TYPES OF FIRE

FIRE: a state, process, or instance of combustion in which fuel or other material is ignited and
combined with oxygen, giving off light, heat, and flame.

CLASS A FIRE: Consist of ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, fabric,

plastic and most kinds of trash. These are fires whose fuel is flammable or combustible liquid or
gas.

CLASS B FIRE: are fires in flammable liquids such as gasoline, petroleum

greases, tars, oils, oil-based paints, solvents, alcohols. Class B fires also include flammable gases
such as propane and butane. Class B fires do not include fires involving cooking oils and grease.
Smothering effects which deplete the oxygen supply work best to extinguish Class B fires.

CLASS C FIRE: Energized Electrical Fires are known as Class C fires. Always
de-energize the circuit then use a non-conductive extinguishing agent. Such as Carbon dioxide.

CLASS D FIRE: are combustible metal fires. Magnesium and Titanium are the
most common types of metal fires. Once a metal ignites do not use water in an attempt to
extinguish it. Only use a Dry Powder extinguishing agent. Dry powder agents work by
smothering and heat absorption.
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
What is a fire extinguisher?

A fire extinguisher is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or control small fires,
often in emergency situations. It is not intended for use on an out-of-control fire, such as one
which has reached the ceiling, endangers the user, or otherwise requires the expertise of a fire
brigade.
TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

WATER FIRE EXTINGUISHER

Water extinguishers are one of the most cost-effective ways to fight Class A fires, those fuelled
by solid materials such as paper, wood and textiles.

There are four different types of water extinguishers: water jet, water spray, water with additives
and water mist or fog.  

 Water jet extinguishers work by spraying a jet of water at the burning materials, cooling
them and preventing re-ignition. They should not be used on live electrical equipment.
 Water spray extinguishers use a very fine spray of water droplets, each droplet is
surrounded by air which is non-conductive. Most water spray fire extinguishers carry a
35 kV dielectric test approval which means they have been tested on a 35,000 Volt
electrical source at one meter.
 Water extinguishers with additives are water extinguishers with foaming chemicals
added. The water loses its natural surface tension meaning that it can soak into the
burning materials more effectively. Adding the chemicals to the water means that a
smaller extinguisher can produce the same fire rating as a larger, water only,
extinguisher.
 Water mist, or fog, extinguishers apply water in the form of mist, or fog, the droplets are
much smaller than those from the water spray extinguisher. The smaller the droplet, the
larger its surface area in relation to its size, the quicker the droplet evaporates which
absorbs the heat energy faster. The downside is the smaller the droplet the less it weighs
and therefore the less powerful the cloud of water.

All water extinguishers have a red label.

FOAM FIRE EXTINGUISHER

Foam fire extinguishers can be used on Class A and B fires. They are most suited to
extinguishing liquid fires such as petrol or diesel and are more versatile than water jet
extinguishers because they can also be used on solids such as wood and paper. The foam
extinguishes liquid fires by sealing the surface of the liquid, preventing flammable vapor
reaching the air and starving the fire of fuel. They are not suitable for use on free flowing liquid
fires.

Foam extinguishers have a cream label.

Powder extinguishers

Powder extinguishers are a good multi-purpose fire extinguisher because they can be used on
Class A, B and C fires. They can also be used on fires involving electrical equipment however;
they do not cool the fire so it can re-ignite. Powder extinguishers can also create a loss of
visibility and may create breathing problems. They are not generally recommended for use inside
buildings unless there is absolutely no alternative.

Powder extinguishers have a blue label.

Carbon dioxide extinguishers (CO2)

CO2 extinguishers are ideal for places with a lot of electrical equipment such as offices or server
rooms because they are safe to use on fires involving electrical apparatus. Carbon dioxide
extinguishers do not leave any residue, unlike a foam extinguisher. They can also be used on
Class B fires, those involving flammable liquids such paraffin or petrol. CO2 extinguishers work
by smothering the fire and cutting off the supply of air.

Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers (CO2) have a black label.

