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Creative Commons “Attribution – Partage dans les mêmes conditions


4.0 International”. https://www.immae.eu/cours/

! " # !$ !
% $ & '
% $ &
$" ! " !$ ! $ ( ! "
! ) * ' & ' +
$ ( ,+ $ *

$ ! " - ' +
! '& *

= ( ∈ ( . ( = (0/ * / − 1
& -

2 !
! ' + $ *
! ! *

' !


ρ& ( ! !

= ∈δ
δ
δ
ρ& = = ( = ρ& * [ρ ] = * −3
*
δ
&

! ! (
=4 4= = ρ& &
' !

≈ µ & ! "
! ' + ! '
! *

σ& ( ! !
δ
= =
δ
=σ& & * [σ ] = * −
*

=4 4= σ& & *

3 ' !

δ
! λ& ( = = &! !
δ
[λ ] = * −
*
= λ& &
λ&

2 =4 4= λ& &
2

2
! ! $

• +! ! (
! *& ! ! ! ) 5 ! !
! !
∂•
• 6 ! ! ! * = /*

( ρ (σ ( λ ! ! ! *

2 ! '

7 ! " ( ( *

= *

$ ! " ! ! ! !
'

→ = *

! $ & >/
= = 1* / 1 79 & 8* * −
* ε/ ! ! *
:πε /
! ' ' ! + ! !
ε/ ε( ! *
ε = ε ε/ &ε ! ( !
ε = ! -ε = (///;< $ -ε = </ $ *

→ = = *
:πε / :πε /

3
& = *
:πε /
& ! ! $ * $
*
( → = & *
9
! $ $
*

& >/
$ ! ( = %+%! ! ! > !
!$ * 5 *

2 ! ! ! ' !

' ! 5

!5 ' ! ( ∈[ ( ]*

{ }→ = → = =
= = :πε /

=
= :πε /

{ }& { } ! { }→ = { }&

( { }& = = & *
= :πε / =

( !
! *

:
' !

& ) ! *
= ρ& & * ( (

& & = *
:πε /
$.
ρ&
= = =
&
& &
:πε / :πε /
" $' ! ( ?
( → = &

3 ' !

$ & =σ& &

σ&
=
&
& *
:πε /
σ&
=
&
$. &
:πε /

: ' !

λ&

λ&
=
&
&
:πε /
2
2

;
7# # ! ! ' !

!5 ! ' ! {ρ }
{ρ } →
ρ&
@ !$" ∆ !$ α

== ∆ (α &

!5
*
#
!= " ∆ ( != α

# {ρ } ⇔ ! $ ( ρ& = = ρ& *
# {ρ } ⇔ ! $ ( ρ& = = −ρ& *
& . == &

"

* ( * ! # ! ' ! *
* ( * ! # *

ρ/

# !$" ∆ !$ α ∈ [/( π [ - $
# # ! * ∆( # & !
! # {ρ }

0
2 7# # ! ! *
6 5 & !

7 π ! # {ρ }( $ { }(
& = %+%! ! $ ( & = = π & & - π #

BB

& = BB + ⊥

π & & = π & BB + ⊥ = π & BB + π & ⊥ = BB − ⊥

7 ∈π ( == π & =
& = π & & ( !$ . ⊥ =/
( ! π( & 5 *

7 π !$ # {ρ }( π !$ #
{ }* & ∀ ∈ε( & = =− π& &
π
− BB

BB π & &

& = BB + ⊥

& = =− π& & =− BB + ⊥

7 ∈π ( == ( & = =− π& & ( BB = /*


& ! π ! *

A
3 "

ρ =/

ρ/

6 π ∆ ! ! # {ρ }*
7 ∈∆ ⊂ π ( & BB π *
! " π ( π= ! ∆*
& ⊂ π ∩π=( ! & BB ∆

' ! λ& = λ/ θ*
! # {λ}
7 ! ( λ & = = λ/ &π − θ = −λ/ θ = −λ &
7 ( λ & = = / = −λ &
( ∈& ( & ⊥ *
) ( ∈& ( & BB *

9 # ! ! ' !$
9 ! ! *

{ρ } ! ! ⇔ ∀λ ∈ ( λ*

# {ρ }*
"

λ& = λ/

C ( ! ! ! λ/
* ! ' ! ! *
6 5
! ( ( ! ! ! !
! ! ! !$ ( *

<
∀ ∈ε( & = & ( ( = & ( (/ * + & ( (/ * + & ( (/ *

∀ ( ( ( =∈ ( & ( ( ( =& ( ( = ! $ (
= = & =− & *
$ # { }*
& = = & =−
& & = &
&C D
(
& = = & ( ( = + & ( ( = + & ( ( =
= & = & ( ( + & ( ( + & ( (
? ( *
@
! # ! & ρ (θ ( (! ' & ρ( θ (
& & ρ (θ ( = ρ & ρ (θ ρ + θ & ρ (θ θ + & ρ (θ

9 ! ∆=&

! {ρ } 5! # # ! + ∆
{ρ } ∆ (α ( α ∈ [/( π [ *

6 5
# ! ρ ( θ ( ! ! ! θ
& ( ! ! ! ) $ ! ! ρ ( θ

3 9 !$" *

! {ρ } 5! # " ∆
( α ∈ [/( π [ ( ∆ (α # {ρ }*
6 5
! & ( θ ( ϕ ! ! !
= - ) θ = ϕ = / * &E 3 !

" C *

!
!

! [ ]( ! = (
! *

1
( (

∀ ∈[ ]( λ & = λ/ *

! &

•π = ! # *
∈π ( & ∈π ( = & ⋅ = /*
•π == ! # *
∈π = ( & ∈π =( = & ⋅ =/
( & = & = & & ∈&
• = ! # *
== & * ! # (
& = = & & ( &− = & & = & & =− & *
*

! *

!5 ! !$'
( ! *
λ/ +
& = ( . = =
:πε /
& = & *
( & = & *
+
& = & ⋅ = & ⋅ - ⋅ = ⋅ = *

λ/ λ/ λ/
& = = =
:πε / & + 3B − :πε / & + 3B
:πε / − & + 3B

C ! *
& + 3B
+

/
λ/ − λ/
& = − =
:πε / + + :πε / +
λ/
7 & = *
:πε / +
7 >> ( ! + *
E
λ/ λ/
& = ≈ ≈
:πε / + :πε / :πε /

2 !

σ& = σ/

!5 ! !$" & (! # ( # ! ' !


σ/ *
∈& *

7#

! # {σ }( ! *
& =/
) ( & =/
& = & = &

! *

! ! ' !
θ

!5 & (θ !
( θ* = × θ & + !
! (! θ *
9 =σ& =σ/ × θ*
σ/ × θ
& = *
:πε /
& = & ( & = &
& (

& = & ⋅
& (


⋅ = =

σ/ × θ π σ/ × θ
& = =
& ( :πε / & + 3B θ =/ = / :πε &
/ + 3B

( !$' ! +θ
σ/
& = π
/ :πε / & + 3B


C !
& + 3B
+
πσ / −
& = +
:πε / +
πσ /
7 & = −
:πε / +
>> & >/
πσ / πσ / + −
& = − =
:πε / + :πε / +

=
πσ / ( + B − ) ≈
πσ / ( B )
:πε / + :πε /
πσ /
≈ =
:πε / :πε /

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