A real time look at the seeds of turmoil in Bahrain and Syria Tooba Khurshid

Introduction: There is nothing more beautiful than a rainbow, but it takes both rain and sunshine to make one. If life is to be rounded and many-colored like a rainbow, Both joy and sorrow must come to it

States of Bahrain and Syria are in the sunshine of revolution, a series of sorrows which in the long run hopefully going to be turned into rain of joy and prosperity. Bahrain is a State having Shiite majority with ruling Sunni minority. The ruling party has been accused of attempt to change the demographics by encouraging the immigrants taking Bahrain nationality. There has been number of demands which have been bubbling the discontent for many years which involves the demand for new constitution, release of political prisoners, independent justice system and freedom of speech. Demonstrators are not just demanding end to the dynasty but are calling for an end to the segregation. The current revolutionary challenges in the Bahrain and Syria are not just the result of sectarian perspective but are the collective end result of economic and social challenges including unemployment and inflation. In Syria despite of the repression of emergency rule and harsh control the protests are growing including local, religious who organize the protest and flow of information through internet and mobile messages. The unrest in Syria is the result of the failure of expected reforms since 2005.The ruling party claims to promote the reforms but failed to implement it. The domestic issues including water crisis and the growing gap between rich and poor have also created the regional as well as international puzzles. There has always been a series of reasons existed in the roots of a conflict or revolutionary situation which might not be existed in a reasonable form. So there is a continuous series of issues which has been adding and boosting up freedom movement in the region.
1

According to the domino theory if one country fell under communist control, all of the countrys neighbors were threatened with the same fate1Same is the case with Arab uprising; the social upheavals in the region were triggered by the Tunisia event followed by the other factors from economic management to political rights and freedom. The paper will follow the political and constitutional pressures that lead to the upheaval including the economic factors with facts and figures. The aim of this paper is to unearth the causes behind the current Arab situation which has taken deep roots in this upheaval.The upheaval that has reinforced the symbolic stage for new world order because from historical experiences we have learned that whenever a revolution hits an area we see the history in making.

Historical Background:
Bahrain: Fixing up my first hand information Bahrain has rich ancient history. It has been the kingdom of famous Babylonians, Persians, Greeks and Assyrians. Bahrain has been ruled by the Portuguese from 1507 to 16022, the vestiges of the Portuguese empire were replaced by the Persian Empire. The Persians were overthrown and expelled by the current colossal Al-Khalifa dynasty.3 Abridging the history of Bahrain, the heavy involvement of the British Empire in the Persian Gulf first became in 1880s to quench the piracy which threatened its commercial activities and which could possibly grasp the other states policy interference that could impinge British monopoly in the region.4 British imposed number of treaties on Bahrain to have domination in the region and particularly on Bahrain. Through a series of treaties with the United Kingdom, Bahrain became a British protectorate. The discovery of oil in Bahrain in 19325 brought herculean modernization in Bahrain, with its growing development the British influence cause a spell and continues to grow. Bahrain developed close relations with British. With open arms Bahrain welcomed British bases in island and the appointment of Balgrave as advisor is the evidence of the growing relationship between the two states.

The Britain started seizing different strategic locations of the Persian Gulf. Aden, the strategic hub of trade; British took control of the area by seizing the control of harbors putting up the British East India Company as an essence in the Middle East which successfully carry out mission of Britain to have control over the area.6 By virtue of long series of treaties with Bahrain, Britain started establishing official control over the area which began unrest among Bahraini people, resulted in the first revolt in 18957 which was further build up by the killing of protestors by British forces. The growing anti British sentiments and expenditures to British forces resulted in the announcement of the British forces to be withdrawn from Bahrain by ending its protection over the territory. Syria: Syria a state borders with countries like Lebanon, Iraq and turkey but its most contentious border is with Israel. It is a home to different ethnic and religious groups which includes Kurds, Druze and Alwite etc. Syria got independence from French ion 19468.it has experienced the political unrest during the 1950s and 1960s.9 This unrest includes military governmental series and unsuccessful attempt with Egypt for three years. The Baath party which was based on the idea of Arab socialism and nationalism seized the power. In 1966 the original founders of the party were expelled by the radical wing of the party and took control.10 The founders effected themselves in Iraq and constitute a rivalry between Iraq and Syria which has stayed ever since. By 1970 the moderate wing headed by the Lieutenant General Hafiz AL-Assad seized power and ruled Syria till 2000.11 Dr Brasher al Assad the son of Hafiz Assad was formally nominated as president in 2000 and reelected in 2007 for seven years term.12 Syria is not electoral democracy; president by the 1973 constitution is nominated for seven years terms by the Baath party and approved by popular referendum.13 The only legal parties in Syria includes the Baath party and its small coalition partners. On ruling National Progressive Front (NPF) and two third of the Peoples council seats are reserved for NPF and as for as the independent candidates are concerned those are allowed to participate who are closely vetted and contest for about a third of seats.

