocodyliamorpha Crocodylus Crocodylomorpha is a group of

archosaurs that includes the
crocodilians and their extinct
relatives.

Aves Pallaeognathae Struthio

Galloanserae Gallus

Neoaves Columba

Passer

Apus
 Dendrocopos

Mammalia Monotremata Ornithorhynchus Endemic to Australasia - an important point to note as it means that they
represent a whole subclass of extant mammalian life in a single geographic
region. While the platypus is semi-aquatic, the echidnas are all terrestrial, and
their respective distributions and habitats are as follows:

Platypus - Confined to Eastern Australia and Tasmania; freshwaters streams,

rivers, and some lakes.
Short-beaked echidna - Australia and New Guinea; most habitats, from semi-
arid to alpine.
Long-beaked echidna - New Guinea; mountainous terrain.

Features:
• Males have a spur on their ankles, which bears poison in the platypus.
• Toothless - platypuses have a leathery electrosensory bill, with
crushing horny plates to break through the tough exoskeleton of
arthropods; echidnas have an elongate horny rostrum with a long
 sticky tongue for collecting insects.
• A range of mammalian characters:
o Produce milk (lactate) from mammary glands. However, while
therians have nipples, monotremes do not, and consequently the
young suck milk from patches of mammary hairs - specialised
areas of fur positioned around the ventral openings of the
mother's mammary glands.
o Epipubic bones - two thin rod-like bones
extending anteriorly from the pubic bones of the pelvic girdle.
o Lower jaw (mandible) made up of a single bone, the tooth-
bearing dentary.
o A middle ear formed of three bones: the incus, malleus,
and stapes. While the stapes is present in the middle ear of all
living tetrapods, the incus and malleus are modified bones from
the typical amniote jaw joint. The jaws of non-
mammalian amniotesarticulate via the quadrate of the upper jaw,
and the articular of the lower jaw; in mammals, the quadrate
migrated to form the incus, while the articular became the
malleus, leaving a jaw joint formed of the dentary articulating
with the squamosal (the angular bone of the non-
mammalian amniote lower jaw is used as a bony support for the
eardrum in mammals). The following diagram illustrates these
differences:

Marsupialia Macropus Marsupials are the group of mammals commonly thought of as pouched
mammals (like the wallaby and kangaroo at left). They give live birth, but they
do not have long gestation times like placental mammals. Instead, they give
birth very early and the young animal, essentially a helpless embryo, climbs
from the mother's birth canal to the nipples. There it grabs on with its mouth
and continues to develop, often for weeks or months depending on the species.
The short gestation time is due to having a yolk-type placenta in the mother
marsupial. Placental mammals nourish the developing embryo using the
mother's blood supply, allowing longer gestation times.
 Like other mammals, the marsupials are covered with hair. Mothers nurse their
young — a young kangaroo may nurse even when it has grown almost to the
mother's size.

Eutheria Xenarthra Bradypus The superorder Xenarthra is a group

of placental mammals, extant today
only in the Americas and represented
by anteaters, tree sloths, and
armadillos. Xenarthrans share
several characteristics not present in
other placental mammals. The name
Xenarthra, which means "strange
joints", was chosen because their
vertebral joints have extra
articulations unlike other mammals.
This trait is referred to as
"xenarthry".

Also, unlike other mammals, the

ischium and sacrum are fused. The
males have internal testicles, which
are located between the bladder and
the rectum. Furthermore, xenarthrans
have the lowest metabolic rates
among the therians.

Lagomorpha Lepus Lagomorphs are similar to other

mammals in that they all have hair,
four limbs (i.e., they are tetrapods),
and mammary glands and are
endothermic. They differ in that they
have a mixture of "primitive" and
"advanced" physical traits.
 Lagomorphs differ from rodents in
that the former have four incisors in
the upper jaw (not two, as in the
Rodentia) and have enamel on the
front and back of the incisors,
whereas rodents have enamel only
on the front. Also, lagomorphs are
almost strictly herbivorous, unlike
rodents, many of which will eat both
meat and vegetable matter. They
resemble rodents, however, in that
their incisor teeth grow continuously
throughout their lives, thus
necessitating constant chewing on
fibrous food to prevent the teeth
from growing too long.
Rodentia Rattus Most people are familiar with mice,
rats, hamsters, and guinea pigs,
which are commonly kept as pets.
The Rodentia also includes beavers,
muskrats, porcupines, woodchucks,
chipmunks, squirrels, prairie dogs,
marmots, chinchillas, voles,
lemmings, and many others.