Wet chemical extinguishers

Wet chemical extinguishers are suitable for use on Class F fires involving cooking oils and fats,
such as lard, olive oil, sunflower oil, maize oil and butter. They are extremely effective, when
used correctly. The wet chemical rapidly knocks the flames out, cools the burning oil and
chemically reacts to form a soap-like solution, sealing the surface and preventing re-ignition.
Although they are primarily designed for use on Class F fires, cooking oils and deep fat fryers.
They can also be used on Class A fires (wood, paper and fabrics) and Class B fires (flammable
liquids).

Wet chemical extinguishers have a yellow label.

FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT
What is firefighting equipment?

Firefighting equipment is equipment designed to extinguish fires or protect the user from fire. It
may be used by trained fire fighters, untrained users at the scene of a fire, or built into a
building's infrastructure (such as a sprinkler system).

Firefighting equipment includes not only fire hoses and fire extinguishers but also fire-resistant
protective clothing, fire-resistant gloves, respirators, and communication equipment.
TYPES OF FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT
AIR RELEASE VALVE

Air Release Valves or Air Relief Valve function to release air pockets that collect at each high
point of a full pressured pipeline. An air release valve can open against internal pressure, because
the internal lever mechanism multiplies the float force to be greater than the internal pressure.
This greater force opens the orifice whenever air pockets collect in the valve. Air Release Valves
are essential for pipeline efficiency and water hammer protection.

FIRE HOSE

A fire hose is a high-pressure hose that carries water or other fire retardant (such as foam) to a
fire to extinguish it. Outdoors, it attaches either to a fire engine or a fire hydrant. Indoors, it can
permanently attach to a building's standpipe or plumbing system. After use, a fire hose is usually
hung to dry, because standing water that remains in a hose for a long time can deteriorate the
material and render it unreliable or unusable. Therefore, the typical fire station often has a high
structure to accommodate the length of a hose for such preventative maintenance.
FIRE HYDRANT VALVE

A fire hydrant system comprises water supply pipe work and valves to which brigades can
connect their hose for firefighting purposes. They are found almost every for example under
public roads, in large buildings, in Tunnels, on Chemical plants, onshore and offshore platforms,
on board ships etc.

The designs of Fire Hydrant valves and Landing valves are very similar irrespective of the place
where they are being installed. They are designed to be robust, not freeze in harsh environments,
and operate in a fire in accordance with fire testing regulations. Some also include a reducing
valve to regulate the outlet pressure with a varying inlet pressure which is required in some
installations. There are also various outlet connections available and special marine approvals.

In the U.K. the pressurized mains laid under public roads which distribute water to consumers
are also used by fire brigades. Underground hydrant valves to BS 750 are permanently connected
to the mains at intervals. Fire hose is connected to the valves via a standpipe.
PRESSURE REGULATOR

What is a pressure regulator?

Pressure regulators are valves that automatically cut off the flow of a gas or liquid when it is at a
certain pressure. Regulators are also used to allow high-pressure fluid supply tanks or lines to be
reduced to a usable and safe pressure for different applications. Pressure regulators are found in
many common home and industrial applications, including heating furnaces, gas grills and even
medical and dental equipment.

How do pressure regulators work?

Here at Fluid Controls we are often asked how a pressure regulator works. Here is a small
overview of the basics. A pressure regulator reduces a supply (or inlet) pressure to a lower outlet
pressure and works to maintain this outlet pressure, despite fluctuations in the inlet pressure. The
reduction of the inlet pressure to a lower outlet pressure is the fundamental characteristics of
pressure regulators.

So, the main pressure regulator function is to match the flow of gas through the regulator to
the demand for gas placed upon it, whilst maintaining a constant output pressure. If the load flow
decreases, then the regulator flow must decrease also. If the load flow increases, then the
regulator flow must increase in order to keep the controlled pressure from decreasing due to a
shortage of gas in the pressure system.

Uses of a pressure regulator

Pressure regulators are a common tool across many different industries and applications. One of
their most popular uses is in air compressors, where they are used to adjust the pressure coming
out of an air receiver to match what is needed for the task. In the Aerospace industry, pressure
regulators play a big part in propulsion pressuring control for many systems, including reaction
control systems and altitude control systems because corrosive fluids, large temperature extremes
and high vibration are present.
EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS
What are equipment and tools?

TOOLS: Any implement, instrument, or utensil held in the hand and used to form, shape, fasten,
add to, take away from, or otherwise change something by cutting, hitting, digging, rubbing, etc.