Dimension of Riots:
The social Sturm und Drang in the Middle East particularly in Bahrain and Syria has been bringing about abruptly by number of factors. It has been debated in many reports and research that the main case of unrest in Bahrain is sectarian conflict between ruling Sunni and majority Shia population and the background lies in the tension between Iranian Shia and Saudi Sunni who compete for regional ambitions and dominance. In reality the sectarian role in the upheaval is quite limited. The Shia led uprising has mainly economic and institutional agenda which includes the unwillingness of ruling government to expand reforms of informal and formal practice of discrimination, failure to address socioeconomic issues and restrictions in the formation of free political parties rather than the nationalistic one. The Syrian uprising which is a natural revolt is backed by the number of factors especially backed by the discontent for dictatorship. Syria suffers the same grievances as suffered by the other states of Middle East. There are real roots in what Syrian are facing now.

Political and Constitutional Pressures:

Bahrain: There are number of political and domestic pressures which boost up tensions and lead to the riots. The Bahrains ruling power is dominant in practice. The king remained inexorable, he only determines that which of the social and political network and group has right to express their opinion in public affairs. The public opinion in Bahrain is restricted to government policies and is monitored through proper channels. Outside parliament, public criticism of government policy is largely channeled through organized political societies which must be licensed by the ministry of justice and Islamic affairs under the 2005 political societies law.14 The freedom of expression is quite restricted in the Bahrain.

tough privately owned, print media remain constrained by the 2002 press and publications law, under which journalists can be imprisoned for up to five years or face heavy fines for criticizing Islam or king, publishing information that threatens state security or encouraging sectarianism.15 The journalists who cover the issues of corruption or state policies are arrested and prosecuted. The blogosphere in the Middle East is quite famous for discussions on government policies. Now the government has also posed restrictions on the online flow of information. All websites are required to register with the ministry of information and site administrators face the same libel as print journalists and are held jointly responsible for content posted on their websites or related chat rooms.16 The most draconian law in Bahrain which was the product of Ian Hendersons genius state security law which was imposed by prim minster Khalifa Bin Salaman Al Khalifa in 1974 and scrap in 200117 by this law thousands of Bahrainis were banished and prosecuted. To the best of our knowledge Bahraini authorities have not made public any rules or regulations under the so-called national safety law, the authorities apparently think they can do as they wish but they are wrong18 The political reforms in Bahrain have also been a big question that how it will proceed and how long it will take to be progressive. The people of Bahrain want a progressive reform process which could meet their hopes and expectation. You cannot raise the expectations of the people and then say to them wait a minute we will go gradually. This is not serious political reform19 The question here rises that what are the obstacles for substantial reform? First one is the apparent division within the regime and secondly the formidable impediments from different perspective. The instability was step up by the wars (Iran-Iraq) which instigate the fears about the Bahrains military weaknesses. Bahrain joined GCC in 1981 to receive intelligence monitoring assistance and approval to purchase weapons from United States.

Syria:
The features of transparency between rich and poor are not same in terms of legal dimension of secrecy. Economic and financial practices in Syria are not transparent in the sense that the companies are not registered. The businessman ensures in Syria that the companies are not registered in their names. Even the exporters do not prefer to export their goods on their or their companies names. In addition to the lack of specializations in the economic activities interferences and stability exists. The main reason of the shadow activities of financers and businessman is to side step taxes and charges and also the involvement of influential people who are habitual of imposing themselves as the partners or protectorate on businessmen. The freedom of expression in Syria as like Bahrain is also very restricted apart from the hand full of non news radio stations all other broadcast media is state owned. The satellite dishes are quite common providing access to the Syrians. The people are allowed to access the internet through the state run servers which block the access to the opposition and foreign bases websites.Email correspondence is monitored by intelligence based services20 During the year of 2007, government limited the freedom of the movement. There are about one and half million of Kurds in Syria making the largest ethnic minority in the country around 250,000 of which have not been entitled to the countrys nationality. It was recommended by the tenth Baath party congress that this issue should have to be tackled but so far no progress has been made. The Syrian Kurds face some discriminatory treatment which rarely amount to prosecution. The bunch of regime loyal is also the result of the expanded government bureaucracy. The presidents continuing strength is due to the armys continued loyalty and effectiveness of Syrias large internal security apparatus21 The people of Syria want change in the balance of power of Syrian government. The Syrian cabinet resignation on March 29 did not satisfy the protesters as there has been not any clear change. When the president of Syria address the parliament it was believed and expected that he would announce he political reforms including the lifting of state emergency since 1963.but instead he avoided talking of reforms and emphasize on the security and stability within the state

