Odawa GWI Final Report PDF

SOMALI REGIONAL STATE
GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATION AND BOREHOLE SITE

SELECTION IN ODAWA VILLAGE, WARDER WOREDA,
DOLLO ZONE
Somali Regional State Water Resources Development Bureau,

Groundwater Investigation and Borehole Site Selection Feasibility
Study Report in Odawa Village
July, 2022
Jigjiga, Ethiopia
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 0
1.1. Background ................................................................................................................. 0
1.2. Objectives .................................................................................................................... 0
1.2.1. General Objectives ............................................................................................... 0
1.2.2. Specific objectives ............................................................................................... 0
1.3. General Description of the study area ......................................................................... 1
1.3.1. Location and Accessibility ................................................................................... 1
1.4. Existing Water sources (well inventory) ..................................................................... 1
1.5. Scope of Work ............................................................................................................. 2
1.6. Landform and Topography.......................................................................................... 2
1.7. Elevation...................................................................................................................... 4
1.8. Slope Analysis ............................................................................................................. 4
1.9. Climate and Drainage .................................................................................................. 5
1.9.1. Rainfall ................................................................................................................. 6
1.9.2. Temperature ......................................................................................................... 7
1.9.3. Evapo-transpiration .............................................................................................. 8
1.9.4. Sunshine ............................................................................................................... 9
1.10. Soils of the Study Area ............................................................................................ 9
1.11. Review of the previews studies and available data ................................................. 9
Sources of the reviewed data ..................................................................................................... 9
1.12. Methodology and Material used ............................................................................ 10
Pre-field work (Desk study) ................................................................................................. 10
Fieldwork ............................................................................................................................. 11
Post-fieldwork ...................................................................................................................... 12
2. Regional Geology and Structural Setting ........................................................................ 12
2.1. Regional Geology...................................................................................................... 12
2.2. General Stratigraphy of the Ogaden basin ................................................................ 16
2.2.1. Precambrian basement complex ........................................................................ 17
2.2.2. Late Palaeozoic sedimentary succession ........................................................... 17
2.2.3. Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary succession ..................................................... 19
2.2.4. Tertiary volcanic rocks ...................................................................................... 24
2.3. Local Geology ........................................................................................................... 25
2.4. Structural Geology of the Study Area ....................................................................... 27
2.4.1. Marda Fault Zone and Other Major Structures .................................................. 28
3. Hydrogeological Setting .................................................................................................. 30
3.1. General ...................................................................................................................... 30
2.2.1. Ground water characteristics of the Study Area .................................................... 30
2.2.2. Groundwater occurrence: ....................................................................................... 31
2.3. Recharge and geomorphology: ..................................................................................... 33
4. Geophysical Survey ......................................................................................................... 34
4.1. General..................................................................................................................... 34
4.1.1. Objectives of the Geophysical Surveys ............................................................. 34
4.1.2. Survey layout and Instrumentation .................................................................... 35
4.1.3. Field procedure and data processing .................................................................. 35
4.2. Geophysical Survey locations ................................................................................... 36
4.3. Geophysical Survey Results & Interpretations ......................................................... 37
4.3.1. Odawa VES-1 Interpretations ............................................................................ 37
4.3.2. Odawa VES-2 Interpretations ............................................................................ 39
4.3.3. Odawa VES-3 Interpretation.............................................................................. 41
4.4. Major geophysical survey results .............................................................................. 43
5. Conclusion and Recommendation ................................................................................... 45
5.1. Conclusion................................................................................................................. 45
5.2. Recommendation ....................................................................................................... 45
Appendix A .............................................................................................................................. 47
IN ............................................................................................................................................. 51
1. General .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.1. Scope of work ................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Description of the Work Area .......................................................................................... 4
1.3. Sitting of Boreholes ...................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Site clearing & Access to all sites .................................................................................. 4
1.5. Outline Well Design ....................................................................................................... 4
2. Contractors Personnel and Materials ................................................................................... 5
3. Inventory ................................................................................................................................ 6
4. Materials ................................................................................................................................ 6
4.1. Well Casings ................................................................................................................... 6
a. Surface casing .................................................................................................................. 7
b. Inner casing ........................................................................................................................ 7
c. Well Screen ........................................................................................................................ 7
4.2. Observation Pipe ............................................................................................................. 8
4.3. Gravel Pack ......................................................................................................................... 8
5. Supply of Drilling Water ....................................................................................................... 9
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6. Well Depths ........................................................................................................................... 9
7. Drilling Diameters ................................................................................................................. 9
8. Geological Logging ............................................................................................................... 9
9. Electrical Logging ................................................................................................................ 10
10. Plumpness and Alignment ................................................................................................. 10
11. Well Development ............................................................................................................. 10
12. Well Disinfections ............................................................................................................. 11
13. Test Pump and Accessory Equipment for Aquifer Test .................................................... 11
a. Pumps and Other Equipment ........................................................................................... 11
b. Generators ........................................................................................................................ 11
c. Water Level Gauges ......................................................................................................... 12
d. Discharge Meters ............................................................................................................. 12
14.1. Test pump Unit ........................................................................................................... 12
14.2. Well Testing ................................................................................................................ 12
14.3. Pumping Test Duration and Measuring Frequency ............................................... 13
14.4. Disposal of Pumped Water .................................................................................... 14
15. Defective works ................................................................................................................. 15
16. Water Sampling ................................................................................................................. 15
17. Capping the Well ............................................................................................................... 15
18. Grout Seal ......................................................................................................................... 16
19. Well Head .......................................................................................................................... 16
20. Miscellaneous Equipment ................................................................................................. 16
21. Special Requirements......................................................................................................... 16
21.1. Recover of Screens and Casings ................................................................................. 16
21.2. Fishing for Lost or Stuck Tools and Equipment ......................................................... 17
22. Work Sheet and Records .................................................................................................... 17
23. Protocols and Records........................................................................................................ 19
24. Final Reports ...................................................................................................................... 20
25. Measurement and Basis of Payment ................................................................................. 20
25.1 Mobilization and Demobilization .......................................................................... 20
25.2. Drilling ........................................................................................................................ 20
25.3. Surface Casing ............................................................................................................ 21
25.4. Well Casing................................................................................................................. 21
25.5. Well Screen ................................................................................................................. 21
25.6. Observation Pipe ......................................................................................................... 21
25.7. Gravel Pack ................................................................................................................. 22
25.8. Well Head ................................................................................................................... 22
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25.9. Grout seal .................................................................................................................... 22
30.1. Plumb and Alignment Test ......................................................................................... 22
30.2. Test Pumping .............................................................................................................. 22
30.3. Monitoring Recovery .................................................................................................. 22
30.4. Test Pumping Standby ................................................................................................ 23
30.5. Capping the Well ........................................................................................................ 23
25.16 Electrical and Litho logic Logging ....................................................................... 23
30.6. Final Report ................................................................................................................ 23
30.7. Abandoning a well ...................................................................................................... 23
BILL OF QUANTITIES AND DESIGN FOR ONE BOREHOLE DRILLING IN ODAWA
VILLAGE, WARDER WOREDA, DOLLO ZONE OF SOMALI REGIONAL STATE. ..... 25
7.5. BOQ for Drilling, Construction and Pumping Test of Odawa One Borehole .............. 27
.................................................................................................................................................. 29
List of figures
Fig.1.1. Location Map of the study area---------------------------------------------------------------1
Fig.1.2. DEM map of the study area-------------------------------------------------------------------3
Fig.1.3. Elevation map of the study area--------------------------------------------------------------4
Fig.1.4. Slop map of the study area--------------------------------------------------------------------5
Fig.1.5. Mean monthly Rainfall Recorded at Kebridahar Meteorological station----------------6
Fig.1.6. Mean Monthly Max, Min, Average Temperature, mean monthly precipitation and
mean monthly Evapotranspiration profile at the Kebridahar Meteorological station-----------7
Fig.1.7. PET of the study area--------------------------------------------------------------------------8
Fig.1.8. Soil map of the study area---------------------------------------------------------------------8
Fig.2.1. Generalized Stratigraphy column of the Ogaden basin-----------------------------------24
Fig.2.2. Geological Map of the study area and surroundings--------------------------------------27
Fig.2.3. Structural Map---------------------------------------------------------------------------------29
Fig.4.1. VES location map of the study area--------------------------------------------------------39
Fig.4.2. Odawa VES-1 Resistivity curve-----------------------------------------------------------41
Fig.5.1. Recommended Borehole Design in Odawa village-------------------------------------48
List of Tables
Table.1.1. Geographic coordinates location at Odawa village------------------------------------1
Table.1.2. Slope gradient classes of the study area and surroundings----------------------------4
Table.2.1. Key features of the Karro stratigraphy in the Ogaden basin--------------------------17
Table.4.1. Locations of the measured VES sites in the project area------------------------------39
Table.4.2. Hydrogeological interpretation of Odawa VES-1-------------------------------------41
Table.5.1. Recommended Borehole location in Odawa village----------------------------------48
Table.5.2. Recommended Borehole Design in Odawa village-----------------------------------48
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Water is the most essential element of life on Earth, sometimes scarce resource and yet
fundamental for alive. It is also essential for both industry and agriculture in many regions of
the world and means to achieve sustainability in production systems. Water demands in
different parts of Ethiopia; particularly in arid and semi-arid areas where there is very low
rainfall (precipitation) and all the existing rivers are intermittent which are not sufficient
enough to sustainably use as the only water supply source throughout the year, are increasing
due to rapid urbanization, poverty and recurrent drought, food insecurity, growing energy
demands and climate changes. In addition, our country primary economy is mainly based on
agriculture, it is must & needed to increase water uses for both consumptive and non-
consumptives e.g. food and hydropower production.
Therefore, investigations of the available potential water resources, either Ground or Surface
water, of a given area and/or a country for different purposes (domestic water supply,
irrigation and industrial uses) plays pivotal role in the economic development of the area
and/or a country by enhancing livelihood of the community and improving quality water
supply for those mentioned purposes and also it is urgently required to solve a water-based
conflicts between different competing water users in arid and semi-arid areas.
The Somali Regional State Water Development Bureau is looking into further possibilities of
available potential water supply resources, ground and/or surface water, in order to provide
sustainable domestic water supply and improve the living conditions of the community
throughout the region, especially in areas that have a domestic water supply which are mainly
dependent on the rain water which is collected and stored during the rainy season of the area
and the very arid climatic condition of the area, very low rain falls and high
evapotranspiration potential, makes the source of their domestic water supply (rainfall) to
become short lasted and can‟t sustainably supply water throughout the year mainly during the
dry season of the area.
1.2. Objectives
1.2.1. General Objectives
The main objective of this study is to investigate groundwater potential areas and select an
appropriate water well drilling site for Odawa village, Warder woreda, Dollo zone.
1.2.2. Specific objectives

 Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the groundwater resources and selection of
potential well field.
 Develop strategy of groundwater resources development together with cost estimates.
 Determine the hydro geological condition of the area: recharge and discharge conditions,
delineate spatial distribution of different subsurface aquifers, hydraulic parameters and
impacts of future exploitation of the potential aquifers.
 To design and propose appropriate location for new borehole drilling.
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1.3. General Description of the study area
1.3.1. Location and Accessibility
The project is located in Odawa village, Warder Woreda, Dollo Zone of SRS.
The accessibility of the project site is not bad, by taking the rout from Jigjiga to Kebri dehar
is a good accessible asphalt road. However, from Kebridahar to Warder is dry-weather road
which is currently under construction and from Warder to the project village is motorable
track. It is far from Jigjiga city at about 400km and from Warder town about 60km in the
northeast direction as shown in the figure below. The geographical location of the project
village is shown in the below table.
Table.1.1. Geographic coordinate at Odawa village
S/n Village District Zone Datum UTM Easting Northing Elevation

Zone (m)
1 Odawa Warder Dollo WGS 38N 596167.04/ 783467.35/ 512
84 45°52'18.39"E 7° 5'17.90"N
Fig1.1.Location map of the study area

1.4. Existing Water sources (well inventory)
The nearest existing boreholes in the project village are found at Nagerdale and Ager-weine
villages which are far away at about 25 and 20km respectively. There are also several water
ponds (Birkas) in the village that store the rainwater during rainy seasons. Currently most of
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these Birkads are dry and the only water source of the village is the Boreholes around it
which are far from the village.
1.5. Scope of Work

The study will mainly focus on evaluating the groundwater potential of the area and
identifying areas of interest for well field development. The investigation and evaluation of
the groundwater resources of the sub-basins will be undertaken by well-programmed and
integrated approach set up on reliable methodology for data collection and review, field
survey and identification, assessment, evaluation and prioritization of areas of interest for
well development.
The overall scope of the study is given as follows:
 Determine the hydrogeological condition of the area.

 Determine and delineate areas of groundwater recharge and discharge and
estimate the quantity.
 Determine the role of karst morphology in the groundwater recharge and
movement.
 Delineate spatial distribution of different aquifers, hydraulic parameters and water
quality of the aquifers and anticipated impacts of future exploitation.
 Provide qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the groundwater resources and
select potential borehole drilling site.
 Prioritize identified areas for future development.
 Carry out analytical and/or numerical model of the main aquifer of the area and
recommend appropriate groundwater management.
 Develop strategy of groundwater resources development together with cost
estimates.
1.6. Landform and Topography

Landform refers to any physical feature on the earth‟s surface that has been formed by natural
processes and has a distinct shape. Topography refers to the configuration of the land surface
as described in the following four categories:
 the major landform, which refers to the morphology of the whole landscape;
 the position of the site within the landscape;
 the slope form and;
 The slope gradient.
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The major landform units identified in the sub-basin are Alluvial, Residual (colluvium) and
exposed sedimentary mountains/hills landforms. The project sites are located mostly in the
residual landform unit.
Fig 1.2. Digital Elevation Model map of the study area along with VES points
Figure 1.3 Physiographical map of the area
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1.7. Elevation
For the present study Digital elevation model (DEM) of the study area at a resolution of 30m
was obtained from the ASTER data set. The elevation map of the study area was prepared
using Global maper software. Generally the elevation of the study area and its surroundings
ranges from 350 up to 960m a.m.s.l. This elevation range was classified into 5 classes based
on the topography of the study area namely; 350-460m, 460-554m, 554-645m, 645-749m,
and 749-960m. Specifically the elevation of the investigated sites belongs to 460-554m
elevation class range as shown in bellow map.
Fig.1.4. Elevation map of the study area and surroundings
1.8. Slope Analysis