Rodents have a single pair of

incisors in each jaw, and the incisors
grow continually throughout life.
The incisors have thick enamel
layers on the front but not on the
back; this causes them to retain their
chisel shape as they are worn down.
Behind the incisors is a large gap in
the tooth rows, or diastema; there are
 no canines, and typically only a few
molars at the rear of the jaws.
Rodents gnaw with their incisors by
pushing the lower jaw forward, and
chew with the molars by pulling the
lower jaw backwards. In conjunction
with these chewing patterns, rodents
have large and complex jaw
musculature, with modifications to
the skull and jaws to accommodate
it. Like some other mammal taxa,
but unlike rabbits and other
lagomorphs, male rodents have a
baculum (penis bone). Most rodents
are herbivorous, but some are
omnivorous, and others prey on
insects.
Primates Cercopithecus Primates are characterized by large
brains relative to other mammals, as
well as an increased reliance on
stereoscopic vision at the expense of
smell, the dominant sensory system
in most mammals. These features are
more developed in monkeys and
apes and noticeably less so in lorises
and lemurs. Three-color vision has
developed in some primates. Most
also have opposable thumbs and
Pan some have prehensile tails.

Many species are sexually

dimorphic; differences include body
mass, canine tooth size, and
coloration. Primates have slower
 rates of development than other
similarly sized mammals and reach
maturity later, but have longer
lifespans. Depending on the species,
adults may live in solitude, in mated
pairs, or in groups of up to hundreds
of members.

Chiroptera Pteropus Bats are unique among mammals as

they are the only group to have
evolved true powered flight. Some
other mammals such as "flying"
squirrels and "flying" lemurs can
glide through the air for long
distances, but they are not capable of
Phyllostomus sustained flight. In contrast, bats can
propel themselves with their wings,
gaining and loosing altitude and
flying for long periods.

Bats are nocturnal and usually spend

the daylight hours roosting in caves,
rock crevices, trees, or manmade
structures such as houses and/or
bridges. Some bats are solitary,
while others are found in colonies
that may include over a million
individuals.

Activity begins around dusk, when

bats leave the day roost and start
 feeding. The clade Chiroptera
includes species with very diverse
food preferences, including bats that
eat either meat, insects, fish, fruit,
nectar, or a variety of food types.
Only three species of bats actually
feed on blood Desmodontinae).
Many bats remain at their feeding
sites until just before dawn when
they return to the day roost.
Eulipothyphla Sorex These animals have long pointed
snouts, small ears which are often
not visible and scent glands located
on the side of the body. As their
eyesight is generally poor, they rely
on hearing and smell to locate their
prey, mainly insects. Some species
also use echolocation. It is often
difficult to distinguish between
species without examining the dental
pattern.

In some species, a female shrew and

her dependent young form
"caravans", in which each shrew
grasps the rear of the shrew in front,
when changing location.
Carnivora Panthera Carnivorans all share the same
arrangement of teeth in which the
last upper premolar (named P4) and
the first lower molar (named m1)
have blade-like enamel crowns that
work together as carnassial teeth to
shear meat. Carnivorans have had
 Canis this arrangement for over 60 million
years with many adaptions, and these
dental adaptions help identify
carnivoran species and groupings of
species.

It includes cats; lions; tigers;

panthers; dogs; wolves; jackals;
bears; raccoons; skunks; and
members of the suborder Pinnipedia.
Cetartiodactyla Sus Cetartiodactyla is a group comprised
of two orders of mammals that are
superficially quite different and that,
until recently, were recognized as
two separate monophyletic clades.
These orders are Artiodactyla, even-
toed ungulates, including animals
Cervus such as cows (Bovidae), camels
(Camelidae), and deer (Cervidae),
and Cetacea, a group of mammals
that are highly specialized for an
aquatic lifestyle, including baleen
whales and toothed whales.

Because cetaceans are so highly

specialized for their aquatic lifestyle,
they bear little resemblance to their
artiodactyl ancestors. They have
Giraffe nearly hairless, fusiform bodies.
 They lack hind limbs except for tiny
internal pelvic vestiges, and the
forelimbs are modified into
streamlined flippers. The tail bears a
flattened fluke. In addition, cetacean
skulls are highly modified so that the
nares are located on the top of the
head. On the other hand, most
Camelus artiodactyls are specialized for
cursorial locomotion, with long,
hoofed limbs, and they lack the
extreme aquatic specializations
found in cetaceans. Most
cetartiodactyls are relatively large
animals, but there is an enormous
range of body sizes in this group.

Blue whales, Balaenoptera musculus,

are the largest animals on earth,
growing over 27 meters in length
and weighing over 190,000 kg,
whereas the smallest artiodactyl, the
lesser mouse deer (Tragulus
javanicus), is just 45 cm long and
Bison weighs 2 kg. Many species of
cetartiodactyls exhibit sexual
dimorphism, with males larger than
females or vice versa. Also, male
artiodactyls often bear antlers or
large horns, and some male
cetartiodactyls (narwhals (Monodon
monoceros), tragulids, and suids)
bear large tusks.
Orcinus
 Balaenoptera

Perissodactyla Tapirus Perissodactyla, as we know it today,

is a small order of hoofed mammals,
containing 17 Recent species in three
families: Equidae (horses), Tapiridae
(tapirs), and Rhinocerotidae
(rhinoceroses).