Economic Dimension:
Bahrain: Petroleum in Bahrain was discovered in 1932 which was the first discovery in the Persian Gulf. It made a clean breast of continued prosperity and independent source of income for Bahrain making a headway by strengthening its position against potential challenges. It helped in the development of modern infrastructure and cut a figure in the acquisition of the strategic and commercial importance. The recent upheaval in Bahrain has some long term implications for Bahrains economy and it formulates the clouds of uncertainty on Bahrains external sector driven economy which could be elaborate through some fact based analysis. Table 1.1.Bahrain country report: 2008 GDP Growth Inflation 6.3% 3.5% 2009 3.1% 2.8% 2010 4.1% 2% 2011 3.1% 3%

Source: Global Finance22 The table shows that GDP growth has been drastically fall by 2009 and by proceeding year it improved but then it again fall to the 2009 level with the increase in inflation level. Table 1.2.Employement by Nationality Persons: Thousands
700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Total employment

Bahraini

Non-Bahraini

Source: Labor Market Regulatory Authority (LMRA)23

7

The table indicates that the employment rate for non Bahrainis is progressive as compared to Bahrainis. The levels of unemployment and underemployment have been disproportionately higher. For labor market reforming it is quite difficult to counter this disparity. The population in Bahrain is also growing tremendously. In Bahrain twenty seven percent of the population is under age of fourteen and about five thousand new non Bahraini nationals enter the labor market every year.24 With the increase the growing rate of population more jobs and employment sources are required to meet the further challenges expected in the future. There is need for the economy to provide jobs three times more than in past.25 Bahrain in the Gulf monarchy states has lowest oil reserves Bahrain diversified its economy by the financial and banking services. Bahrain currently produces 35,000 barrels of crude oil per day.

Source: http://crash-watcher.blogspot.com/2011/02/survey-of-oil-exports-from-middle-east.htm The economic situation in Bahrain is outrageous as Bahrain does not have considerable oil and gas reserves as compared to other states in the region.

The above graph shows that consumption is rapidly increasing declining the production and export.26Bahrain is about to join the rank of importers in the region as it is impinging on the net zero export. At current rates of production (35,000 barrels per day of crude oil), Bahrains on shore oil reserves will be exhausted in 15 years.27Bahrain is a poor country and wealth is concentrated in the influential circle. Ive never seen wretched poverty like Ive seen in Bahrain.28 Syria: Syria has long term economic constraints. These constraints include the unemployment, increasing pressures on water supplies, budget deficit etc.

Source: http://crash-watcher.blogspot.com/2011/02/survey-of-oil-exports-from-middle-east.htm The graph shows that the oil production in Syria has been stabilized after years of falling. Its consumption is increasing as compared to its export.29 Not sfar behind Syria also declining in its export trends. The growing level of gap between rich is rapidly deepening. The reality of this division could be found easily by establishing the position of poor and rich life within Syria. According to a report by State Planning Commission in collaboration with United Nations Development Programme; The overall poverty is widespread in Syria which affects 33.6% of countrys total population which means that 6.7 million of Syrians are considered poor within this group 12.3% of population (2.4
9