Based on the topographic map generated from DEM, dominant parts of the sub-basin fall on a
flat to almost flat. The area coverage of each slope classes has been presented in the Table
and Figure below.
Table.1.2. Slope gradient classes
Slope Topography
SN Class Area (ha) % Coverage
1 0-2 Flat to almost flat 1725627 45
2 2-5 Gently undulating or Gently sloping & 1782005 45
4
Undulating or Sloping
Rolling or strongly sloping & Moderately 691241 8
3 5-10 steeply
4 10-20 Steeply 324827 2
Total 4588340 100
Fig 1. 5. Slope map of the study area
1.9. Climate and Drainage
Climate is a controlling physical factor in different land use systems. It is the main agent
determining the water balance in geo-hydrology and hydrology. Any project related to
surface and ground water has to consider the existing climatic and hydrologic parameters
prevalent in its surrounding area. In this case rainfall and other climatic features have to be
studied for selection and determination that fit to the purpose of land use practices.
As it was true to the other parts of Ethiopia, rainfall and temperature conditions depend on
altitude. In reference to the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD)
(2005), the major agro-ecology of the sub-basin are hot arid lowland plains, tepid arid mid
highlands and warm arid lowland plain zone. The AEZ classification map of the sub-basin
has been presented in the Figure below.
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Figure 1.6 Drainage map
1.9.1. Rainfall
Generally, the sub-basin is characterized by uneven rainfall distribution hail damages. The
current uneven rainfall distribution makes traditional rain fed crop production incomplete. As
a rule of thumb, the amount and duration of rainfall affects the moisture content and nutrient
status of soil, which in turn determine the growing periods and type of crops to be cultivated.
According to rainfall magnitude regimes classification of Ethiopia, the sub-basin falls in low
(R1) and intermediate (R2) rainfall regimes.
The sub-basin rainfall shape regime falls in two classes. The first (C6) class is characterized
by a less than three months of rainfall duration where April/May and October/November are
the peak rainfall times. The second (C5) class is characterized by a 3-4 months of rainfall
duration with similar peak rainfall times as class C6. The distribution and amount of rainfall
decrease from the highlands to the lowlands of the basin.
The mean monthly rainfall at the Kebridehar meteorological station is given in Figure below.
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Figure.1.7. Mean monthly rainfall at the Kebri Dehar meteorological station
1.9.2. Temperature
Temperature is dependent on solar radiation and has a direct influence on the rate at which
water molecules leave the water surface and evaporate to the overlying air. Changes in water
surface and overlying air mass temperatures have a profound short-term effect on the rate of
evaporation. Usually the higher the air temperature, the more water vapour the air can hold
and, hence, the more evaporation and evapotranspiration will occur depending on the
precipitation and soil moisture content. Therefore, temperature plays a key role in the process
of water exchange between the atmosphere, the surface and the subsurface.
Temperature is calculated as the maximum, minimum and average temperature at the stations
within and around the study area. All of the values show significant differences from place to
place due to the position and elevation of the stations. In the study area, the highest
temperature is recorded from January to April and from September to October, with a
relatively lower temperature being recorded from May to August as shown in the figure
below.
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Figure 1.8. Mean monthly maximum, minimum, average temperature, mean monthly precipitation
and mean monthly evapotranspiration profile at the Kebri Dehar meteorological station
1.9.3. Evapo-transpiration
The mean annual evaporation of the basin increases from around 1,000 mm in the North-west
to 2800-3000 mm in the South-east. The temporal distribution of evaporation depicts weak
bimodality. Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is evaporation plus transpiration from a
vegetated surface with unlimited water supply, and constitutes the maximum possible rate
under the prevailing meteorological conditions (Shaw, 1988). There are two widely used
approaches to calculate PET, i.e. the Thornthwaite and the Penman-Monteith methods. In this
study, the former is used for calculating PET based on temperature with an adjustment being
made for the number of daylight hours (Shaw, 1988).
Figure 1.9. PET of the study area
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1.9.4. Sunshine
The mean sunshine percentage over the basin is 62.8% (As per WAPCOS‟ report) with a
maximum rate of 71-72% in the south and south-eastern part.
1.10. Soils of the Study Area
According to the soil map of Ethiopia, in the Study area there are 7 major soil types and 10
soil units. The dominant major soil types in the sub-basin are lithic leptosols, calcic xerosols,
eutric regosols and orthic solonchaks. The Figure below shows the distribution of the soil
units in the study area and surroundings.
Figure 1.10. Soil map of the study area and surroundings
1.11. Review of the previews studies and available data
Sources of the reviewed data
 Geological Map of Ethiopia 2nd ed. by Tefera et al. (1996)
 Geological map of Ogaden and surrounding areas (BEICP, 1985) at a scale of

1:1,000,000.
 Wabi-shabelle Master Plan.
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 Hydrogeology and Hydrogeochemical maps of Kebridehar-Warder area at a scale
of 1:250,000.
 Geological and geochemical reports of the Kebridehar and Warder Map sheet at a
scale of 1:250,000.
 Birkot and Surrounding area Hydrogeological reports.
 Hydro-meteorological raw data collected about the last fifteen years in the nearby
stations
 Landsat imageries.
 Topographic elevation data (Global Mapper).
 Topographic maps (1:250,000) produced by the Ethiopian Mapping Agency

(EMA).
1.12. Methodology and Material used
To achieve the above stated objectives; this groundwater resource investigation and borehole
site selection project was conducted through three phases of work scheme namely, pre-field
work, fieldwork and post-field work. The pre-field work activities is all about gathering and
reviewing of the existing data. Fieldwork is about ground truth of the existing data and
acquisition of new primary data. The post-field work comprises the integration and
interpretation of the existing data and the newly obtained field data along with their results
and findings. These three phases with their corresponding activities and utilized techniques
will be discussed in the following paragraphs:
Pre-field work (Desk study)

The first step in this study involves gathering the existing literature and other related
documents in order to obtain a basic understanding of the regional geology, hydrogeology,
structure, geomorphology and physiographical setup of the project area. The relevant data
used were published and unpublished research papers, technical reports and related
documents, geological, hydrogeological and topographical maps as well as satellite images.
For the evaluation of the possible groundwater potential areas, existing relevant data on
rainfall, climate, slope, drainage network, geology and vegetation cover were collected from
the regional water bureau and FOA.
After the data was compiled and reviewed, a preliminary assessment was completed by
synthesizing and interpreting the geological features and landforms observed on satellite
images and the existing geological and hydrogeological maps. Regional characteristics and
other evidences were used to predict the sediment characteristics within these apparent
landforms and delineating the groundwater indicating features or structures by using remote
sensing techniques. These predictions were then field verified (ground truth). Priority areas
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were selected on the basis of literature review, based on which, systematic planning of the
subsequent fieldwork stage enabled the effective accomplishment of the groundwater
resource surveying in the area.
In addition to the above mentioned reviewing data, the following documents were reviewed
and analyzed before carrying out the field work conducted in the study area.
 Hydrogeology of Ethiopia and Water Resource Development by Tesfaye Cherinet
(1993) at a scale of 1: 2 000 000; Classified the different lithological units in to
different productive aquifers.
 Hydro-meteorological raw data about the last fifteen years have been collected from
the Metrological authority at close distances Stations
 Regional Hydrogeology of the Eastern half of the Harar Sheet (NC 38-9), by Girma
Mengesha, 1975, GSE.
 Wabi Shebelle River basin integrated Master Plan Study Project, Vol. VII, Part 3
Alternative water source investigation for different sites in Somali Regional State by
Ceelalyo Consultancy performed geophysical investigation on three localities within
the study area.
 Explanation of the Geological map of Ethiopia compiled by MengeshaTefera,
TadiwosCherinet and WorkinehHaro in 1996 at scale of 1:2000.000.
 Geological Map of Ethiopia and Somalia compiled by Merla et al in 1973, 1979 at
scale of 1:2,000,000.
 Ground Water Investigation Conducted by Somali Region Study, Design and
Supervision at 2002 E.
 Hydrogeology and Hydrogeochemical maps and accompanying explanatory notes of
the Kebridehar map sheet NB-38-13
 Hydrogeology and Hydrogeochemical maps and accompanying explanatory notes of
Degah madew map sheet
 Geological and Geochemical map of the Kebridehar and Warder map sheet
 Drilling report conducted in the area and surrounding
Fieldwork
Apart from the gathering of existing data including review on relevant research papers,
technical reports and related documents of topographical, geological and hydro-geological
maps as well as satellite images. Comprehensive fieldwork was undertaking and different
methods were utilized including geological, hydro-geological and geophysical survey
methods.
The geological approach emphasizes; observation of the outcrops for litho-logical

description, identification and determination of elements of primary and/or secondary
porosity and other structural analysis that infer the groundwater occurrence in a given area.
Geological traverses were taken along streams, rivers, hillsides and along the roads to
describe the exposed rock units. The instruments and materials used during the geological
fieldwork were compass, field camera, G.P.S (Geographical positioning system), hammer
and ruler along with notebook and base maps.
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The hydro-geological investigation include collection of existing data within and around the
area of interest, which encompass existing boreholes and hand dug well data, type and
occurrence of springs if any. the observation of geological features which indicate the
occurrence of groundwater such as; porosity, permeability, alteration of rocks, joints/fractures
and contact of formational layers which commonly influences the occurrences and flow of
groundwater.
Geophysical survey was conducted using, ABEM Terrameter SAS 1000, electrical survey
device. The electrical resistivity method employed to survey the area is vertical electrical
sounding (VES), and the surveying was conducted on a predefined stations around the
concerning village (kebele) by using Schlumberger electrode configuration. The current and
potential electrodes aligned along a single direction. The maximum intervals of the current
electrode spacing (AB/2) were 500m and the maximum intervals of the potential electrode
spacing (MN/2) were 45m, whereas the maximum penetration depth was about 330meters.
Accordingly a total of 3 VES points survey were carried out in the project area (Odawa
village).
The survey was conducted in June/ 2022. The subsurface data obtained from this method was
computed into computer-based software‟s (ie.IPi2 win), to analyze and interpret the detected
subsurface layers.
Post-fieldwork
The different data collected throughout the course of the project including secondary data and
primary data acquired through field survey, was finally integrated, analyzed and synthesized
in this phase. Different computer-based software‟s including Arc map, Global mapper 18,
Strater and IP2win.etc, were used for map preparation, borehole design illustration and
geophysical data processing and analyzing. Notably, the Global Mapper has been used to
acquire knowledge about the topography, geomorphology, geological formations and
structures, and hydro-geological setting of the study Keble‟s/village; it also helped to
pinpoint GPS locations of important features, including water points. The final report was
compiled together with its accompanying bill of quantities/specifications for the designed
borehole.
2. Regional Geology and Structural Setting

2.1. Regional Geology
Wide variety of rocks, differ in terms of age and origin are underlain the geology of Ethiopia.
These variable rock formations, range in age from Precambrian to recent can be classified
based on their origin and evolution. As a result, the geology of the country is generally
divided into three geological Formations namely: Precambrian basement rocks, Paleozoic-
Tertiary sediments and Cenozoic volcanic rocks.
Apart from Tertiary volcanic rocks and Precambrian basement, the country holds a vast
sedimentary succession, which accumulated, in the five major sedimentary basins. These are
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the Ogaden basin (350,000 sq.km), Blue Nile basin (63,000 sq.km), Mekele basin (8,000
sq.km), Gambela basin (17,000 sq.km) and Southern Rift basins (15,000 sqkm), (Hunegnaw,
2007, as cited in Beressa Edessa, 2008). Among these sedimentary basins the first three are
relatively older than the last two basins. It is believed that they were formed as a result of
polyphase break up and extensional stress of the Gondwanaland accompanied by reactivation
of pre-existing structures and the formation of Neotethyan passive margin along the present
day margin of the eastern Africa (GSE, 2016).
Structurally the East African region has been affected by two major phases of crustal
extension. The first phase was the widespread intracontinental rifting commonly known as
the Karoo rift, which occurred at Late Paleozoic, probably the Permian period. This rift
stretches from the present day southern to eastern parts of African margin and corresponds to
the commencement of the Gondwanaland fragmentation (Norton and Sclater, 1979, as cited
in TamratWarku and Astin, 1992). During this crumbling further subsidence and rifting
continued throughout the Mesozoic era and with the associated sea-level fluctuations,
resulted the formation of cyclic patterns of shallow- marine carbonates, shales, evaporites and
minor clastic deposits.
The second phase of rifting occurred primarily in the Tertiary period and related to the
separation of Arabia and Africa along the Gulf of Aden, the Red Sea and the recent proto-
fragmenting of the African plate along the East African rift system (Purcell, 1981).
Tectonic evolutions throughout east African margin and the general effect of sea level
fluctuations throughout geologic time have great roles for the formation and development of
the Ethiopian sedimentary basins and their thick accumulated sediments. The development of
most of these basins is related to the extensional tectonic episodes that have operated on the
region since the late Paleozoic and continued up to Tertiary (Merla et al., 1979; Blanford,
1970 as cited in Beksaamente, 2018). The beginning of the breakup of Gondwanaland gave
rise to the Jurassic flooding of the entire Horn of Africa, with a marine transgression from the
Paleotethys and the Indian/Madagascar nascent ocean (Abbate et al., 2015). Thus, most of the
Mesozoic sedimentary succession in the country is part of the vast sedimentary successions
of East Africa that was deposited during the Mesozoic transgression.
Furthermore an alternate sinking and uplifting of the landmass under the Horn of Africa
triggering transgression of the Indian Ocean from the southeast to the northwest, marked the
13
early Mesozoic continental inundation (GetanehAssefa, 1991; Bosellini, 1989 as cited in
Beksaamente, 2018), and reaching its maximum limit in western Ethiopia and Eritrea.
According to Kazmin (1972), Beyth (1972b), Purcell (1981) and MengeshaTefera et al.
(1996) three major transgression and regression cycles occurred during the Mesozoic era, (the
Triassic-Jurassic, the Aptian-Albian and the Cenomanian-Maestrichtian). The first cycle
initiates and responsible for the formation of the widespread Mesozoic sediments
accumulated in the major sedimentary basins of Ethiopia. However, the second and the third
cycles are recorded only in the Ogaden Basin and responsible for the deposition of Mustahil
and Ferfer Formations and the BeletUen and Jessoma Formations respectively (Abbate et al.,
2015). The Mustahil Formation marks the beginning of the Aptian transgression whereas the
BeletUen Formation marks the beginning of the Cenomanian transgression. As a result the
Mesozoic sedimentary succession of Ethiopia is present in three sedimentary basins namely:
the Mekele outlier, the Blue Nile basin and the Ogaden basin (Kazmin, 1972; Merla et al.,
1979; Beyth, 1972b; GetanehAssefa, 1991; Purcell, 1981).
The Ogaden basin is one of the Ethiopian sedimentary basins, evolved similarly through that
long-term tectonic situations discussed above. It is located in southeastern part of Ethiopia
and covers an area of over 350,000 square kilometers (Hunegnaw, 2007, as cited in Beressa
Edessa, 2008: Purcell, 1979, 1981). The basin extends into Somalia and Kenya and contains
over 7000 meters of Permian to Tertiary sediments (Purcell, 1981).
According to GetanehAssefa (1988), the Ogaden basin was initiated in Paleozoic time as part
of the regional trough induced by the break-up of Gondwanaland, and is dominated by non-
compressional tectonic processes. In addition, BEICIP (1985, as cited in John, 2016)
concluded that the Ogaden sedimentary basin developed in a triple junction rift system during
Upper Paleozoic-Mesozoic era, the Bodle deep north-south (N-S), the Calub Saddle east-
northeast to west-southwest (ENE-WSW) and the Blue Nile northwest-southeast (NW-SE).
These three directions of rifting are the result of a northwest to southeast system of
extensional stresses, and related to the opening process of the North Atlantic and proto-Indian
oceans. This extensional tectonics is considered to be the most dominant features for the
development of the Ogaden sedimentary basin.
According to Purcell (1979), the isopach maps of the Jurassic and lower Cretaceous
formations show that two major troughs controlled the sedimentation in the Ogaden basin.
one trending north/northeast from Kenya through Somalia to western Ogaden basin and the
14
other trough trending northwest from coastal Somalia through Ogaden into Blue nile basin,
the eastern part of this trough is referred to as the eastern Ogaden sub-basin. In contrast the
isopachs of the upper Cretaceous and Tertiary formations in the eastern Ogaden basin show
that a NNE-trending coastal Somalia basin which penetrated into the eastern Ogaden basin
and presents only as an embayment. The presence of unconformabl contact relationship
between the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary formations in the eastern Ogaden sequences and
the underlying Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sequences in the Ogaden basin is also evidence
that Purcell (1979) used to make this distinction, and as a result, he defines the Ogaden basin
as an Upper Paleozoic to Lower Cretaceous feature.
Furthermore, Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments outcrop in the basin with a linear contact
along the northwest-trending Marda Fault lineament (Fig.2.1), which divides the Ogaden
basin into western and eastern sub-basins (Purcell, 1976, 1981). The Ogaden basin represents
a sedimentary succession of full transgression and regression accommodated by rifting and
subsidence of the present day passive margin of eastern Africa. It is one of the five major
sedimentary basins found in Ethiopia, composed of Precambrian crystalline basement rocks,
Paleozoic-Cenozoic Sediments and patches of Tertiary volcanic rocks.
According to Mengesha et al., (1996), Abbate et al., (2015), John (2016) and Purcell (1979,
1981), the geodynamic history of the Ogaden basin can be summarized as follows:
 Period of collision and terrain accretion of African cratons and formation of East
African Orogeny, followed by tectonic quiescence and intense weathering and erosion
of basement rocks. As Purcell (1976) suggested, the Marda Fault and the Galadi
Faults appear to have been a controlled element in the structure and stratigraphy of the
Paleozoic rift system in the Ethiopian Ogaden basin.
 The intracontinental rifting due to the breakup of Gondwanaland, which began

probably in the Late Carboniferous and subsequently filled by different sediments as
rifting and subsidence, progressed which led to the sea transgression from southeast
and advanced to northwest through the Ogaden in early to late Jurassic. This in turn
related to the tectonics of the separation of Madagascar from Africa coast and the
development of the nascent Indian Ocean.
 General uplift of the Ethio-Yemen or Arabo-Ethiopian dome continued in the