EQUIPMENT: The tools, machines, or other things that you need for a particular job or
activity.

TYPES OF EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS

DRAWING TABLE/ DRAWING BOARD

A drawing board (also drawing table, drafting table or architect's table) is, in its antique
form, a kind of multipurpose desk which can be used for any kind of drawing, writing or
impromptu sketching on a large sheet of paper or for reading a large format book or other
oversized document or for drafting precise technical illustrations (such as engineering drawings
or architectural drawings). The drawing table used to be a frequent companion to a pedestal desk
in a gentleman's study or private library, during the pre-industrial and early industrial era.

More recently, engineers and draftsmen use the drawing board for making and modifying
drawings on paper with ink or pencil. Different drawing instruments (set square, protractor, etc.)
are used on it to draw parallel, perpendicular or oblique lines. There are instruments for drawing
circles, arcs, other curves and symbols too (compass, French curve, stencil, etc.). However, with
the gradual introduction of computer aided drafting and design (CADD or CAD) in the last
decades of the 20th century and the first of the 21st century, the drawing board is becoming less
common. A drawing table is also sometimes called a mechanical desk because, for several
centuries, most mechanical desks were drawing tables. Unlike the gadgets mechanical desks of
the second part of the 18th century, however, the mechanical parts of drawing tables were
usually limited to notches, ratchets, and perhaps a few simple gears, or levers or cogs to elevate
and incline the working surface. Despite the prevalence of computer aided drafting, many older
architects and even some structural designers still rely on paper and pencil graphics produced on
a drafting table.

T-SQUARE

A T-square is a technical drawing instrument used by draftsmen primarily as a guide for

drawing horizontal lines on a drafting table. It may also guide a set square to draw vertical or
diagonal lines. T-squares are also used to measure and cut drywall. A T-square has two
components - the long shaft called the "blade" and the short shaft called the "stock" or "head".
The T-square usually has a transparent edge made of plastic which should be free of nicks and
cracks in order to provide smooth, straight lines.
COMPUTER (C.A.D. SOFTWARE)

AutoCAD is a commercial computer-aided design (CAD) and drafting software application.

Developed and marketed by Autodesk, AutoCAD was first released in December 1982 as a
desktop app running on microcomputers with internal graphics controllers. Before AutoCAD
was introduced, most commercial CAD programs ran on mainframe computers or
minicomputers, with each CAD operator (user) working at a separate graphics terminal. Since
2010, AutoCAD was released as a mobile- and web app as well, marketed as AutoCAD 360.

AutoCAD is used across a wide range of industries, by architects, project managers, engineers,
graphic designers, town planners and many other professionals. It was supported by 750 training
centers worldwide in 1994.

AutoCAD was derived from a program begun in 1977 and released in 1979 called Interact CAD,
also referred to in early Autodesk documents as Micro CAD, which was written prior to
Autodesk's (then Marin chip Software Partners) formation by Autodesk cofounder Michael
Riddle.

The first version by Autodesk was demonstrated at the 1982 Comdex and released that
December. As Autodesk's flagship product, by March 1986 AutoCAD had become the most
ubiquitous CAD program worldwide. The 2019 release marked the 33rd major release of
AutoCAD for Windows. The 2014 release marked the fourth consecutive year of AutoCAD for
Mac.

ESRI Arc Map 10 permits export as AutoCAD drawing files. Civil 3D permits export as
AutoCAD objects and as Land XML. Third-party file converters exist for specific formats such
as Bentley MX GENIO Extension, PISTE Extension (France), ISYBAU (Germany), OKSTRA
and Micro drainage (UK); also, conversion of .pdf files is feasible, however, the accuracy of the
results may be unpredictable or distorted.
PLOTTER

The plotter is a computer printer for printing vector graphics. In the past, plotters were used in
applications such as computer-aided design, though they have generally been replaced with
wide-format conventional printers. A plotter gives a hard copy of the output. It draws pictures on
a paper using a pen. Plotters are used to print designs of ships and machines, plans for buildings
and so on. Digitally controlled plotters evolved from earlier fully analog XY-writers used as
output devices for measurement instruments and analog computers.