Equus
 In all species, digit III is the most
prominent on all feet, and, as the
plane of symmetry of the foot passes
through this digit, perissodactyls are
said to have a mesaxonic foot. The
first digit (equivalent the thumb or
big toe of humans) is lost in all
species. The Equidae have a single
functional toe on each foot (the third
digit), while the Rhinocerotidae have
three toes per foot. The Tapiridae -
the closest family to the ancestral
perissodactyl condition - possess
Rhinoceros four toes on the forefeet (digit V is
used on wet or marshy ground) and
three on the hind. Perissodactyls are
truly unguligrade, with the heel, sole,
and digits of the foot never touching
the ground. The ulna and fibula
(bones in the forearm and lower leg)
are reduced, simplifying the
wrist/ankle joint considerably. The
clavicle (collar bone) is absent,
allowing for efficient running - the
main driving force behind
unguligrade evolution.
Proboscidea Elephas Later proboscideans are
distinguished by tusks and long,
muscular trunks; these features are
less developed or absent in early
proboscideans.
 Respiratory General Characteristics
Subphylum Class Examples Symmetry Tissues Coelome Circulatory System Nervous System Digestive System
System and Key Words
Have all of the
developmental
characteristics of other
chordates, but lack
Tunicates, vertebrae. Have been
Urochordata and
lancelets Triploblasts, Alimentary canal, extensively studied to exam
Cephalochordata n/a Bilateral Coelomate heart Primitive ?
(amphioxus), sea eumatazoa one way the origin of vertebrates.
(amphioxus)
squirts Tunicates live in benthic
habitats. Lancelets keep
notochord through
adulthood, tunicates only
have it as larvae.
Notochord found in larvae
Triploblasts,
Vertebrata Fish (Jawless) agnatha, lamprey, Bilateral Coelomate Two chambered heart Complete, brain Gills Alimentary canal and adult, cartilaginous
eumatazoa
hagfish skeleton
Jaws and teeth, reduced
notochord with cartilaginous
Fish Triploblasts, Alimentary canal, vertebrae (from here on:
Vertebrata Shark Bilateral Coelomate Two chambered heart Complete, brain Gills
(Cartilaginous) eumatazoa one way notochord is present only in
embryonic stage, replaced by
vertebrae in adulthood)

Triploblasts, Alimentary canal,

Vertebrata Fish (Bony) Salmon, halibut Bilateral Coelomate Two chambered heart Complete, brain Gills scales, bony skeleton
eumatazoa one way

No scales. Tadpoles live in

Tadpole, frog, Gills aquatic habitats, have tails
Triploblasts, Alimentary canal,
Vertebrata Amphibia toad, salamander, Bilateral Coelomate Three chambered heart Complete, brain (juvenile), and no legs. Adults live in
eumatazoa one way
newt Lungs (adult) land habitats, have two pairs
of legs and no tail
Warm blooded, feed young
Duckbill
Mammalia Triploblasts, Alimentary canal, with milk, leathery eggs,
Vertebrata platypus, spiny Bilateral Coelomate Four chambered heart Complete, brain Lungs
(Monotremes) eumatazoa one way mammary glands with many
anteater
openings (no nipples)
Warm blooded
Mammalia Kangaroo, Triploblasts, Alimentary canal,
Vertebrata Bilateral Coelomate Four chambered heart Complete, brain Lungs (homothermic), feed young
(Marsupials) opposum eumatazoa one way
with milk
Warm blooded
Mammalia Bat, whale, Triploblasts,
Vertebrata Bilateral Coelomate Four chambered heart Complete, brain Lungs Alimentary canal (homothermic), fetus
(Placental) mouse, human eumatazoa
supported by placenta
Mainly live on land, leathery
Turtle, snake,
Triploblasts, eggs, internal fertilization,
Vertebrata Reptilia crocodile, Bilateral Coelomate Three chambered heart Complete, brain Lungs Alimentary canal
eumatazoa cold blooded
alligator
(poikolthermic)
Warm blooded
Triploblasts,
Vertebrata Birds Eagle, blue jay Bilateral Coelomate Four chambered heart Complete, brain Lungs Alimentary canal (homothermic), eggs in
eumatazoa
shells
Phylum (Class) Key Names Symmetry of Tissue Coelom Circulatory Nervous Respiratory Digestive Excretory Embryonic General Characteristics
and Body Plan Organization System System System System System Development
Examples
Porifera Sponge Asymmetrical No true n/a None None None Intracellular None - Sessile, suspension feeders, aquatic habitats, earliest
tissues (diffusion) (diffusion) digestion (via (diffusion) animals, can produce asexually (budding) or
(parazoa) amoebacytes) sexually (hermaphadytes), used in production of
antibiotics