Paleocene, elevating the flanks of the western Ogaden sub-basin, and at the same time
15
subsidence of the coastal zone caused the Paleocene seas to advance westward, up to
the eastern Ogaden basin (Purcell,1979).
2.2. General Stratigraphy of the Ogaden basin

The Ogaden Basin is one of the three major sedimentary basins found in Ethiopia; it has high
potential for hydrocarbons. andstratigraphically composed of crystalline basement rocks,
Paleozoic-Cenozoic sediments and patches of volcanic rocks.
The currently used general stratigraphy of the Ogaden sedimentary basin has been established
from studies by several oil companies and by the Ethiopian Institute of Geological Surveys as
well as unpublished works (Mohr, 1963; Kazmin, 1972, as cited in TamratWarku and Astin,
1992).
The geological map of the Ogaden basin is shown on (Fig.2.1), and as far as the sedimentary
surface geology of the Ogaden basin is concerned, the basin is subdivided into the Mesozoic
and Tertiary sedimentary provinces by the Marda fault zone (Mege et al., 2015; Purcell,
1976a). As a result the western part of the Ogaden basin is covered by Jurassic sediments and
overlain by Cretaceous sediments around the basin margin and in the basin center, whereas
the Tertiary sediments cover the entire eastern part of the basin and display an outcrop pattern
that reflects the NNE-trending trough of the Somalia coastal basin (Purcell, 1979).
The subsurface continental Karroo sediments as evidenced by the drilled wells in the basin
represent the Paleozoic history of the basin. Within this Paleozoic sediments, three
Formations have been recognized (Calub Sandstone, Bokh Shale and Gumburo Sandstone)
(Purcell, 1979, 1981; Kazmin, 1972; TamratWorku and Astin, 1992), which are considered to
be either Permian (Purcell, 1979) or lower Paleozoic age (Elwerath, 1967, as cited in Purcell,
1981).
The four major geological units commonly found in all East African basins including the
Ogaden Basin, from the oldest to the youngest are:
1) The Precambrian basement complex
2) The Karroo Rift Sediments (Late Paleozoic sediments)
3) The Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary succession, and
4) The Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic rocks, which cap the older deposits.
16
The following is the description and summary of the stratigraphic units found in the basin.
2.2.1. Precambrian basement complex

The Precambrian geology in the Ogaden Basin is little understood due mainly to limited
exposure of the Precambrian rocks. Except for few exposures bounded the basin‟s periphery;
like the Chercher block in the north, Negele block in the southwest and Bur massif in the
south (Purcell, 1979). Most information about the Precambrian rocks is obtained from deep
well drilling. The Precambrian basement rocks beneath the Ogaden basin are considered to be
Mozambique Belt of southeastern Africa (Unsco, 1969, as cited in Purcell, 1979). However,
Kazmin (1972) related this as part of Upper Proterozoic Red Sea Geosynclines.
2.2.2. Late Palaeozoic sedimentary succession

The Paleozoic history in the Horn of Africa has been traditionally described as a period of
denudation, where erosion slowly leveled the Precambrian terrain (Purcell, 1981), which
made uncertain the different scale significance indications of the upper Paleozoic sediments
in the region. The presence of extensive Permian sediments in the Ogaden basin is now well
established (Purcell, 1979), and estimated by analogy to the Mandera-lugh basin, about
4000m in the western Ogaden sub-basin. Thus the oldest sedimentary rocks in the basin are
the continental Karroo Rift sedimentary rocks. The name “Karroo” is given in south and east
Africa to mostly continental clastic sediments that range in age from Carboniferous to
Liassic. It is named after the type area of Karroo Basin in South Africa (TamratWarku and
Astin, 1992). Similar sedimentary rocks also occur in the same set of rifts both at outcrop and
in subsurface, in Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Tanzania, Madagascar, Kenya, Somalia and
Ethiopia (Mayne, 1971; Flores, 1973; Kent, 1974; Kamen Kaye, 1978; Cannon et al., 1981,
as cited in TamratWarku and Astin, 1992). Although thick Upper Paleozoic sediments were
reported in the subsurface by drilled wells, there are two known localities in the Ogaden basin
where the Paleozoic sediments are outcropped; such outcrops are located near Negele and
Ramis river valley (Purcell, 1979).
According to TamratWarku and Astin (1992) the Karroo sedimentary succession in the
Ogaden basin is subdivided into four Formations (Calub Sandstone, Bokh Shale, Gumburo
Sandstone and Adigrat Sandstone), which are encountered in deep wells drilled for petroleum
exploration in southeastern and central parts of the Ogaden sedimentary basin. This
subdivision considers the complete gradation between Gumburo Sandstone and Adigrat
Sandstone, and presumes continous deposition for the continental clastic sediments until
terminated by lower to middle Jurassic carbonate deposition. It also follows the usage
17
elsewhere in east Africa region, where all continental sediments below the widespread
Mesozoic marine transgression are included in the Karroo, and were named „Karroo
sequences‟ (Kamen Kaye, 1978; Cannon et al., 1981, as cited in TamratWarku and Astin,
1992). However, the term „Pre-Adigrat‟ is more commonly used in Ethiopia all the Paleozoic
sediments below the Adigrat Sandstone (Purcell, 1979). These sedimentary sequences from
the oldest to the youngest are included:
Calub Sandstone, Bokh Shale and Gumburo Sandstone, these are correlable to other upper
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks which have been reported in many parts of Ethiopia; such as,
northern Ethiopia (Enticho Sandstone), central Ethiopia (Pre-Adigrat Sandstone) and
southwestern Ethiopia.
Table.2.1. Key features of the Karroo stratigraphy in the Ogaden Basin (modified after TamratWarku
and Astin, 1992).
Formation Approx.Age Basal contact Description Average

thickness(m)
Gumburo Late Transitional It is light green to grey medium 290

Sandstone Triassic? sized subarkosicsandstone and
becoming more quartzitic upwards.
It Consists of amalgamated, parallel
bedded, and cross-bedded with
minor beds of well sorted fine
pebble conglomerate consisting of
quartz, feldspar, wood and reworked
green mudstone and siltstone.
Bokh Early Transitional Dominantly it contains dark grey and 300

Shale Triassic minor dark green to redish brown
finely laminated shales with
interbeds of siltstone and fine
sandstone which become abundant
to the top of the formation
Calub Permian? Unconformity It is an arkosic sandstone with coarse 120
18
Sandstone grains and moderately sorted, it
consists of some granular
conglomerate and minor beds of
reddish brown siltstone, beds of
lithic sandstone rich in basic
volcanic clasts in association with
beds of intermediate to basic
volcanic tuffs are also present,
2.2.3. Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary succession

The Mesozoic sedimentary succession is widespread throughout the country and commonly
found in the major sedimentary basins. It is believed that as they were formed from the
known SE-NW trending marine transgression (Kazmin, 1973). In the Ogaden basin the
Mesozoic sediments comprise from the oldest to the youngest as follows:
Adigrat Sandstone: this unit occurs in all sedimentary basins in country and even it is
correlable to other east African and Arabian sediments (Kazmin, 1973). In Ethiopia, it is
unconformable or conformably rests on either Precambrian basements or Paleozoic sediments
(Karroo sediments). It was first defined in northern Ethiopia as its type locality near the
village of Adigrat, and named by Blanford, (1870, as cited in Purcell, 1979). It has a
thickness ranging from 200-300m in the Blue Nile basin (John, 2016). in the Ogaden basin it
is underlain by Paleozoic sediments (Karro sediments) and passes upward into a transition
zone to Hammenlie formation (Purcell, 1981), and in the northern part of the basin it is
outcropped and rests on basement rocks and it consists of an intercalation of sandstones,
calcareous sandstone, dolomite, shale and marl (Kazmin, 1972; Purcell, 1979; John, 2016).
According to John (2016), the Adigrat sandstone is a typical fluvial succession with braided-
stream deposits at the base, point-bar sequences in the middle, and coastal plain to lagoonal
sediments at the top. Thus, Adigrat Sandstone can be considered a time-transgressive unit,
which marks the beginning of Jurassic sea transgression that invades across the horn of
Africa.
Hammanlei Formation: this unit was originally recorded at the type locality near the village
of Hamanlei in the northern part of the basin (Purcell, 1979). It overlays on and partly
intercalated the Adigrat Sandstone, although a transitional zone between these two
Formations were reported (John, 2016; Purcell, 1979; Kazmin, 1972) and in some areas it
19
directly overlays on basement rocks such as in the western part of the basin and Harrer area.
Generally the Hamanlei Formation contains a transgressive carbonate-evaporite succession
which changes upward into basinal shale and marl of the Urandab Formation. In the northern
and central part of the country Hamanlie Formation is equivalent to Jurassic limestone of
Antalo Formation (Kazmin, 1973, Purcell, 1979).
According to John (2016) in the Ogaden basin Hamanlei Formation is subdivided into three
lithological units as;
Lower Hamanlei clastic-carbonate mixed facies; which is only found in the Ogaden basin and
reported its equivalent in the Blue Nile basin as a transitional sand facies (Gebreyohannes,
1989, as cited in John, 2016). It represents the first marine deposits formed from the sea
transgression (Kazmin, 1973; Greitzer, 1970). This part of the Hamanlei Formation reflects
open lagoon-marine conditions and beginning of a carbonate platform in the Ogaden Basin as
its thickness indicates. It thins to the northeast and thickens to the south (Shigut, 1997, as
cited in John, 2016). Thus its thickness decreases from 338.7 at El-kuran-well 1 in the south,
to 256m at Gumburo-well 1and 165m at XEF-2.
Middle Hamanlei: is an evaporite-carbonate sequence and it presents both in the Ogaden and
Blue Nile basins. It contains an alternating lithology of limestone, dolostone, and evaporites
with abundant oolites, algal stromatolites, green algae, foraminifera, echinoids, gastropods
etc. (John, 2016). The depositional setting of this part of Hamanlei Formation was suggested
under hot climatic conditions adjacent to a gently shelving seafloor (Migliorini, 1956, as cited
in John, 2016).
Upper Hamanlei: is composed of mainly skeletal, peloidalgrainstones and mudstones and at

places near the base it contains high energy ooliticgrainstones. This part of the Hamanlei
Formation is overlying by Uarandab Formation in the Ogaden basin, but in the Harare area it
is overlain by the regressive Ambaaradam sandstone. The thickness of the upper Hamanlei is
range from 396-488m with maximum thickness of 544m at Hilala-1 (BEICIP, 1985 as cited
in John, 2016). The age of this unit was assigned from Liassic-Bathonian in the basin axis
(Purcell, 1979).
Urandab Formation: it conformably overlays the Hammanlie Formation and characterizes a

dark greenish gray carbonaceous fissile shale and argillaceous limestone with marl and
gypsiferous limestone with a thickness of about 400m (Mengesha et al., 1996; Purcell, 1979).
20
It is assigned Oxfordian-Kimerdgian age on the basis of microfossils (Kazmin, 1975, 1972;
Purcell, 1979). At its type section near Urandab village in the Ogaden basin it is measured a
thickness of 55m. The overall thickness of the unit decreases towards northeastern part of the
basin where it reaches a thickness of about 115m at Gumboro-1 well (John, 2016).
Gabredahar Formation: this Formation represents the upper most Jurassic successions in
the Ogaden basin and was formerly named by Kazmin (1975; 1972) as Gabredarre series. It
contains light colored oolitic limestone, marl and shale becoming brecciated pisolitic
limestone with marl and gypsiferous eastward, its thickness is 410m at the type section near
gebrideharretown (Kazmin, 1972; Purcell, 1979). It has a sharp to gradational contact to the
underlying Urandab formation in the eastern and western parts of basin respectively, and
gradational to the overlaying Korrahie formation (Mengesha et al., 1996). In the western
flanks of the basin this unit is laterally changes to sandstone which is termed Garbaharre
Formation in the southwestern Ethiopia and Somalia, and in the northern flank of the basin it
changes to Ambaaradam sandstone (Purcell, 1979). The Formation was assigned
Kimerdgian-Portlandian age (Kazmin, 1972). It was recorded a variable thickness across the
unit from 1259m at shillabo-1 well to 165m at Galadi and totally missing far to the
northeastern part of the basin mainly due to uplift and erosion or non-deposition (John, 2016).
Korrahei Formation:Korrahei Formation or main gypsum as formerly named by kazmin