Pen plotters print by moving a pen or other instrument across the surface of a piece of paper.
This means that plotters are vector graphics devices, rather than raster graphics as with other
printers. Pen plotters can draw complex line art, including text, but do so slowly because of the
mechanical movement of the pens. They are often incapable of efficiently creating a solid region
of color, but can hatch an area by drawing a number of close, regular lines.

Plotters offered the fastest way to efficiently produce very large drawings or color high-
resolution vector-based artwork when computer memory was very expensive and processor
power was very limited, and other types of printers had limited graphic output capabilities.

Pen plotters have essentially become obsolete, and have been replaced by large-format inkjet
printers and LED toner based printers. Such devices may still understand vector languages
originally designed for plotter use, because in many uses, they offer a more efficient alternative
to raster data.

A number of printer control languages were created to operate pen plotters, and transmit
commands like "lift pen from paper", "place pen on paper", or "draw a line from here to here".
Three common ASCII-based plotter control languages are Hewlett-Packard's HP-GL, its
successor HP-GL/2 and Houston Instruments DMPL. Here is a simple HP-GL script drawing a
line:

SP1;
PA500,500;
PD;
PR0,1000;
PU;
SP;

This program instructs the plotter, in order, to take the first pen (SP1 = Select Pen 1), to go to
coordinates X=500, Y=500 on the paper sheet (PA = Plot Absolute), to lower the pen against the
paper (PD = Pen Down), to move 1000 units in the Y direction (thus drawing a vertical line - PR
= Plot Relative), to lift the pen (PU = Pen Up) and finally to put it back in its stall.

Programmers using FORTRAN or BASIC generally did not program these directly, but used
software packages, such as the Clomp library, or device independent graphics packages, such as
Hewlett-Packard's AGL libraries or BASIC extensions or high end packages such as DISSPLA.
These would establish scaling factors from world coordinates to device coordinates, and translate
to the low level device commands. For example, to plot X*X in HP 9830 BASIC, the program
would be

10 SCALE -1,1,1,1
20 FOR X =-1 to 1 STEP 0.1
30 PLOT X, X*X
40 NEXT X
50 PEN
60 END
PRINTER

A printer is a peripheral device which makes a persistent human-readable representation of

graphics or text on paper. The first computer printer designed was a mechanically driven
apparatus by Charles Babbage for his difference engine in the 19th century; however, his
mechanical printer design was not built until 2000. The first electronic printer was the EP-101,
invented by Japanese company Epson and released in 1968. The first commercial printers
generally used mechanisms from electric typewriters and Teletype machines. The demand for
higher speed led to the development of new systems specifically for computer use. In the 1980s
were daisy wheel systems similar to typewriters, line printers that produced similar output but at
much higher speed, and dot matrix systems that could mix text and graphics but produced
relatively low-quality output. The plotter was used for those requiring high quality line art like
blueprints.

The introduction of the low-cost laser printer in 1984 with the first HP LaserJet, and the addition
of PostScript in next year's Apple LaserWriter, set off a revolution in printing known as desktop
publishing. Laser printers using PostScript mixed text and graphics, like dot-matrix printers, but
at quality levels formerly available only from commercial typesetting systems. By 1990, most
simple printing tasks like fliers and brochures were now created on personal computers and then
laser printed; expensive offset printing systems were being dumped as scrap. The HP DeskJet of
1988 offered the same advantages as laser printer in terms of flexibility, but produced somewhat
lower quality output (depending on the paper) from much less expensive mechanisms. Inkjet
systems rapidly displaced dot matrix and daisy wheel printers from the market. By the 2000s
high-quality printers of this sort had fallen under the $100 price point and became commonplace.

The rapid update of internet email through the 1990s and into the 2000s has largely displaced the
need for printing as a means of moving documents, and a wide variety of reliable storage
systems means that a "physical backup" is of little benefit today. Even the desire for printed
output for "offline reading" while on mass transit or aircraft has been displaced by e-book
readers and tablet computers. Today, traditional printers are being used more for special
purposes, like printing photographs or artwork, and are no longer a must-have peripheral.