Cnidaria Hydra, Radial Diploblasts, n/a None Nerve net, no None Gastrovascular None - Aquatic habitats, some have stinging cells
jellyfish, true tissues (diffusion) brain (diffusion) cavity, two (diffusion) (nemotocysts), some have life cycle that switches
sea (eumetazoa) way digestion between polyp and medusa forms, sexual or asexual
anenome, reproduction, gastrovascular cavity acts as
coral hydrostatic skeleton to aid in movement

Platyhelminths Flat worms, Bilateral w/ Triploblasts, Acoelomate None Two nerve None Gastrovascular Protonephridia - Can reproduce sexually (hermaphrodites) or
trematoda, cephalization eumatazoa (diffusion) cords, anterior (diffusion) cavity, two and flame asexually (regeneration), mainly aquatic habitats,
flukes, centralized way digestion cells parasitic lifestyles, most primitive of triploblastic
tapeworm, ganglia (brain), animals, has organs. Tapeworms specifically don't
planarian some have a true digestive tract, they just absorb food
planarians around them.
have eye spots

Nematoda Round Bilateral Triploblasts, Pseudocoloemate None Nerve chord None Alimentary None - Some have cuticle to prevent degradation by host
worm, hook eumatazoa (diffusion) and ring (diffusion) canal, one way (diffusion) digestive system, longitudinal muscles, no circular
worm, muscles, parasitic, not segmented
trichina, C.
elegans,
ascarcis
Rotifera Rotifers Bilateral Triploblasts, Pseudocoloemate None Cerebral None Alimentary Protonephridia - Not trule segmented, can reproduce sexually or
eumatazoa (diffusion) ganglia (brain) (diffusion) canal, mouth and flame parthenogenetically, mostly freshwater
w/ some and anus cells environments. Draw food and water into mouth by
nerves beating cilia.
extening
through body
Annelida Earthworm, Bilateral Triploblasts, Coelomate Closed Vental nerve None Alimentary Most have Protostome Segmented bodies, coelom is divided by septa,
leech eumatazoa circulatory chord, anterior (diffusion) canal, mouth metanephridia sexual (hermaphrodites) and asexual (regeneration)
system, ganglia (brain) and anus reproduction, longitudinal and circular muscles
multiple
pairs of
aortic
arches,
distinct
arteries and
veins
 Molluska Clam, snail, Bilateral Triploblasts, Coelomate Mainly Ventral nerve Gills Complete, Nephridia Protostome Visceral mass, calcium carbonate mantle, radula
slug, squid, eumatazoa open chords and mouth and (tongue), aquatic or terrestial habitats, have
octopus, brain anus, radula hemocoel
cephalopod,
gastropod
Arthropoda Ant, Bilateral Triploblasts, Coelomate Open Fused ganglia, Spiracles One-way Malpighian Protostome Exoskeleton, jointed appendages, coelomates,three
(Insecta) dragonfly eumatazoa circulatory ventral nerve and tracheal digestion, tubules pairs of legs, chitonous exoskeleton, more species
system, chord tubes some have than any other phylum combined, metamorphosis
hemolymph salivary
glands

Arthropoda Spider, Bilateral Triploblasts, Coelomate Open Fused ganglia, Trachea or One-way Malpighian Protostome Exoskeleton, jointed appendages, coelomates, four
(Arachnida) scorpion eumatazoa circulatory ventral nerve book lungs digestion, tubules and/or pairs of legs, land habitats
system, chord some have coxal glands
hemolymph salivary
glands
Arthropoda Lobster, Bilateral Triploblasts, Coelomate Open Fused ganglia, Some have One-way Terrestrial:use Protostome Exoskeleton, jointed appendages, coelomates,
(Crustacea) crayfish, eumatazoa circulatory ventral nerve gills digestion, malpighian; aquatic habitats
crab system, chord some have Aquatic use
hemolymph salivary green glands
glands

Echinodermata Starfish, Bilateral Triploblasts, Coelomate Open, no Nerve ring and None Complete, None Deuterostome Spiny, central disk, water vascular system, tube feet,
sea urchin, (larvae), eumatazoa heart radial nerves (diffusion) mouth and (diffusion) sexual or asexual reproduction, closest related major
sea fivefold anus phyla to chordates
cucumber radial (adult)

Chordata Vertebrates Bilateral Triploblasts, Coelomate See the table above Deuterostome See 'Phylum Chordata' Sheet
eumatazoa
LICHENS
Parmelia Cladonia