(1972, 1975) is the lower most unit of the Cretaceous sediment in the basin, and marks the
deposition under a period of sea regression and shoreline progradation towards sea. The unit
outcrops over large areas of the western part of the Ogaden basin and extends into the
Mandera-Lugh trough, where it consists of gypsum and limestone with interbedded shale.
The type section of the Korrahei Formation is at Korrahie village near Gabredarre town in
Ethiopia and comprises 200 meters of gypsum intercalated with limestone, marls and shale
(Purcell, 1979).
According to (Mengeshaetal., 1996; Kazmin, 1972, 1975; Purcell, 1979; John, 2016) the
lower part of the Korrahei Formation consists of alternations of dolomitic limestone, marl,
shale and anhydrite with sandstone in the west, whereas the upper part of the Formation
consists of massive, white and grey anhydrite with beds of dolomite and shale. It has a
gradational contact of both the underlying and the overlying Formations. In the western
Ogaden sub basin. The Formation is thickest in the basin centre where Bodle-1 well
encountered 1680m of interbedded shale, sandstones, limestone and dolomites with anhydrite
21
and salt. and at El Kuran-1 well it was encountered a thick section of shale, limestone and
sandstones, increasingly clastic in the upper part which is characterized by interbeds of red
shale and gypsum.
The Korrahei Formation has been assigned Neocomian age based on Choffatella and
Orbitolina found in the unit (Merla, 1979, as cited in Mengesha et al., 1996). It is interpreted
as inner shelf deposits formed because of large evaporitic areas left behind during the
regression of the Jurassic sea (John, 2016).
Mustahil Formation: this Formation is exposed in the Fafam valley and in the lower reaches
of WabiShabele valley of the Ogaden basin and it rests on Korrahie Formation. At its type
section near Mustahil village, it consists of alternating light grey limestone interbedded with
shale and marl in the lower part and fossiliferous limestone rich in Orbitolina dominate on the
upper part (Mengesha et al., 1996; Purcell, 1979; Russo et al., 1991). On the basis of
paleontology it is assigned an Aptian-Albian age and was deposited inner to outer shelf
environment (Kazmin, 1975, 1972; Russo et al., 1991; John, 2016). This Formation marks a
Cretaceous sea transgression across the East Africa and Middle East. The Aptian limestone
found at western margins of the Ogaden basin particularly at Sheik huseein and Gramulata
mountains near Hararwhich mostly overlain on sandstone unit indicate the aerial extent of the
Cretaceous re-established sea transgression. The underlying sandstone (Ambaaradam
Sandstone) represents the shoreline facies of the Korrahie Formation (Purcell, 1979)
Ferfer Formation: this Formation belongs to the upper Cretaceous sediments which are
considered by some authors (Purcell, 1979 and others) to be part of the Coastal Somalia basin
rather than Ogaden basin. The upper Cretaceous sediments in the Ogaden basin outcrop only
in the lower Wabi Shebelle valley, and are subdivided into two Formations, the Ferfer
Gypsum and the BeletUen Formation. The Ferfer Formation outcrops along a narrow strip in
the southeastern part of the Ogaden basin and stretches along the lower reaches of the Wabi
Shebelle River. It has lithological similarty to Korrahie Formation, as it contains alternating
lithology of dolomite, limestone, marle and gypsum/anhydrite. It marks a re-established
period of regressive deposition (Mengesha et al., 1996; Purcell, 1979). It was postulated an
age of Albian-Cenomanian based on its stratigraphic position (Mengesha et al., 1996). It is
interpreted as restricted lagoonal deposits (John, 2016).
BeletUen Formation: this Formation represents the uppermost unit of the Cretaceous
sediments. It was first recorded as its type section near BeletUen in southern Somalia and
22
extends northward into Ogaden basin of Ethiopia following the WabiShabele valley
(Mengesha et al., 1996; Kazmin, 1972). The unit consists of light grey partially reefal
limestone with intercalations of greenish grey glauconitic shale and brownish to green
sandstone with minor gypsum at the top part, its thickness varies from 87m to 232m and has a
gradational contact to both the underlying and the overlying unit (Megesha et al., 1996;
Purcell, 1979; John, 2016).
Jessoma Formation: this unit marks the lowermost unit in the Tertiary sediments of the
Ogaden basin (upper Cretaceous-Paleocene). It was first observed at its type locality near
Jessoma village in Somalia. According to Mengesha et al. (1996) the Formation contains
dominantly by unfossiliferous cross-bedded sandstone with some shale intercalations and
laterites, its thickness varies from west to east across the basin (from 100m to over 300m).
Similarly its depositional environment is variable from west to east (fluvial continents to near
shore littoral). In the eastern part of the Ogaden basin the Formations below the Jessoma
Sandstone get older progressively from south to north and conformably overly by the Auradu
Formation. The Jessoma Sandstone is a transgressive unit (Kazmin, 1972; Purcell, 1979).
However, some authors suggested that the Jessoma Sandstone represents the end-Cretaceous
regression facies rather than the beginning of the Tertiary transgression (Purcell, 1979)
Auradu Formation: Is a limestone dominated unit that was first defined and named as Urade
by Gregory (1921, as cited in Purcell, 1979) and assigned to Cretaceous in the northern
Somalia, but by later works changed and renamed as Auradu and assigned to Eocene. This
Formation presents in the easternmost part of the Ogaden basin and consists of: in the lower
part pink to grey massive limestone with cherty concretions and in the upper part it is a
chalky limestone with shale, this part is termed Allahkajid beds (Mengesha et al., 1996). This
Formation typically occurs in the Coastal Somalia, and represents in Ethiopia an Eocene
marine transgression that reached in the eastern extreme edges of the Ogaden basin.
Taleh Formation: this Formation is also outcroped in the extreme margin of the eastern
Ogaden basin and represents shallowing water depth caused by either shoreline progradation
and/or regional uplift (Purcell, 1979). This unit is conformably rests on the lower part of the
underlying Auradu Limestone but interfingers the upper part of the Auradu Formation. It has
a gradational contact to the overlying Karkar Formation. Based on this contact relationship to
the other Formations, Taleh anhydrite was assigned an age of early to middle Eocene
(MengeshaTeferra et al., 1996; Kazmin, 1972). LithologicalyTaleh Formation contains
23
massive banded anhydrite with interbeds of fossiliferous cherty limestone, with thickness of
450m at its type section near Taleh village in Somalia (Mengesha et al., 1996; Purcell, 1979).
Karkar Formation: this unit has very small aerial extent in the far east of the Ogaden basin
and it widens to the northern Somalia. Thus, it represents the last marine water invasion in the
Ethiopian Ogaden basin. It is composed of white colored chalky limestone with thin beds of
shale and gypsum. Its age ranges from middle to upper Eocene (Purcell, 1979; Kazmin, 1972,
1975; Mengesha et al., 1996).
2.2.4. Tertiary volcanic rocks

Volcanic rocks are rarely outcrop in the basin, and only present at isolated areas and
structural features in the Ogaden basin. Thus, they are a minor part of the Ogaden
stratigraphy. According to Purcell (1979) the oldest volcanic rocks in the basin was recorded
at northwestern flank of the basin and it is an Aptian age that occur in Ambaaradam
Sandstone. Moreover, the volcanic rocks stretched along the Marda Fault and near Fik town,
the isolated patches outcropped near Werder and Dolo are all younger and believed to be
Tertiary in age. These younger volcanic rocks are mainly related to the Trap series (Purcell,
1979).
24
Figure.2.1 Generalized stratigraphy column of the ogaden basin
2.3. Local Geology

The surface geology in the current project area was investigated through field traverses and
observations. consequently different geological formations were encountered. These
geological formations that exposed in the area and surroundings will be described in the
following paragraphs according to their stratigraphic order (oldest to youngest).
25
Jessoma Formation: this unit marks the lowermost unit in the Tertiary sediments of the
Ogaden basin (upper Cretaceous-Paleocene). It was first observed at its type locality near
Jessoma village in Somalia. According to Mengesha et al. (1996) the Formation contains
dominantly by unfossiliferous cross-bedded sandstone with some shale intercalations and
laterites, its thickness varies from west to east across the basin (from 100m to over 300m).
Similarly its depositional environment is variable from west to east (fluvial continents to near
shore littoral). In the eastern part of the Ogaden basin the Formations below the Jessoma
Sandstone get older progressively from south to north and conformably overly by the Auradu
Formation. The Jessoma Sandstone is a transgressive unit. However, some authors suggested
that the Jessoma Sandstone represents the end-Cretaceous regression facies rather than the
beginning of the Tertiary transgression (Purcell, 1979).
Auradu Formation: Is a limestone dominated unit that was first defined and named as Urade
by Gregory (1921) and assigned to Cretaceous in the northern Somalia, but by later works
changed and renamed as Auradu and assigned to Eocene. This Formation presents in the
easternmost part of the Ogaden basin and consists of: in the lower part pink to grey massive
limestone with cherty concretions and in the upper part it is a chalky limestone with shale,
this part is termed Allahkajid beds. This Formation typically occurs in the Coastal Somalia,
and represents in Ethiopia an Eocene marine transgression that reached in the eastern extreme
edges of the Ogaden basin.
Taleh Formation: this Formation is outcropped in the extreme margin of the eastern Ogaden
basin and represents shallowing water depth caused by either shoreline progradation and/or
regional uplift. This unit is conformably rests on the lower part of the underlying Auradu
Limestone but interfingers the upper part of the Auradu Formation. It has a gradational
contact to the overlying Karkar Formation. Based on this contact relationship to the other
Formations, Taleh anhydrite was assigned an age of early to middle Eocene. Lithologicaly
Taleh Formation contains massive banded anhydrite with some interbeds of gypsum, shale
and fossiliferous cherty limestone or dolomite, with thickness of 450m at its type section near
Taleh village in Somalia.
26
Figure.2.2. Geological map of the study area and surroundings
2.4. Structural Geology of the Study Area

Structures in Mesozoic Sedimentary Rocks
The lower Fafem and Adjacent area is mainly underlain by late Mesozoic sedimentary rocks,
namely Gebridahar formation and the overlying Korrahie, Mustahile, Ferfer and BeletUen
Formations. These rock units are mainly evaporite and carbonates which at places contain
bioclastics of numerous macro-fossil fragments.
At places the sedimentary rocks are displaced/off set by meso-scale faults and lineaments.
These faults and lineaments trend parallel to the Marda Fault zone. The thicknesses of the
Mesozoic sedimentary successions increase downstream towards the confluence of Fafem
and Wabishabele.
The Mesozoic sedimentary strata exhibits, high density of lineaments which indicate the
occurrences of frequent jointing and fracturing as well as faulting, which are particularly
related to the Marda Fault Zone. Rose diagram of lineament in the Mesozoic rock strata
27
suggested presence of three major fault/fracture orientations, namely ENE – WSW, NW – SE
and NE – SW. The interplay of these structures is important and controls the recharge and
flows of groundwater.
Density analysis of the lineaments indicates occurrence of large concentration of

fractures/faults in the Mesozoic rocks and particularly occur between Fafem and wabishabele
confluence and along the Marda fault zone. This area is expected to have extremely high
recharge to groundwater as a result of the high density of fractures and faults. These fault /
fractures extend as far as upper Jerer and Fafen Valley and create potential channels to
transmit or conduct groundwater; and hence, require further detailed investigation.
Structures in Tertiary Sedimentary and Volcanic Rocks
Tertiary sedimentary (Jessoma sandstone) rocks cover large part in the eastern side of the
current study area. The Jessoma sandstone generally covers all the way along the eastern side
of the road connects Kebridehar and Warder towns, and all parts of the eastern Ogaden Basin.
On the other hand, isolated volcanic rock exposures are present covering the top part of hills
and ridges in the far north and eastern parts of the study area.
Lineament analysis of the areas exposed by the Jessoma Sandstone exhibit less fracture
density as compared to areas underlain by the Precambrian basement rocks and the Mesozoic
sedimentary successions. However, this doesn‟t necessarily imply that the rocks are less
fractured or affected by tectonic movement. Areas underlain by Jessoma sandstone are often
covered by thin elluvial residual deposits which obscure the occurrence of faults/fractures.
2.4.1. Marda Fault Zone and Other Major Structures

The NW–SE trending Marda Fault Zone was first recognized in the Karamara mountain
range and its down thrown side is to the NE and possibly extending more than 900 km from
southeast of Afar Depression to the Indian Ocean (Purcell, 1976). The Marda Fault zone is
recognized as a major structural element in the Horn of Africa. The Marda Fault striking
northwest – southeast and practically separates the tertiary sedimentary formations in the east
from the Mesozoic sedimentary succession in the west.
The structure extends for about 900 km from around northern part of the project area to
Somalia across Ethiopian border. It is presumed to cut across or truncate against the structural
high (Mirio Uplift) located north of the project area. Depending on its depth extent the
structural high situated north of the project area, not far from the confluence of Fafem and
28
Jerer Rivers, is presumed to form a barrier, which could be investigated as potential area for
groundwater occurrence.
As observed in Jerer valley the Marda Fault mingled and strongly deformed the sandstone
unit exposed all along the banks of Jerer River downstream of the bridge across Jerer River
on the road from Degahabur to Birkot and beyond. This shows syn- to post-depositional
deformation which at places strongly shattered the rocks. The Marda faults appear to produce
asymmetric half grabens that could be considered as potential zones for further groundwater
potential assessment works.
Moreover, a northwest to southeast striking fault is traced within Jessoma sandstone

formation producing structural depression. According to the interpretative geological cross-
section the structure is a normal fault with nearly vertical dips resulted from tensional
tectonics produced or reactivated after deposition of Jessoma sandstone formation. This zone
makes up another potential area for future exploration for groundwater.
Fig 2.3 Structural map of the study area and surroundings
29
3. Hydrogeological Setting
3.1. General
In the project area a number of mapping units categorized into Tertiary sedimentary rocks
subject to diverse geological and structural evolution are documented and shown in the
geological map of the study area. The road cuts, quarry sites and river/stream banks present
fresh rock exposures where meso-scale structures could be observed.
From geology point of view groundwater potential assessment is mainly based on two
important rock properties, namely porous media and fractured rocks (high porosity and
permeability rocks). As such geologic structures and textures particularly faults/fractures and
grain sizes are considered significant properties for groundwater potential study.
2.2.1. Ground water characteristics of the Study Area

Most of the study area is regional recharge except small Eastern Adjacent Dry area which is
low recharge and high Evaporate area. The sedimentary sequence outcropping in the study
Area (eastern ogaden low land sub basin) is prominently formed of carbonate rocks which
correspond to sedimentation of a shallow sea in which the deposition of detritus and skeletal
limestone has been intercalated with evaporate deposits of lagoon and transitional
environment. Hence, the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer and the possibilities of their
exploitation for domestic and livestock use strictly depend on the lithology and condition of
deposition.
Based on this, the Quaternary deposits, Auradu limestone and Jessoma Sandstone can be
considered as potentially exploitable aquifers and Fresh water formation. The remaining
formation such as the Taleh Formation can be considered as aquicludes or poor aquifers,
which contain high salinity water not suitable for domestic and livestock use.
Three aquifer types are recognized in the eastern ogaden sub-basin and adjacent area. These
are the multi-layered sedimentary aquifers of mainly carbonate and terriginous rocks;
Tertiary volcanic rocks covering small area of the sub basin and the loose alluvial sediments.
30
2.2.2. Groundwater occurrence:
Groundwater normally occurs in pores and interstices of various rock formations depending
on the geological conditions, the physiographic of the area, the permeability and porosity of
the rock formations, the degree and depth of weathering, fracturing of the rock formation and
the tectonic historical conditions of the area. The different rocks found below the surface are
the sole media for groundwater impoundment. This means the geological rock formation
underneath plays the role of reservoir. In this context, the dominant rock formations that
exist in the project area namely the Jessoma sandstone and carbonate deposits and the
unconsolidated sediments of alluvium sand deposits, which could be the probable host of
groundwater aquifer. Apparently it is the lithological type, stratigraphic sequences, and
structure of the geologic formations as well as the geomorphological aspect that control the
nature and distribution of groundwater occurrences in geologic system.
Physiographically the study area is characterized by low relief tabular plateau made of
Tertiary sediments separated by slightly elevated mountains and river incisions. The
elevation of the study area decreases from northwest to southeast. The Jessoma sandstones
are variegated red to brown black colored qurtzose sandstones of fluvial and/or littoral origin.
It is an aquifer of relatively high productivity. Its high permeability and productivity is a
result of the moderate to coarse grain size, loose cementation and limited shale intercalation.
In the eastern lowlands of the ogaden sub basin and adjacent area two aquifer types occur.
Detailed account of the groundwater occurrence in a different degree from high, moderate to
poor aquifer property. In the lowlands of the eastern Ogaden the main near surface aquifers
are the superficial residual deposits confined in the major valleys. Minor aquifers are found
in the Jessoma, Auradu and Karkar Series, trap series basalts and in localized superficial
deposits. Generally evaporate layers within the Limestone Group, such as Taleh series causes
splitting, stagnation and salinization of the underground water. In this regard, the
hydrogeological context of the rocks in the study area is discussed below in two groups.
 Unconsolidated highly weathered lose materials/ alluvium and/or residual Jessoma

sandstone deposit.
 Consolidated fractured and weathered consolidated limestone rocks of Auradu
formation.
31
Jessoma sandstone covers the most extensive in the adjacent area. It is poorly recharged and
does not have a regional water table and even perched water lies deeper than 300 meters.
Moreover, because of its friable and uncemented nature the formation gives great difficulties
in drilling. Several wells drilled (e.g. at Derar, Gashamo, Aroresa) in early 1970‟s turns out to
be dry or abandoned due to mechanical failure. In Jesoma sandstone drilling data shows
water table is deeper than 250 meters. However when water is encountered at shallow depth
the water quality is potable.
Deeper drilling for petroleum holes reveal salt waters (up to 20 g/l) below depth of 1560
meters and fresh water zones above depth of 1560 meters (less than 10 g/l) in the 3061 meter
deep Bokh well. Severe circulation loss has been encountered in variety of locations in the
Jessoma sandstone.
Auradu Seiries (Late Paleocene early Eocene limestone) formation is massive limestone and
yields some fairly fresh water. There are successful boreholes, notably at Burdar, Agarewein
and Ado (Sinclair wells 13 and 13 A). The formation thins westwards and thickens eastward,
where in Somalia it is as much as 450 meters thick, but in Ethiopia it seldom exceeds 200
meters, though petroleum well at Bokh shows above 430 meters thick Auradu series rocks
under the Taleh formation. A number of boreholes were not completed due to problems of
lost circulation. Most of the water production holes drilled by oil companies were originally
capped as there was no population in areas.
Taleh series is of alternating anhydrite, gypsum and shale with some thin interbeds of
dolomite. The unit is of Middle to Early Eocene age. Gypsum does not occur everywhere in
the sequence and several boreholes yield potable waters. At Geladi, drilled wells struck
mineralized water and sometimes with high ammonia content. At BH-18 water is purgative
but used. At Bokh several holes were drilled through the Taleh Series into the under-laying
formation yielding up to 2 l/s with no evidence of declining yields and in places the wells
return potable water.
As concluded earlier by Hadwen et al. (1973) water supply in Ogaden cannot depend on
drilling boreholes into the three principal lithologies (Jesoma, Auradu or Taleh formations),
except perhaps in areas of Jurassic limestone around Jijiga or in Mustahil formation west of
the Marda fault, and even in those areas pockets of tracts of salty water are common.
32
Alluvial deposits: generally these deposits are the most reliable aquifers in terms of quality
and quantity. The unconsolidated sediment occurs as fills all over the study areas. The
alluvial sediment differs in their grain size distribution and thickness, which contribute to
their variation in hydrogeological properties but in the study areas this unit has coarse
grained–sand and gravel layers within the valley, the porosity/permeability of the sediment
can be regarded as good sources for groundwater occurrence. The alluvial sediments with
high porosity and high permeability make them a very good aquifer in the project area.
2.3. Recharge and geomorphology:

The extensive flat surface east of the Marda fault is covered by sandy soils coated with
reddish soil or calcareous duricrust (caliche). This limits recharge rate going down to the
aquifers. Recharge is considerably low, rainfall is less than 200 mm per year in Eastern most
zone and increases only to 500 mm/yr in the northern sector of the of the study area. Vertical
recharge that occurs is concentrated along major valleys, especially in their superficial
deposits and in fault gouges in valleys that are structurally controlled. In slightly elevated
mountains and foothills erosion is so deep that recharge water soon finds its way towards
valley axis.
Figure 3.1 Hydrogeological map of the study area and surroundings
33
4. Geophysical Survey
4.1. General
The geophysical method used in the present survey is Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES).
The method provides subsurface information regarding the nature of rocks, their degree of
weathering and/or fracturing, and about geological structures, which are important and useful
in identifying areas favorable for groundwater development.
The use of geophysics for groundwater studies has been stimulated in part by a desire to
reduce the risk of drilling dry holes and also a desire to offset the cost associate with poor
groundwater production. Today the geophysicist also provides useful parameters for hydro-
geological modeling of both new groundwater supplies and for the evaluation of existing
groundwater contamination.
The Vertical Electrical Soundings were done to determine the variation of resistivity with
depth which reveal the nature and thickness of the underlying formations. The method also
yields a quantitative estimate of the thickness or depth of various geo-electric layers, and also
the quality of groundwater.
Accordingly, three VES points survey has been conducted in Odawa village for the purpose
of identifying potential groundwater areas and also to select water supply borehole locations
with estimated drilling depth. The field procedure, data processing and interpretation of these
geophysical surveys will be presented in the consecutive sections of this report. And finally
based on the interpreted results of the geophysical, geological and hydrogeological
investigations as well as other necessary data‟s, appropriate recommendations and concluding
remarks will be given.
4.1.1. Objectives of the Geophysical Surveys
The geophysical investigation was conducted with the following objectives:-

 To determine the nature and thickness of the unconsolidated sediments (clay, silt,
sand & gravel)
 To determine the depth to bedrock,
 To determine the nature of the rocks underlying the unconsolidated sediments,
 To determine groundwater quality variations(fresh/saline water), and
 To estimate target depth for production wells.
34
4.1.2. Survey layout and Instrumentation
The instrument used during the survey was a portable integrated (transmitter and receiver in
one unit) resistivity meter called ABEM SAS 1000 Terrameter which is powered by 12V and
70 Ampere external car battery. It has stacking and digital (LCD) readout features. During
resistivity survey it automatically calculates ΔV/I, Resistance and displays the Apparent
Resistivity either in ohms or milliohms.
In addition to the main unit the following ancillary equipment‟s were used in the site.
Cable sets (750m each for current and 250m each for potential Circuit), stainless steel
electrodes, connectors and clips, and Hammers, hand held Garmin 60 GPS.
The Schlumberger array electrode configuration was adopted with maximum half-current
electrode separation (AB/2) of 500m for the sounding survey. The sounding curve which is a
log-log plot of apparent resistivity versus half the distance between the current electrodes
(AB/2) is readily plotted in the field so that any erroneous measurement could be detected
and taken care of.
4.1.3. Field procedure and data processing
In the survey electric current was injected into the ground by means of two current electrodes
(C1C2) and pair of potential electrodes (P1P2) was used to measure the potential drop that
occurs between them.
In this procedure a serious of measurements was taken by progressively increasing the
current electrode separation (C1C2), thereby, increasing the depth of investigation.
The sounding curves collected in the field were interpreted by using two layer master curves
and auxiliary charts. The procedure is known as curve matching. As a result, layer parameters
(layer Resistivity and thickness) of multilayered earth are obtained.
The layer parameters so obtained have been used as a starting model for iterative squares
inversion program of IX1D, IPI2 and Win Resist. Due to the well-known problems of
equivalence and suppression, the best model fit may not necessarily agree with the geology of
the project area. In order to describe the subsurface Litho logical succession of investigated
area, the geo- electrical layers were calibrated using the observed Lithological units and/or
reviewed geological formation from the previous studies and Geological Map of Ethiopia.
35
4.2. Geophysical Survey locations
The Vertical Electrical Soundings were conducted at specified sites in the study area. A total
of three VES points were selected around Odawa village. The spacing of the VES stations
were not uniform, rather they were dictated by the geology, drainage structures and
geomorphological aspects of the area.
The exact locations of these VES sites in the study area are summarized in the table and
figure below.
Table 4.1. Location of the measured VES sites
VES No. Village Woreda Zone UTM Easting Northing Elevation

(m)
Od-VES01 Odawa Warder Dollo WGS84, 594245.16 m 786129.09 m 498

38N

38N

38N
Figure 4.1. VES points Locations along with drainage map.
36
4.3. Geophysical Survey Results & Interpretations
Fieldwork included detailed hydrogeological, geological and geophysical Vertical Electrical

Sounding (VES) using Schlumberger configuration were conducted. Three VES
measurements have been conducted VES sites were pegged during the field investigations
and their coordinates were obtained using Global Positioning System (GPS).
The vertical electrical soundings (VES) were executed at the area and the Schlumberger
electrode array was applied with the current electrode spacing expanded to 500 m at each
VES point (AB/2 = 500 m). The VES data has been interpreted by means of recognized
modeling software‟s (Win Resist and IPI-Win and excel spread sheet with log-log paper) 1-D
programs to provide quantitative 1-D depth-resistivity model interpretation of the probed
locations of measurement and analysis of equivalent solutions.
The interpretation results of the conducted three VES soundings in Odawa village
Groundwater Investigation project area are presented in the figures and tables below. The
interpreted results of each VES sounding measured at the specified stations are correlated
with the possible subsurface hydro geological/geological formations (strata‟s) which is found
within and around the study area.
4.3.1. Odawa VES-1 Interpretations

The resistivity curve interpretation of the VES-1 sounding conducted in Odawa area is
summarized in the figure and table below. The detailed discussion of this VES interpretation
is also presented in the following paragraphs.
Generally eight geo-electric layers have been detected from the sounding measured at this
point. Based on the geology and hydrogeological behavior of the area as well as other
supplementary data (e.g.; existing borehole logs), the geological interpretations of these geo-
electric layers have been made as follows;
The first top layer is characterized by 3238 -m resistivity value and 0.3m thickness, it
represents very thin unconsolidated lose top soil layer composed of sand silty with clay.
The second layer has a resistivity value of 198 -m, and 2.22m thickness with lower
boundary of 2.52 m depth which is characterized by a relatively high resistivity value and
corresponding to unconsolidated coarse grained sand.
37
The third layer is defined by relatively medium resistivity value of 57.4 -m and 2.42m
thickness with 4.94m lower depth. This layer can be interpreted as well consolidated fine
grained sand with some extent of clayey silty.
The fourth layer has a resistivity value of 95.5 -m and a thickness of 6.22m with a lower
depth of 11.2m. This Layer indicates probably slightly weathered micritic limestone.
The 5th layer has low resistivity value of 26.6 -m and 22.6m thickness with lower boundary
of 33.8m. This layer is most probably indicates fractured limestone.
The 6th layer has an extremely very low resistivity value of 5.3 -m and 49.8m thickness
with a lower boundary of 83.6m depth. This layer can be inferred as clay and/or shale.
The 7th layer characterizes relatively low resistivity value of 26.2 and attains 170m thickness
and it is probably intercalations of limestone, shale, marl and sandstone layers.
The 8th layer signals moderate resistivity value of 44.2 -m and found below 254m depth.
This layer can be interpreted as highly to moderately weathered/fractured limestone with
coarse grained sandstone and it is probably below the water table.
Fig 4.2 Od-VES-1. Resistivity curve in Odawa area
Table 4. 2Hydro geological Interpretation of Od-VES-1
Layer Resistivity (ohm-m) Thickness(m) Depth(m) Inferred Lithology
1 3238 0.3 0.3 Loose top soil
38
2 198 2.22 2.52 coarse grained sand
3 57.4 2.42 4.94 Fine grained sand
4 95.5 6.22 11.2 Slightly weathered limestone
5 26.6 22.6 33.8 fractured limestone

6 5.3 49.8 83.6 Clay/shale
7 26.2 170 254 Differently weathered/fractured
limestone with cherty,
sandstone, shale and marl
intercalations
8 44.2 >254 Highly to moderately
weathered/fractured limestone
with coarse grained sandstone
(it can be remarked as saturated
layer)
4.3.2. Odawa VES-2 Interpretations
The resistivity curve interpretation of the VES-2 sounding conducted in Odawa area is
summarized in the figure and table below. The detailed discussion of this VES interpretation
is also presented in the following paragraphs.
Generally eight geo-electric layers have been detected from the sounding measured at this
point. Based on the geology and hydrogeological behavior of the area as well as other
supplementary data (eg; existing borehole logs), the geological interpretations of these geo-
electric layers have been made as follows;
The first top layer is characterized by relatively very high resistivity value of 427.2 -m and
0.58m thickness; this layer represents the upper loose unconsolidated sand silty soil.
The second layer has a resistivity value of 46.41 - m and 0.68m thickness with depth of
1.26m, this layer can be interpreted as consolidated dry sand with clay and silt.
The 3th layer is defined by relatively high resistivity value of 465.2 -m, and 1.27m thickness
with depth of 2.54m, and it can be interpreted as unconsolidated sand and gravel sized
particles.
39
The 4th layer displays high resistivity value of 110.5 -m and ranges from 2.54-6.41m. This
layer indicates probably coarse grained sandstone.
The 5th layer shows very high resistivity value of 565.5 -m with 7.81m thickness and it can
be interpreted as fresh limestone.
The 6th layer has relatively low resistivity value of 12.11 -m and attains a thickness value of
50.8m. Based on this low resistivity value this layer can be considered as clay/shale with
sandstone and marl-limestone intercalations.
The 7th layer has relatively medium resistivity value of 43.85 -m with 169.6m thickness and
reaches up to a depth of 234m. This layer can be interpreted as highly weathered/fractured
limestone with coarse grained sandstone and comparatively it can be considered as water
bearing horizon.
The 8th layer displays very low resistivity value of 8.9 -m and found below 234m depth
with unknown thickness. It can be inferred as low resistivity material of shale dominated marl
and sandstone intercalations.
Fig 4. 3. Od-VES-2 Resistivity Curve in Odawa area
40
Table 4.3 Hydro-geological Interpretation of Odawa-VES2
Layer Resistivity(ohm- Thickness Depth(m) Inferred Lithology

m) (m)
1 427.2 0.58 0.58 Dry loose top Soil
2 46.41 0.689 1.27 Compacted Sand with clay and silt
3 465.2 1.28 2.54 Unconsolidated sand and gravel
sized particles
4 110.5 3.87 6.41 Coarse grained sandstone
5 565.5 7.81 14.21 Fresh limestone
6 12.11 50.79 65.01 Clay/shale with sandstone and marl-
limestone intercalations
7 43.85 169.6 234.6 Highly weathered/fractured
limestone with coarse grained
sandstone
8 8.902 >234 Shale/clay or marl dominated
sandstone
4.3.3. Odawa VES-3 Interpretation

This VES was conducted in the southern direction of the Odawa village and it is far away
from the village at about 2km. Its geographical coordinate is 596778.20m Easting and
782580.93m Northing within average elevation of 495m.
The surface geology of this site consists of residual unconsolidated red sand soil.
Based on the curve type, geology of the area and length of AB/2, five layers model of Earth
was considered to interpret the data. The 1D model curve interpretation of the VES survey
and the list of apparent resistivity, thickness and depth layer parameters are given in the
figure below.
41
Fig 4. 1 Od-VES-3 Resistivity Curve in Odawa area
Generally, seven geo-electric layers have been detected by utilizing vertical electrical
sounding measured at this site (VES-3). These geo-electric layers have different resistivity
properties that permit their classification. Their geological interpretations have been made
based on the geological and hydrogeological behavior of the area as well as other
supplementary data like geological logging of nearby existing boreholes.
The first layer possesses a resistivity value of 374 Ohm-m and 1.14m thickness that can be
interpreted as loose unconsolidated top sand soil.
The second layer has a resistivity value of 41.8 Ohm-m with 0.7m thickness and depth
interval of 1.14-1.85m. This layer can be interpreted as consolidated sand silt with clay.
The third layer starts at a depth of 1.85m and extending up to7.6m depth and has a resistivity
value of 144 Ωm. Based on this property the layer can be inferred as medium grained slightly
consolidated sand.
The fourth layer (4th layer) has a relatively medium resistivity value of 43.7 Ohm-m and
25.8m thickness with lower depth boundary of 33.4m. This layer can be interpreted as
fractured Limestone with cherty lenses
The 5th layer has relatively low resistivity value of 12 Ohm-m and it is thickness reaches
179m, this layer represents Shale/marl and fine grained sandstone intercalations.
42
The 6th layer has relatively medium resistivity value of 32.4 Ohm-m and 27m thickness, this
layer can be interpreted as highly weathered limestone and it is considered to be a water
bearing horizon.
The 7th layer shows a resistivity value of 69 Ohm-m with found below 240m depth, this layer
can be inferred as highly weathered and/or fractured limestone with coarse sandstone which
is below the saturation zone
Table 4.4 Hydro geological Interpretation of Odawa-VES-3
Layer Resistivity(ohm- Thickness(m) Depth(m) Inferred Lithology

m)
1 374 1.14 1.14 Lose top sand soil
2 41.8 0.7 1.9 Slightly consolidated sand silt with clay
3 144 5.78 7.6 Medium grained slightly consolidated
sand
4 43.7 25.8 33.4 Limestone with cherty lenses
5 12 179 212 Shale/marl and fine grained sandstone
intercalations
6 32.4 27.1 240 Highly weathered limestone (probably
water bearing)
7 69.2 >240 Highly weathered and/or fractured
limestone with coarse sandstone (saturated
zone)
4.4. Major geophysical survey results