Starting around 2010, 3D printing became an area of intense interest, allowing the creation of
physical objects with the same sort of effort as an early laser printer required to produce a
brochure. These devices are in their earliest stages of development and have not yet become
commonplace.
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS
What are drawing instruments?

Drawing instruments are essential part of engineering drawings and every draft men and
engineer should know about the following drawing instruments.

TYPES OF DRAWING INSTRUMENTS

DRAFTING COMPASSES

A pair of compasses, also known simply as a bow compass, is a technical drawing instrument
that can be used for inscribing circles or arcs. As dividers, they can also be used as tools to
measure distances, in particular on maps. Compasses can be used for mathematics, drafting,
navigation and other purposes.

Compasses are usually made of metal or plastic, and consist of two parts connected by a hinge
which can be adjusted to allow the changing of the radius of the circle drawn. Typically one part
has a spike at its end, and the other part a pencil, or sometimes a pen.

Prior to computerization, compasses and other tools for manual drafting were often packaged as
a "bow set" with interchangeable parts. By the mid–twentieth century, circle templates
supplemented the use of compasses. Today these facilities are more often provided by computer-
aided design programs, so the physical tools serve mainly a didactic purpose in teaching
geometry, technical drawing, etc.
SET SQUARES

A set square or triangle is an object used in engineering and technical drawing, with the aim of
providing a straightedge at a right angle or other particular planar angle to a baseline.

The simplest form of set square is a triangular piece of transparent plastic (or formerly of
polished wood) with the centre removed. More commonly the set square bears the markings of a
ruler and a half circle protractor. The outer edges are typically beveled. These set squares come
in two usual forms, both right triangles: one with 90-45-45 degree angles, the other with 30-60-
90 degree angles. Combining the two forms by placing the hypotenuses together will also yield
15° and 75° angles. They are often purchased in packs with protractors and compasses.

Less commonly found is the adjustable set square. Here, the body of the object is cut in half and
rejoined with a hinge marked with angles. Adjustment to the marked angle will produce any
desired angle up to a maximum of 180°.
FRENCH CURVE

A French curve is a template usually made from metal, wood or plastic composed of many
different curves. It is used in manual drafting to draw smooth curves of varying radii. The shapes
are segments of the Euler spiral or clothoid curve. The curve is placed on the drawing material,
and a pencil, knife or other implement is traced around its curves to produce the desired result.
The French curve is used to draw a smooth line through predetermined points.  After  the  points
are plotted, a light pencil line should be sketched to  connect  the  points  in  a  smooth  flowing
line. To draw the finished line over the freehand line, match  the  various  parts  of  the  French
curve  to various  segments  of  the  freehand  curve.  Avoid abrupt changes in curvature by
placing the short radius  of  the  French  curve  toward  the  short  radius portion  of  the  line  to
be  drawn.  Change your position   around   the   drawing   board   when necessary so that you
can work on the side of the French curve that is away from you. You should avoid working on
the “under” side of the French curve. Place the French curve so that it intersects at least two
points of the line. When drawing the line along the edge of the French curve, stop short of the
last point intersected. Then move the French curve along to intersect two or three more points
and make sure that the edge of the curve connects smoothly with the line already drawn.  When
using the irregular curve, you can draw a perfectly smooth curved line by plotting enough points
the circles.
TEMPLATES

Templates contain pre-dimensioned holes in the right scale to accurately draw a symbol or sign.

Letter templates are used for drawing text, including digits and letter characters. Diagrams are
usually of a standard letter shape and size to conform to standards of encodings (e.g. DIN or
ANSI).

For drawing circles and circle-arcs, circle templates which contain a set of suitably-sized holes
are used. Templates are also available for other geometric shapes such as squares and for
drawing ellipses, as well as many specialized varieties for other purposes.

There are also specific templates to provide user with the most common symbols in use in
different branches of designing. For example, the architect templates can be used to draw
different sized doors with their "opening arcs", building and equipment symbols and furniture.
The templates also provide the symbols for thermal insulation.