Geophysical survey was carried out by utilized the vertical electrical sounding method, and
the sounding measurements was taken at three stations around the concerned village (Odawa
village). These three sounding stations are named as; OD-VES-01, OD-VES-02 and OD-
VES-03. The result obtained from this geophysical sounding investigation shows different
subsurface geological/hydrogeological layers as discussed on the following paragraphs.
The first VES (OD-VES-01) measurement detects eight subsurface geo-electrical

layers which are characterized by different resistivity values, thickness and depth
range. Moreover, apart from the loose top soil material layer which has a relatively
43
very high resistivity value of 3238 Ohm-m, all the underlying four layers are represent
alternating clastic and carbonate (mainly limestone) rocks along with thin shale and
marl intercalations. These rocks include variously weathered and/or fractured
limestone, cherty-limestone, shale and marl along with sandstone. These lithologies
can be correlated with the stratigraphical formations in the basin, and based on the
regional geology and lithological properties of these rocks; they are belonging to
Auradu Formation (upper layers) and Jessoma sandstone. Based on the resistivity
values and lithological properties of these layers there is possible water bearing layer
(layer 8).
The second VES (OD-VES-02) measurement also detects eight subsurface geo-
electrical layers. The first layer is characterized by high resistivity value of 427 Ohm-
m with 0.58m thickness. This layer and the subsequent two layers are most probably
representing loose top soil underlying by sand and gravel sized loose material and
coarse grained sandstone. The fifth layer has relatively very high resistivity value of
565 Ohm-m and 7.9m thickness with depth range from 6m to 14m, and it is
interpreted as fresh limestone. The next layer (layer six) shows very low resistivity
value 12 Ohm-m and found at a depth below 14m. This layer is most probably
interpreted as clay/shale and marl intercalations along with sandstone. The 7th layer
indicates a water bearing horizon as it characterises a moderate resistivity value of 43
Ohm-m and represents highly weathered limestone with coarse grained sandstone.
The third VES (OD-VES-03) shows seven subsurface geo-electrical layers and apart
from the first three layers which have a depth range from 1.14m to 7.6m and
relatively moderate to high resistivity values (41.8 to 374 Ohm-m) are variously sized,
consolidated to unconsolidated residual and highly weathered reworked deposits. The
fourth layer has relatively moderate resistivity values of 43 Ohm-m with depth range
from 7m to 33m. This layer can be interpreted as weathered limestone with cherty
concretions. The fifth layer shows low resistivity value of 12 Ohm-m and represents
shale/marl with fine grained sandstone intercalations. The last two layers of this VES
are considered to be a potential water bearing horizons as indicated by their
appropriate resistivity values and inferred lithology.
44
5. Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1. Conclusion
Geological, Hydrogeological and Geophysical investigations have been conducted in the
study area at Odawa village, to investigate the potential groundwater resource areas within
and around the village, and to estimate the possible depth of ground water abstraction for the
intended domestic water supply in this village.
Consequently the geological and hydrogeological study reveals that the study area consists of
different geological rock units. Moreover, apart from the thin cover residual and alluvial
deposits characterized by good porosity and permeability as they are mostly young reworked
sediments of unconsolidated variously sized material. This leads good groundwater recharge
from direct rainfall and surface runoff infiltration. The other rock units found in this area
have different properties for groundwater occurrences and include; highly weathered gypsum
and limestone with shale/marl. Several structures are also found in this area such as NW-SE
trending normal faults and NE-SW trending lineaments, and these structures also increase the
recharge possibility of the subsurface aquifers.
Besides this geological and hydrogeological investigation results of the area, the geophysical
investigation (vertical electrical sounding) result of this study reveals that the possible
geological layer that can yield good groundwater (aquifer) in terms of quantity and quality is
the highly weathered and/or fractured limestone with shale and coarse grained sandstone
intercalations. This layer is detected all the three measured VES at different depths but
mostly found below 211 to 225m depth.
5.2. Recommendation
Based on the results obtained from the geological, hydrogeological and geophysical
investigations conducted in the Odawa area, one borehole is recommended to drill in this
village at the specified site location and borehole design shown in the below table.
45
Table 5. 1 Recommended Borehole location at Odawa village
Well Target
index Village District Zone Datum UTM Easting Northing Elevation depth(m)
OD-BH- WGS
01 Odawa Warder Dollo 84 38N 596778.20 782581 495m 350 (+/- 20%)
Table 5.2. Recommended Borehole Design at Odawa village
Odawa Borehole Design

Depth (m) Drilling Diameter (inch) Casing Drilling system
Type Diameter(inch)
0 up to 20 17” Surface (steel) 14” Mud/air rotary
20 up to 350 12” Production (steel) 8” Mud/air rotary
Figure 5.1 Recommended Borehole Design
46
Appendix A
VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING

(VES) RAW DATA ON ODAWA AREA
47
Table 1. Odawa VES-1 Raw data
App.
AB/2 MN/2 Resistivity S. dev.
1.5 0.5 272.21 0.03
2.1 0.5 202.41 0.01
3 0.5 172.02 0.03
4.2 0.5 145.53 0.09
6 0.5 109.48 0.1
9 0.5 86.46 0.35
13.5 0.5 73.676 0.56
20 0.5 61.209 0.08
20 6 55.529 0.03
30 6 43.832 0.3
45 6 24.886 0.86
66 6 17.62 3.38
100 6 6.54 4.8
150 6 8.82 22.5
150 45 11.65 0.7
220 45 12.803 0.44
330 45 17.256 0.2
500 45 21.47 0.14

App.
1.5 0.5 178.54 0.009
2.1 0.5 134.83 0.016
3 0.5 130.95 0.033
4.2 0.5 152.02 0.007
6 0.5 167.79 0.004
9 0.5 182.84 0.026
13.5 0.5 186.75 0.32
20 0.5 191.19 0.07
20 6 209.91 0.08
30 6 199.46 0.07
45 6 137.69 0.44
66 6 76.241 0.81
100 6 34.478 0.201
150 6 21.325 16.7
150 45 23.46 5.7
220 45 25.495 32.2
330 45 26.147 16.4
500 45 23.3 30
48
App.
1.5 0.5 291.9 0.007
2.1 0.5 231.82 0.02
3 0.5 168.15 0.01
4.2 0.5 120.48 0.04
6 0.5 116.68 0.29
9 0.5 113.96 0.43
13.5 0.5 94.217 0.41
20 0.5 66.55 0.94
20 6 91.417 0.4
30 6 57.016 0.98
45 6 27.57 0.05
66 6 32.55 0.23
100 6 18.34 0
150 6 15.44 0.6
150 45 15.23 0.49
220 45 14.853 2.69
330 45 17.867 0.36
500 45 23.1 0.9
49
Appendix B
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION ON
ODAWA BOREHOLE
50
SRS WATER DEVELOPMENT BUREAU
Drilling, Construction and Pumping tests Technical Specification for

The Odawa Borehole
IN
Warder Woreda, Dollo Zone of SRS, Ethiopia
IN
January 2022
51
Contents
IN .......................................................................................................................................................... 51
1. General........................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1. Scope of work ............................................................................................................................ 3
1.2 Description of the Work Area .................................................................................................. 4
1.5. Sitting of Boreholes ................................................................................................................. 4
1.6 Site clearing & Access to all sites ........................................................................................... 4
2. Contractors Personnel and Materials ...................................................................................... 5
3. Inventory ................................................................................................................................... 6
4. Materials ........................................................................................................................................ 6
a. Surface casing ............................................................................................................................. 7
b. Inner casing................................................................................................................................... 7
c. Well Screen .................................................................................................................................... 7
4.2 Observation Pipe .................................................................................................................. 8
5. Supply of Drilling Water ............................................................................................................. 9
7. Well Depths............................................................................................................................... 9
8. Drilling Diameters.................................................................................................................... 9
9. Geological Logging .................................................................................................................. 9
10. Electrical Logging............................................................................................................... 10
11. Plumpness and Alignment ............................................................................................... 10
a. Pumps and Other Equipment .................................................................................................. 11
c. Water Level Gauges ................................................................................................................... 12
d. Discharge Meters ....................................................................................................................... 12
14.1. Test pump Unit...................................................................................................................... 12
14.2. Well Testing ........................................................................................................................... 12
14.3. Pumping Test Duration and Measuring Frequency ................................................. 13
14.4. Disposal of Pumped Water ........................................................................................... 14
15 Defective works ......................................................................................................................... 15
16. Water Sampling .............................................................................................................................. 15
25.1 Mobilization and Demobilization ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.2 Drilling.................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.3 Surface Casing ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.4 Well Casing ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.5 Well Screen ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.6 Observation Pipe ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.7 Gravel Pack ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.8 Well Head............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.9 Grout seal ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.10 Well Development ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.11 Plumb and Alignment Test .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.12 Test Pumping ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.13 Monitoring Recovery ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.14 Test Pumping Standby ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.15 Capping the Well ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.16 Electrical and Litho logic Logging ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.17 Final Report.............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
25.18 Abandoning a well .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
2
1. General
SRS Water Development Bureau wants to technically specify out in the Odawa village
borehole drilling, well completion and testing works for the groundwater sources of Odawa
village in Warder Woreda with a target Depth of 350m as shown below.
Selected Spot GPS Location

VES ID Recommended Priority Setting
X Y Z
target
depth(m)
OD- VES-3 596778 782581 495 350m+/-20% first priority for the
groundwater source development
for the Odawa Keble
Therefore, the contractor to be awarded the contract is expected to supply capable and
appropriate drilling machine and qualified personnel to complete the work within the
intended completion time.
The responsibility of the employer is to earn site access permission from local administration
and provide supervision.
1.1. Scope of work

The requirements of the work are as follows:
1. Drilling of one well with the diameter specified in the BOQ,
2. Supply and installation of surface and well casings, screens, observation pipe, filter
pack, development, test pumping and well head construction as necessary,
3. Water and aquifer sampling for the well drilled,
4. Disinfections and securing of all well using an appropriate method on completion of

construction,
5. Preparation of factual report for the borehole detailing the work carried out and the
results obtained,
6. All other associated and ancillary works
3
1.2 Description of the Work Area
The well Drilling site is located in Odawa village, Warder Woreda, Dollo Zone of Somali
Regional State.
1.3. Sitting of Boreholes

The contractor shall drill the test well at the exact location designated by the engineer. The
engineer shall establish the exact location of the test boreholes in the field.
1.4 Site clearing & Access to all sites

The employer or the Engineer will obtain the necessary permission for access to the drilling
sites, but any access road or bush clearing to provide access to the drilling site and
undisturbed construction work will be the responsibility of the drilling contractor.
The contractor at his own cost will repair any damage to the surface of any private roads,
fences or gates by the contractor's plant and equipment, Drilling mud pits, abandoned dry
wells & others must be properly back filled and leveled after completion of drilling work.
After completion of drilling and construction work, the environment shall be thoroughly
cleaned from foreign substances brought to the site during the construction activity. Any
other damage to private property will be handled strictly according to the general condition of
contract.
The contractor shall dispose of drilling fluid, cuttings, and discharged water in a manner
prescribed by the engineer so as not to create damage to public or private property
1.5. Outline Well Design

1. The drilling boreholes will be drilled with nominal diameter specified in the BOQ in
the over-burden upper section and installed with temporary or permanent, as the case
may be, surface casing to protect caving during drilling
2. The drilling diameter below surface casing installation depth shall be approximately
14 " or as specified in the BOQ. If the borehole is to be housed with casing and
screens their positioning shall be instructed in written by the Engineer based on the
result of litho-logic and electrical log (if conducted).
3. A 19mm nominal internal diameter observation pipe will be installed in the annulus
with slotted sections opposite screen sections.
4
4. If written instruction is given by the engineer gravel pack will be installed in the
annular space of the borehole wall and the outer portion of the casings to a minimum
of 5m above the static water level as per the BoQ.
5. Cement grout shall be applied above the gravel pack in unconsolidated section.
Before applying cement, grout a minimum of 50cm thick sand bridge shall be placed
above the gravel to protect cement infiltration.
6. On completion of testing the borehole shall be secured with 6mm thick steel plate
welded to the top of well or surface casing, as the case may be, and well head shall be
constructed as per the specification
2. Contractors Personnel and Materials

The contractor shall supply capable and appropriate drilling machine and experienced
personnel and suitable drilling equipment to perform the drilling and well completion works.
Each bidder shall furnish with the bid information, which shows:
a. Experience record of the contractor on works of the same nature.
b. Name and experience record of the personnel of the contractor to be assigned for the
work
c. Manufacturer‟s name and model number of drilling machine or machineries to be

used. This includes rig, compressor, mud pump, power unit and other pertinent
equipment
The drilling unit shall consist but not limited to the following items:
1. The drilling rig must be equipped with hoist block for pulling down casings and
recovering casings from unsuccessful wells.
2. A services truck to transport well casing, fuel, water and other supplies and
equipment
3. A vehicle to transport the crew from site to living quarters.
4. A welding plant.
5. A water tank suitable for hauling water to the site for use in drilling.
5
6. A list of all equipments, vehicles, drilling tools, hand tools, welding equipment,
pumping sets, deep meter etc to be assigned for the project shall be included in the
contractor-bidding document.
3. Inventory
Prior to the commencement of work the engineer shall have the right to inspect the drilling
and pump testing units of the contractor to be assigned for the project. Any items of the
inventory rejected by the engineer as being unsatisfactory by reasons of wear, the Contractor
will replace inadequacy, unsuitability etc. as soon as possible
4. Materials
The materials to be used for the construction of this well shall meet the following
requirements:
4.1. Well Casings

If the engineer orders installation of casings and screens, all casings to be supplied for the
construction of the well shall be manufactured (as described in the BOQ), new, seamless,
threaded ends and couplings and comply with the standard such as DIN 4920, API and
ASTM. Casings can be joined to each other with threaded and coupled joints or by welding.
If reinforcing is required for threaded casings after the casings are joined, the joint may be
reinforced with welding if the Engineer finds it necessary and gives approval to the
contractor.
The welding to be used for joining casings is DC arc welder with a rating of at least 250
amperes. The welded parts shall be clean and free of slag.
If the well is completed in fractured and stable aquifer, the Engineer may instruct the
contractor to install the whole string of casing and screen assembly to be suspended or
hanged on the surface casing at the well head with appropriate flange. In that case, the bottom
of the casing should be at least 5m above the bottom of the hole leaving an open space for
accumulation of aquifer materials falling from the wall of the well. For such type of
installation, the bottom of the casing should be sealed or plugged and filter packing is not
required. Minimum wall thickness for all casing shall be as follows;
6
Nominal inside diameter Minimum wall thickness
150mm 5.4mm
200mm 6.4mm
250mm 7.8mm
300mm 8.4mm
350mm 9.5mm
a. Surface casing
The contractor shall drill a well of diameter specified in the BOQ in the upper unconsolidated
formation to accommodate the outer temporary (protective) casing of the specified diameter
for each well. Temporary surface casings are used to protect caving overburden during
drilling and for hanging pumping set and well casing when installed permanently in
boreholes completed with well casing or in boreholes not packed with gravel. The diameter
of this casing has to be wider than the presumed drilling diameter to allow the drilling bit to
pass through to continue further drilling. The top of the outer casing when permanently
installed shall be above a known flood levels in the area.
b. Inner casing
The working (production) casing to be installed shall be manufactured of steel. This casing
shall have a diameter specified in the BOQ. The casing can be threaded or blank of the
aforementioned standards.
c. Well Screen
The Well screen shall be manufactured of steel based on depth of the well and shall have a
minimum of 10% open area. The slots shall be widening inward to minimize clogging.
Johnson Division or an equal if approved by the engineer shall manufacture the well screen.
If the contractor supplies slotted screens the slots must be factory slotted or made using
standard slotting machines, vertical, 100mm in length and the slots around the perimeter of
the casing must be equally spaced. The slots should be clean and without cutting residues.
Drilled holes or torch cut slots are not permitted.
7
The screen slot size shall be selected on the basis of a mechanical size analysis of either the
natural water-bearing sediments or the filter pack material. The maximum slot opening must
be 2.5mm of the total water bearing section 70% should be screened. The screen should
extend 1m from top and bottom of the aquifer. The screen should not extend above the draw
down level while the well is in production.
Screens of diameter specified in the BOQ shall be installed in the location of aquifer layer
based on the findings of well loggings (litho-logic and electrical). The Engineer shall give
written instruction for the location of well screens. They shall be incorporated into the well
casing by threaded ends. Short lengths of well screen can be incorporated at intervals in the
casings adjacent to the aquifer to permit the entrance of water into the casing from the rock.
4.2. Observation Pipe