Two methods of drawing smooth curves in manual drafting are the use of French curves and flat
spleens (flexible curves). A French curve is a drawing aid with many different smoothly-varying
radioed curves on it; the manual drafter can fit the French curve to some known reference points
and draw a smooth curved line between them. A spleen is a flexible ruler, usually rubber or
plastic coated with a metal "backbone", which can be smoothly shaped to follow a desired curve
and allows drawing a smooth line between initial reference points. Sometimes a spleen is
temporarily held in position with small weights.
PROTRACTORS

A protractor is a measuring instrument, typically made of transparent plastic or glass, for

measuring angles. Most protractors measure angles in degrees (°). Radian-scale protractors
measure angles in radians. Most protractors are divided into 180 equal parts.

They are used for a variety of mechanical and engineering-related applications, but perhaps the
most common use is in geometry lessons in schools.

Some protractors are simple half-discs. More advanced protractors, such as the bevel protractor,
have one or two swinging arms, which can be used to help measure the angle.

A Bevel protractor is a graduated circular protractor with one pivoted arm; used for measuring
or marking off angles. Sometimes Venire scales are attached to give more precise readings. It has
wide application in architectural and mechanical drawing, although its use is decreasing with the
availability of modern drawing software or CAD.

Universal bevel protractors are also used by toolmakers; as they measure angles by mechanical
contact they are classed as mechanical protractors.

The bevel protractor is used to establish and test angles to very close tolerances. It reads to 5
minutes or 1/12° and can measure any angle from 0° to 360°.

The bevel protractor consists of a beam, a graduated dial and a blade which is connected to a
swivel plate (with Venire scale) by thumb nut and clamp. When the edges of the beam and blade
are parallel, a small mark on the swivel plate coincides with the zero line on the graduated dial.
To measure an angle between the beam and the blade of 90° or less, the reading may be obtained
direct from the graduation number on the dial indicated by the mark on the swivel plate. To
measure an angle of over 90°, subtract the number of degrees as indicated on the dial from 180°,
as the dial is graduated from opposite zero marks to 90° each way.
Since the spaces, both on the main scale and the Venire scale, are numbered both to the right and
to the left from zero, any angle can be measured. The readings can be taken either to the right or
to the left, according to the direction in which the zero on the main scale is moved.

Two-Sided Protractor: Protractors have traditionally been one-sided. This is thought to be

because early manufacturing methods set the tone of future production. Unfortunately, the two
number scales on a one-sided protractor often confuse learners when first learning to measure
and draw angles. However, in 2009, Jake Adamson, a math teacher working at Mussel burgh
Grammar School invented and patented the first two sided protractor trademarked "The Angler".
This was a double sided protractor with one scale on each side, avoiding the confusion of having
two scales together and enabling easier measuring and drawing of angles. "The Angler"
protractor has been widely adopted by schools in the UK.
PENCILS

A pencil is a writing implement or art medium constructed of a narrow, solid pigment core
inside a protective casing which prevents the core from being broken and/or from leaving marks
on the user’s hand during use.

Pencils create marks by physical abrasion, leaving behind a trail of solid core material that
adheres to a sheet of paper or other surface. They are distinct from pens, which instead disperse a
trail of liquid or gel ink that stains the light color of the paper by absorption.

Most pencil cores are made of graphite mixed with a clay binder which leaves grey or black
marks that can be easily erased. Graphite pencils are used for both writing and drawing and
result in durable markings: though writing is easily removable with an eraser, it is otherwise
resistant to moisture, most chemicals, ultraviolet radiation, and natural aging. Other types of
pencil core are less widely used, such as charcoal pencils, which are mainly used by artists for
drawing and sketching. Colored pencils are sometimes used by teachers or editors to correct
submitted texts, but are typically regarded as art supplies, especially those with waxy core
binders that tend to smear on paper instead of erasing. Grease pencils have a softer, crayon-like
waxy core that can leave marks on smooth surfaces such as glass or porcelain.

The most common type of pencil casing is of thin wood, usually hexagonal in section but
sometimes cylindrical, permanently bonded to the core. Similar permanent casings may be
constructed of other materials such as plastic or paper. To use the pencil, the casing must be
carved or peeled off to expose the working end of the core as a sharp point. Mechanical pencils
have more elaborate casings which are not permanently bonded to the core. Instead, the casing
supports a separate, mobile piece of pigment core that can be extended or retracted through the
casing tip as needed; these pencil casings can be re-loaded with a new core (usually graphite)
when necessary.