Water level observation G.S. pipe should be installed in the annulus of each well to be
drilled. The observation pipes shall be ¾” internal diameter. The pipe should be closed at the
bottom by a plug. The observation line should reach approximately as deep as the screens of
the well. The uppermost slotted section should be about 10meter below the top most screens.
Slots must start at about 2m above the lower end of the pipe.
If observation pipe screens are made by hand, slots may be cut with a hack saw. Slots may be
arranged on two sides, in an alternating manner, the slot spacing on each side being about 2-
3cm apart. Care should be taken that the slots are clean and without cutting residues. Drilled
holes or torch-cut slots are not permitted.
The observation pipe shall be installed on the outside of the casing and screen column before
applying the gravel pack.
It must under all circumstances be installed in a rectilinear way to allow the free passing of
probes. Non- compliance with this requirement entitles the Engineer to accept the well.
4.3. Gravel Pack

If the Engineer instructs gravel packing, the gravel to be supplied shall be natural well-
rounded, smooth and uniform, sieved and washed river gravel, preferably quartz grains. If
pure quartz gravel can‟t be obtained the engineer may consent to install similar materials. The
engineer based on the size of the aquifer materials shall order and approve the gravel size.
The maximum allowable non-round particles are 10%. The gravel pack must be placed in the
8
annular space between the casing holes starting from the bottom up wards, up to the level
instructed by the engineer depending on the static water level.
To avoid bridging of the gravel, which may lead to severe damages to the casing, screens and
to the borehole wall, it is forbidden to fill-in the gravel by mechanized equipment. The gravel
must be filled- in by hand, using shovels during well development.
Filling will proceeds slowly and carefully during well development. The correct placing of
gravel will have to be controlled by continuous recording of the volume of gravel consumed
and by repeated measurement of the achieved level of packing.
If the aquifer is unconsolidated and poorly sorted the engineer might order development of
the aquifer formation to attain natural gravel pack.
5. Supply of Drilling Water

The provision of all water for drilling operation is the responsibility of the contractor. The
water to be used for drilling should have the quality of drinking water. Therefore, the
contractor will be required to make his own arrangements for drilling water of such quality.
The aquifer will be drilled with a minimum damage from clogging of inter-granular pores of
fractures or any other openings, which make up the permeability of the aquifer.
6. Well Depths
The target well depth is 240m and the drilling might be ordered to be stopped at shallower
depths, or to be continued based on the actual field hydro geological and geological findings.
The drilling Contractor is therefore required to be equipped, accordingly.
7. Drilling Diameters
Drilling shall be started with diameter specified in the BOQ for the well in the unconsolidated
upper section for the installation of surface casings and continued to the final depth with the
diameter specified in the BOQ. The drilling diameter however may change according to the
geological situation during actual drilling. Changes shall not be made unless otherwise the
engineer feels changes are necessary and gives written approval.
8. Geological Logging
Litho-logic log of formation penetrated should be done at 1m intervals. Drilling cuttings shall
be collected during the drilling operation and handled in a manner that they can easily be
9
identified. Samples shall be taken at predetermined intervals of 1m and whenever there is a
change in formation type
9. Electrical Logging
Electrical (resistivity) logging of drilled wells shall be carried out to determine the aquifer
position in the well as deemed necessary by the engineer. Casing arrangement shall be based
on the litho logic and electrical log result.
10. Plumpness and Alignment

Upon completion of lowering of casings or at any other time requested by the engineer the
borehole shall be checked for verticality and straightness using deviation measuring
instruments like Inclinometer, Draft indicator, etc.
Running a dummy down the casing may also check the alignment. The dummy shall consist
of a cylinder 10m in length with a diameter 20mm less than the well casing. The dummy
must pass freely through the entire length of the cased borehole.
The contactor may also conduct these and any other tests when he may deem necessary to
satisfy himself that the borehole is being drilled plumb and straight. These tests shall be made
entirely at the contractor‟s expense.
If the hole is out of alignment as determined by the dummy or more than 1% out of vertical
then the hole shall be abandoned and re-drilled.
11. Well Development

The term well development means the work carried out after completion of the construction
of a well and prior to test pumping. The objective of development is to improve well
performance, to increase well capacity and to reduce an unacceptable level of the amount of
sediment contained in the water yielded by the well. In a few cases further development may
be required after testing.
The development of the well shall remove the native silts and clays and drilling fluid residues
deposited on the borehole face and in adjacent portions of aquifer during drilling process.
Development shall also remove a predetermined finer fraction of filter pack. If organic
drilling fluids are used, it must be broken down chemically according to manufacturer‟s
recommendations before or during development.
10
Borehole development must be using an air lifting technique. The work must continue until
the engineer is satisfied that the borehole, gravel pack and adjacent aquifer have all been
adequately cleared of drilling fluid, aquifer fines and drill cuttings and a satisfactory yield has
been attained. In case of caving formation where the borehole is drilled with mud rotary or
percussion rigs, other techniques of development as bailing, back washing, surging, etc might
be used.
12. Well Disinfections

After drilling, wells should be disinfected to make sure that no bacteria, viruses and other
pollutants are remaining in the well, which may have entered the well during drilling and
construction works. The well shall be disinfected after installing the testing pump set into the
well and before collecting any samples for determining microbiological quality. This shall be
done by placing a chlorine solution into the well so that concentration of at least 50mg/l of
available chlorine exists in all parts of the well at static conditions. All the well surfaces
above the static level shall be completely flushed with solution. The solution shall remain in a
well a minimum of 2 hours before pumping the well to waste.
13. Test Pump and Accessory Equipment for Aquifer Test
a. Pumps and Other Equipment
Electrically powered submersible pumps, fitting in to a casing of diameter specified in the

BOQ and with capacity to be specified at the end of drilling should be available on site, to
carry out pumping test. All equipment shall be reliable for periods of 36 hours of continuous
operation at the designed rate.
b. Generators
The contractor must be equipped with generator sets with a capacity to drive the submersible
pumps, welding machines and all power requirements. The generator set should be capable to
operate for a minimum of 36 continuous hours.
11
c. Water Level Gauges
The contractor should have on site electric sounding device suitable for a maximum depth of
400m. The devices should fit into the ¾" observation pipes and should permit direct,
convenient and accurate reading of depth of static and dynamic water levels.
d. Discharge Meters
A 900 rectangular V-notch weir shall be installed on the end of the pump discharge line to
determine the discharge rate. A control valve shall be installed so that the discharge rate will
not vary more than 5% from the average rate. The engineer shall approve the equipment and
installation. Possibility of checking and calibrating the equipment must be provided.
14.1. Test pump Unit

If, bailing or preliminary pumping test shows that the well has sufficient capacity to be of
interest, pumping test shall be carried out.
The test pump unit shall consist of well experienced crew, a submersible pump, a diesel
powered generator to run the pump, pipe on which to set the pump and all necessary tools and
equipment to carry out pumping tests with an accurate measurement of water discharge and
water level in the well. The equipment and crew shall be capable of performing a step draw
down test for up to 8 hours and a constant discharge test for up to 36 hours. The capacity of
the submersible pump to carry out test pumping shall be ordered by the engineer based on the
borehole yield estimate at the end of drilling.
14.2. Well Testing

Special importance is attributed to this phase of the work. The contractor will proceed with
utmost care, by assigning qualified and experienced personnel and shall use reliable and
accurate equipment.
The tests will presumable be performed according to non-equilibrium methods in several

stages, each with a specified constant and sustained discharge. No interruption of the test will
be tolerated. After having measured the static water levels, a step draw down tests should
commence with the lowest discharge step. After a steady state flow is reached, the discharge
will be increased and the second step will be run until similar condition of flow is obtained,
followed by the 3rd and 4th steps. During or after the test the Engineer will decide upon,
12
following the results, whether the test is satisfactory or a further development is required, to
be followed by a new test.
After the well is fully recovered and allowed to rest for a short period of time, a constant
discharge tests will subsequently be run, followed by the respective recovery tests. In the case
where stabilization of water level cannot be obtained, the engineer may have to decide to
extend the duration of the test period. Test can‟t be terminated without written instruction of
the engineer.
In case the engineer demands provisional pump testing to be carried out in open well or after
installation of casings and before gravel packing, the contractor will perform the test
accordingly. Payment shall be made only for installation and removal of casings if the well
yield is found unsatisfactory. A failure to remove the casings is to the expense of the
contractor.
If pumping test is conducted in a well field, during pumping in the tested well, the water level
in the remaining wells will be observed. In case there is interference, an interference test is to
be performed simultaneously with the constant discharge test, with draw down and recovery
measurements taken in all wells. The Engineer shall decide whether a satisfactory
stabilization has been obtained in all wells and whether an additional test is to be performed,
this time with the observed well pumping and the pumping well as an observation one.
Discharge must be accurately adjustable by means of an easily handled valve. Discharge will
be measured by an orifice installation on the discharge pipe, by a water meter or by a V notch
with and accuracy of at least 1% possibility for the check up and calibration by means of a
tank must be provided. In case the orifice installation will be used a continuous discharge
adjustment will be taken care of by means of the valve.
During testing the temperature of the pumped water will be measured at regular intervals.
Also during testing, water samples should be taken from the pumped water.
14.3. Pumping Test Duration and Measuring Frequency

Three kinds of tests might be carried out:
1. 4 - step-draw down discharge tests
2. Constant discharge tests until stabilization of water level is achieved.
13
3. Recovery test
During each test the pumps should operate without interruption. In case of interruptions,
caused by negligence or technical defects, a repetition of the respective test may be ordered at
the contractor's expense.
Draw down measurements can be but not necessarily, made in the following time intervals:
Time from Pumping start Time intervals
0 to 5 minutes 0.5 minutes
5 to 60 minutes 5 minutes
60 to 120 minutes 20 minutes
120 to shut down of pump 60 minutes
This schedule holds good for each discharge step of the 4-step-draw down discharge tests as
well as for the constant discharge tests.
The discharge rates should be controlled and adjusted carefully and readings should be made
together with the draw down measurements.
Water level recovery measurements following the final shutdown of the pump, after the
completion of each discharge step and after the continuous discharge tests, should be made in
the same time intervals as cited in the table above.
14.4. Disposal of Pumped Water

The pumped water must not be allowed to re-infiltrate in the vicinity of the wells. The water
should be disposed of by means of discharge pipes towards a nearby natural overland
drainage (stream, river). Pools should not be allowed to form. Improper discharge water
disposal may result in a non-acceptance of the pumping test.
14
15. Defective works
In conformance with pertinent clauses of the contract conditions acceptance of a test may be
refused in case of: -
a. Interruption of test
b. Unacceptable variations of discharge
c. Incomplete or inaccurate measurements and observations
d. Missing samples
e. Improper development of the well
f. Chemical & Bacteriological Test on site
g. Not well disinfections
16. Water Sampling

Water samples have to be taken from the pump discharge for laboratory analysis. The sample
should be taken in containers, which have been washed twice with the water to be sampled.
The bottles should be clearly marked, showing: name and number of well, date of sampling,
hour of sampling and signature of person taking the sample.
Samples will be stored in cool place and delivered to the laboratory in the shortest time
possible for chemical, bacteriological, and physical analysis of water.
If water samples show that the water is not of suitable quality for domestic use, the
exploratory hole may be abandoned and the contractor shall be ordered to recover the
casings.
17. Capping the Well

After completion of the pumping test and removal of the test pump unit, and after the last
water level recovery observation have been made, wells shall be securely welded to the top of
the surface or production casing as the case may be with steel plate of 6mm thickness to
prevent illegal access to the well. An appropriate socket and plug for the observation pipe
must also be installed.
15
18. Grout Seal
The annular space between the preventive and production casing shall be sealed with mixture
of Portland cement and water slurry by a pour in method from the top for sanitary protection
in case the surface casing is permanently installed. In case the temporary casing is to be
removed the annular space between the borehole wall and the well casing has to be sealed
with mixture of Portland cement and water as described above. Before grouting a minimum
of 50cm bridging sand followed by clay plug of 6m or more shall be placed over the gravel
pack in order to avoid cement infiltration into the gravel. Cement grout should not be placed
before the end of the pumping test to allow the gravel to settle and be filled up as necessary.
19. Well Head

Constructing wellheads around the casing must complete the successful wells. The
surrounding of the well casing must be excavated until reasonable firm foundation is obtained
for wellhead construction. In case firm foundation is not available close to the surface the
space around the casing shall be excavated to a depth of 1.50m and filled with concrete. The
concrete wellhead in C.25 will have a dimension of 1X1X1.5 meter and must be bedded 0.5m
above the ground surface.
The casing shall protrude a minimum of 0.2mt above the concrete block unless and otherwise
specified by the engineer.
20. Miscellaneous Equipment

Miscellaneous Equipment for pertinent measurements and observations, e.g. welding and
cutting equipment with an electric welding plant with a minimum welding current of 180a in
good working order, cutting equipment, stop watch, thermometer, pressure gauge (in case
artesian conditions are encountered) sediment cones, PH- paper, containers for water samples
must be provided and be on site.
21. Special Requirements
21.1. Recover of Screens and Casings
Casing and screens from unsuccessful wells will be recovered by pulling using the hoist line
on the drilling rig or an appropriate hydraulic jack. Payment shall be made for the installation
and removal of casings for the unsuccessful wells.
16
21.2. Fishing for Lost or Stuck Tools and Equipment
Fishing will be done using the most appropriate techniques and fishing tools, in order to
minimize the time required for fishing and with minimum damage to the hole and to the items
being fished, standard fishing tools as well as special tools fabricated on site or in a shop may
be used.
In a situation where drilling tools and equipment are lost or stuck in a hole, the Engineer's
Representative shall decide whether it is in the interest of the Employer to carry out fishing
operations in order to salvage a hole or for any other reason. If, in the opinion of the
Engineer, it is not in the interest of the Employer to carry out fishing operations, the
contractor may fish to recover tools and other equipment at his own, without creating any
delays to the Employer's time schedule.
22. Work Sheet and Records

During drilling and testing the contractor will keep records on printed forms, penetration
rates, litho logy, drilling problems encountered, draw down, discharges, temperature, etc
The drilling and pumping test and recovery sheets should be filled -in accurately and should
contain remarks on all irregularities observed and other information which may be of interest
for future drilling in the area and the assessment of the tests (e.g. remarks on water odor,
taste, color, suspended matter, etc.) Technical failures and irregularities should likewise be
mentioned.
Work sheets for each drilling unit will be prepared in English by the contractor hydro
geologist for each shift. The work sheets will be prepared in duplicate and signed by the
contractor representative and the Engineer. The Engineer will retain the original. The work
sheets will include the following information.
a) Drilling
1. The location of the drilling site, name of well,
2. Make, model, type and size of drilling rig,
3. Date of commencement and completion of drilling,
17
4. Type of work performed including mobilization, demobilization and on site relocation
and number of hours on each type of work,
5. Name of all crew members,
6. Size of hole and depth penetrated,
7. Log of formation penetrated,
8. Length and size of casing installed,
9. Length and size of screen installed,
10. Length and size of observation pipe installed,
11. Any problems encountered,
12. The result of bailer tests or other tests carried out,
13. Total drilling time in hours, Drilling, as here in defined, includes drilling, installation
and removal of casings, bailing, screen installation, water sampling, well development and
fishing for lost or stuck tools and equipment when ordered by the Engineer's Representative,
14. Total stand by time in hours. Standby is here by defined as time when no drilling is in
progress due to delay ordered by the Employer, the Engineer or the Engineer's
Representative,
15. Total time in hours lost due to break down, shortage of labor or materials or for any
other reason that is the responsibility of the contractor,
16. Length in meters of casing recovered
17. Time spent fishing on the contractor's time
18. Materials stockpiled on site including those supplied by the contractor and those
supplied by the Employer, if any.
b) Test pumping
1. The location and name of the well being tested. Physical characteristic of the well
including depth, diameter, size of casing screen setting and length of screen,
2. Date of commencement and completion of pumping test,
18
3. Type and capacity of pumps used,
4. Type of work performed and number of hours on each type of work including
mobilization, demobilization or on site relocation
5. Position of pumps,
6. Total test pumping in hours. Total time charged must agree with pumping test data
sheets. Chargeable time for test pumping is from the start of a pump test to the time pumping
stops. No payment will be made for tests rendered unsatisfactorily by reason of break down
or lack of fuel or for any other reason.
7. Interpretation result of the test which include values of Transitivity, storativity,

hydraulic conductivity, safe yield and recommended pump position, and amount of water to
be pumped per day.
8. Total stand by time in hours, Standby is here in defined as time where no test
pumping is in progress due to delay ordered or caused by the Employer or the Engineer or the
Engineer's Representative. Stand by also includes time when recovery observations are being
made prior to the commencement of the removal of the pump at the commencement of
demobilization or on site relocation.
9. Total time in hours lost due to break down, shortage of labor or materials or for any
other reason that is the responsibility of the contractor.
10. Names of all crewmembers actively engaged in the work.
23. Protocols and Records.

The contractor has to keep exact records on all activities. The following records have to be
presented to the Engineer for checking and signing, not later than 24 hrs after the completion
of the relevant activities:
h. Daily working sheets on drilling
i. Well equipment used
j. Development
k. Test pumping, litho logical borehole logs
19
l. Verticality tests
Field copies of borehole logs and or pumping test data sheets and graphs must absolutely be
kept up-to-date. Upon request of the Engineer the respective graphs and sheets must be
updated without delay whenever he visits the site, to give full information on the present
situation. Representative samples of the penetrated section must also be taken, kept and
shown on request to the Engineer.
Clean copies of all information as requested by the contractor conditions and other tender
documents must be submitted within one month after the completion of the respective well
operation.
24. Final Reports

After completion of the well (drilling, development, re-development, and pumping tests) the
contractor has to submit a final report incorporating all-important result of specific activities.
The well report has to contain remarks on all special observations, difficulties, etc. The
complete well report must be such that the activities and findings can be reproduced step by
step.
For the well the final report has to consider the specific well reports and must be submitted
after completion of all activities in the relevant well
25. Measurement and Basis of Payment

25.1 Mobilization and Demobilization
This item in the bill of quantity includes moving all materials, equipment and personnel of
the contractor for constructing and developing the well to and from the site. It also includes
cleaning up the site before commencing the work and upon completion of the contract.
Mobilization and demobilization must be quoted as lump sum at the item provided in the Bill
of quantity of this contract document.
25.2. Drilling
Payment for drilling will be made at the unit price per meter shown in the bill of quantity for
the various diameters of the borehole.
Measurement will be made vertically to the nearest 0.1m from the original ground level to the
bottom of the completed hole. This price will include all materials, equipment, labor and all
work incidentals thereto except for those items for which payment is specified additionally to
20
that of drilling. No payment will be made for boreholes abandoned or incomplete as a result
of lost or stuck tools, stuck casing, failure to meet plumpness or alignment tests, or any other
reason that is the fault of the contractor.
25.3. Surface Casing

Payment for surface casing will be made at the unit price per meter shown in the bill of
quantity for the various sizes of pipe. Measurement will be made to the nearest 0.1m
vertically from the top of the casing to the bottom of the casing installed in the completed
borehole. This price shall include supply of surface casings, pipes cutting, pipe welding,
installation, testing and all work.
No payment will be made for temporary casing, which is installed to facilitate drilling
operations and is subsequently to be removed. No payment will be made for surface casing
installed in an abandoned borehole as defined in the item above.
25.4. Well Casing

Payment for well casing will be made at the unit price per meter shown in the bill of quantity
for the various sizes and types of pipe. Measurement will be made to the nearest 0.1m
vertically from the top flange of the wellhead to the bottom of the casing in the borehole less
any section of screen, which is paid for separately. This price shall include supply of casing,
couplings, welding, and installation, testing and all work incidentals thereto. No payment will
be made for temporary casing, which is installed to facilitate drilling and is subsequently to
be removed. No payment will be made for well casing installed in abandoned borehole as
defined in the item above.
25.5. Well Screen

Payment for well screen will be made at the unit price per meter shown in the bill of quantity
for the various sizes and types. Measurement will be made to the nearest 0.1m from the top of
the screen to the bottom of the screen for each section of screen installed in the casing. This
price shall include supply of well screens, couplings, welding and installing, testing, and all
work incidentals thereto. No payment will be made for well screens installed in abandoned
boreholes resulting from the contractor‟s fault as defined above.
25.6. Observation Pipe

Payment for observation pipes, blank and slotted, will be made at the unit price per meter
shown in the bill of quantity. Measurement will be made to the nearest 0.1m vertically. This
shall include supply, installation, testing and all work incidentals thereto.
21
25.7. Gravel Pack
Payment for gravel pack is made at the unit price per cubic meter shown in the bill of
quantity. This price shall include supply, installation, testing, and all work incidentals thereto.
25.8. Well Head

Payment for wellheads will be made at the unit price per wellhead shown in the bill of
quantity. This price shall include materials, excavation, prefabrication, installation, reinforced
concrete, back filling, and drainage, site grading and all work incidentals thereto. It also
includes supply and placement of sand and paddle clay seal.
25.9. Grout seal

Payment for grouting will be made at the unit price per meter shown in the bill of quantity.
Measurement will be made vertically to the nearest 0.1m from the top to the bottom of the
completed grouting. This price shall include materials, installations and all work incidentals.
30. Well Development

Payment for development will be based on the unit price per hour shown in the bill of
quantity. It shall cover only those hours the development tools and equipment are actually
being operated.
30.1. Plumb and Alignment Test

Payment for plumpness and Alignment tests required in writing by the engineer will be made
at the price per site in the bill of quantity. The price will include materials, equipment and all
work incidentals thereto. No payment will be made for tests carried out by the contractor for
his own information.
30.2. Test Pumping

Payment for test pumping will be made at the unit price per hour in the bill of quantity.
Measurement to the nearest minute will be as shown on the test pump data sheets from the
time the pump test starts until it is completed. No payment will be made for tests terminated
without written instruction of the engineer. The price shall include materials, equipment and
work incidentals thereto.
30.3. Monitoring Recovery

Payment for monitoring recovery will be made at the unit price per hour sown in the bill of
quantity. Measurement to the nearest minute will be shown on the recovery monitoring data
22
sheets from the time the monitoring starts until it is completed. No payment will be made for
monitoring terminated prior to the time specified by the engineer or rendered unsatisfactory.
30.4. Test Pumping Standby

Payment for test pumping standby will be made at the unit price per hour shown in the bill of
quantity. Measurement shall be made to the nearest minute when test pumping is stopped on
orders from the engineer. Payment will only be made when the test pump is set up in a hole
and is fully operational.
30.5. Capping the Well

Payment for furnishing and installing the well cap will be based on the lump-sum price
shown in the Bill of Quantity.
25.16 Electrical and Litho logic Logging

Extra payment shall not be considered for litho logic logging, but shall be included in the unit
prices and lump sums in the bill of quantities.
Payment for electrical logging will be made at the unit price per well being logged.
30.6. Final Report

Payment for the well report shall be made as lump sum price as indicated in the BOQ. No
payment shall be made for reports found unsatisfactory due to lack of consistency and
specific details of works performed.
30.7. Abandoning a well

a) No payment shall be effected for boreholes abandoned without written instruction of the
Engineer whether it is dry or of low discharge rate.
b) No payment shall be effected for boreholes abandoned due to collapsing, caving, improper
Casing installation, and any other technical frailer that the contractor could not manage to
rectify as requested by the engineer.
23
Appendix C
24
BILL OF QUANTITIES AND DESIGN
FOR ONE BOREHOLE DRILLING IN
ODAWA VILLAGE, WARDER
WOREDA, DOLLO ZONE OF SOMALI
REGIONAL STATE.
25
BILL OF QUANTITIES OF THE SELECTED BOREHOLE
PREAMBLE
1) The Bill of Quantities forms parts of the contract document and shall be
read in conjunction with all other documents comprising the contract
documents.
2) The quantities set out in the Bill of quantities are approximate only and
do not necessarily represent the actual amount of work to be done.
These may be more or less than the amounts listed in the following
Bills. Payment shall be made only for work performed or materials
furnished in accordance with the contract and the price listed in the bill of
quantities.
3) The prices and rates to be inserted in the Bill of Quantities shall be fully
inclusive values of the work described under the several items, including
all costs and expenses which may be required in and for the drilling of the
work described, together with all general risks, liabilities and obligations
set forth or implied in the documents on which the tender is based.
4) Except where lump sum (L.S.) amounts are required, the contractor shall
enter an applicable rate in the "Unit price" column of the Bill of Quantities
for each item where a quantity has been specified. Where the quantity is
specified in the "Quantity" Column, the appropriate amount (Quantity *
unit price) should be entered. In the "Total” column, where the quantity is
not specified and unit rates only are required the contactor shall enter an
applicable rate in the "Unit price" column, and shall leave blank the
"Total” Column.
5) Items against which no rate or Lump sum is entered in the offer will not be
paid for when executed, because payment for such work will be regarded
as covered by other rates in the Bill of Quantities.
6) No payment shall be made for any item not listed as a pay item or not
shown in the Bill of Quantities (other than authorized extra work). The
contractor shall allow in the offer prices for such items of work, which in
his opinion have been omitted.
7) All rates and sums of money quoted in the Bill of Quantities shall be in the
currency of Ethiopia.
26
8) The units of measurement described in the Bill of Quantities are metric
units.
7.5. BOQ for Drilling, Construction and Pumping Test of Odawa One Borehole
Location: Odawa village, Warder Woreda, Dollo Zone Target Depth: 350m (+/-20%)
Item Description Unit Qty. Rate Amount
1 GENERAL
1.1 Mobilization of all plant, material, equipment &personnel
L.S 1
required to drill, construct and pumping test
1.3 Site clearing and preparation L.S 1
1.4 Demobilization of all plant, material, equipment L.S 1
&personnel
Sum of Item 1(Eth Birr)

-
2 BOREHOLE DRILLING and LOGGING
2.1 Drilling with f 171/2 inches from 0 to 20m LM 20
2.2 Drilling with f 12 inches from 20 to 300m LM 330
2.3 Lithological Logging LS 1
2.4 Electrical Resistivity Logging LS 1
Sum of Item 2 (Eth Birr)
3 SUPPLY,INSTALLATION AND CONSTRUCTION
3.1 Steel Surface Casing of 14 inch diameter LM 20
3.2 Steel Productive Blind casing 8 inch diam. LM 245
3.3 Steel Productive Screen casing 8 inch diam. LM 105
3.6 Observation pipe (f ¾ inches) LM 280
3.7 Supply and pack selected river gravel 6:9mm diam. M3 45
3.8 Well head construction Nr. 1.5
3.9 Supply and grouting with concrete (1:2:2 concrete mix) Nr. 1
27
4 PUMPING TEST AND MISCELLANEOUS
4.1 Well development by air compressor Hr. 24
Installation and Withdrawal of the required capacity Pump
4.2 for LS 1
Conducting the Pumping Test
Pumping test of the borehole to confirm yield, including
provisional test 2 hours duration, step-drawdown 8 hours
4.3 (4 steps of 2 hours duration ) followed by constant Hr. 34
discharge test
24Hrs
4.4 Monitoring recovery 6 hours Hr. 6
4.6 Chemical analysis of water samples Nr. 3
4.7 Production of report in four copies Nr. 1
Total of Items 1,2,3 and 4 (Eth Birr)
15% VAT
GRAND TOTAL
28
Figure 0.1 Odawa Borehole Design
29
30

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SOMALI REGIONAL STATE

GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATION AND BOREHOLE SITE

Somali Regional State Water Resources Development Bureau,

1.2.2. Specific objectives

Table.1.1. Geographic coordinate at Odawa village

S/n Village District Zone Datum UTM Easting Northing Elevation

Fig1.1.Location map of the study area

1.5. Scope of Work

The overall scope of the study is given as follows:

 Determine the hydrogeological condition of the area.

1.6. Landform and Topography

Figure 1.3 Physiographical map of the area

Fig.1.4. Elevation map of the study area and surroundings

1.8. Slope Analysis

Fig 1. 5. Slope map of the study area

1.9. Climate and Drainage

Figure 1.9. PET of the study area

Figure 1.10. Soil map of the study area and surroundings

1.11. Review of the previews studies and available data

Sources of the reviewed data

 Geological Map of Ethiopia 2nd ed. by Tefera et al. (1996)

 Geological map of Ogaden and surrounding areas (BEICP, 1985) at a scale of

 Wabi-shabelle Master Plan.

 Birkot and Surrounding area Hydrogeological reports.

 Topographic elevation data (Global Mapper).

 Topographic maps (1:250,000) produced by the Ethiopian Mapping Agency

1.12. Methodology and Material used

Pre-field work (Desk study)

The geological approach emphasizes; observation of the outcrops for litho-logical

2. Regional Geology and Structural Setting

 The intracontinental rifting due to the breakup of Gondwanaland, which began

 General uplift of the Ethio-Yemen or Arabo-Ethiopian dome continued in the

2.2. General Stratigraphy of the Ogaden basin

1) The Precambrian basement complex

2) The Karroo Rift Sediments (Late Paleozoic sediments)

3) The Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary succession, and

2.2.1. Precambrian basement complex

2.2.2. Late Palaeozoic sedimentary succession

Formation Approx.Age Basal contact Description Average

Gumburo Late Transitional It is light green to grey medium 290

Bokh Early Transitional Dominantly it contains dark grey and 300

Calub Permian? Unconformity It is an arkosic sandstone with coarse 120

2.2.3. Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary succession

Upper Hamanlei: is composed of mainly skeletal, peloidalgrainstones and mudstones and at

Urandab Formation: it conformably overlays the Hammanlie Formation and characterizes a

Korrahei Formation:Korrahei Formation or main gypsum as formerly named by kazmin

2.2.4. Tertiary volcanic rocks

2.3. Local Geology

2.4. Structural Geology of the Study Area

Density analysis of the lineaments indicates occurrence of large concentration of

Structures in Tertiary Sedimentary and Volcanic Rocks

2.4.1. Marda Fault Zone and Other Major Structures

Moreover, a northwest to southeast striking fault is traced within Jessoma sandstone

Fig 2.3 Structural map of the study area and surroundings

2.2.1. Ground water characteristics of the Study Area

 Unconsolidated highly weathered lose materials/ alluvium and/or residual Jessoma

2.3. Recharge and geomorphology:

Figure 3.1 Hydrogeological map of the study area and surroundings

4.1.1. Objectives of the Geophysical Surveys

The geophysical investigation was conducted with the following objectives:-

4.1.3. Field procedure and data processing

Table 4.1. Location of the measured VES sites