million people) are considered to be living in extreme poverty or below poverty line30 The rate of poverty is increasing in the country side as compared to cities. The poverty is concentrated in the rural areas. The gap between rich and poor is not the matter of fate but it is decreed by the dissimilarity. It is the result of the policies that have drive clear distinction between rich and poor. This has mainly driven by the devious means in past five decades. These include the taking bribes and commissions, by the practice of corruption and plundering of the public funds etc. Syria is a country with limited resources as compared to other oil states even it has limited area that is suitable for agriculture and the water sources are also controlled by the neighboring states which has an impact on entrenchment of the poverty in most of provinces Syria. The oil resources in Syria has been covering the governamental expenditures day in and day out which shows that oil has a profound influence on the economic conditions of Syria. This rapidly vanishing resource has kept Syrias economy healthy on a macroeconomic level since 1990s.31 The unprecedented water crisis (natural resources perspective) in Syria is also a big issue to mass protest in the eastern Syria as water is the precious commodity in the area. as Daraa city is home to thousands of people who has been displaced because of water crisis in the last years. The growing demands of local population for water are a leap in the dark. The water crisis has led to deterioration in the living standards in Daraa and among the Syria. The city is home to thousands of the displaced people from eastern Syria, where up to a million people have left their home because of water crisis in the past six years32 The Golan Heights and mountains, a valuable resource, if returned which could probably contain water agreement would be helpful for Syria to access to water. To keep the ball rolling, the unemployment rate among the young urban population is much higher. The structure of supply of job opportunities in the market and demand for labor does not match which is the result of growth rate of Syrian population which has turn the table of job market. These lead to the increase in the inflation in the country.

10

The reason behind the increase in prices was a speculative real estate boom and the partial removal of common government subsidies. Both factors contributed heavily to inflation which impacts the poor more than it impacts the rich33 the poverty targets have not been met by the Tenth five year plan even.

International response to Bahrain and Syria revolt:

The international community response to the unrest in Bahrain and Syria has been quite different and interesting from the overall response to the Middle East unrest. On the release of political prisoners all parties were called on to take up the offer for broad dialogue on reforms by the Crown Prince. The U.S. stance particularly has been that the violence is not the answer or solution to any problem. The U.S. position-in particular not calling for the Al Khalifa monarchy to come to an end-may reflect concern among U.S. officials about the consequences were the regime to fall.34 International response to the uprising seems that it is likely to strengthen the regime. Iran criticizes the crackdown in Bahrain and Syria. The U.S. and Europes stance particularly on Syria have been disappointed. Despite of the sanctions tee is no call for the ruling party to step down and there are sill hopes for the commitment of reforms by the ruling party. The international crisis group in response to the Syrian crisis recommended: President Assad must show visible leadership and do so now. sHis political capital today depends less on his past foreign policy successes than on his ability to live up to popular expectations at time of dangerous domestic crisis 35 The U.S. SecState rejected the intervention in the Syria and there are many underlying factors behind the lack of intervention. Syria is not as easier to be targeted as Libya may be Firstly, because of its arms capability and secondly, the international community hoping against hope is giving space to resolve the situation. on April 6 Russian President Dmitry Medvedev called Al-Assad to voice support for the latters decisions to make reforms in his country36

Bahrain-Pakistan:
11

Bahrain and Pakistan have good relations. The relations are based on the cordial brotherhood. Bahrain is looking to Pakistan as good agriculture and dairy sector. Both the states have to boost trade relations in the current fast changing scenario both the states. The defence and economic cooperation between Bahrain and Pakistan is quite strong. Pakistan desires stability and peace in Bahrain. Pakistan highly values its relations with the brotherly Muslim country Bahrain and emphasized upon further enhancing relations between the two countries37

Syria-Pakistan:
Looking into Pakistan Syria relations it is clear that Pakistan has good relations with the people of Syria. Many Pakistanis go to Syria for business. But both the states should try to strengthening good governmental relations. It does not mean that the Syria-Pakistan relations are bad but it needs to be improved. Long standing relationship is based on the trade in any form so trade with Syria should be improved. Both the states have to formulate a standard policy based on national security and interests. Pakistan and Syria relations need to be forward looking, working on developing economic relations. Minor issues in the past which has put the relations dormant need to be brushed aside.

Analysis:
Through all the research I could analyze that government exerts all control on the religious practice and it funds and monitors all the religious institutions including community centers and mosques etc. The endorsement of the different laws is now viewed by the people as most destructive steps to exercise the unrestricted power. Thousands of the Bahrainis are denied the proper housing. Bahrainis have no political freedom. The reports about Bahrain are quite divided. The current turmoil is challenging for Bahrain to achieve the expected expansions. We could see through the above facts that the disruptions are widespread and there are clear set backs in point percentage of the growth. The violent rhetoric in any state is often bemused with different conspiracy theories and these conspiracies are continuously been exaggerate. Such violent rhetoric then loses touch to reality and mediators miss to reach to solutions. So, I believe that the sectarian dimension in the case of Bahrain been more exaggerated and its basic indicator I feel is the communication breakdown.
12

there are other factors as shown by graphs above bubbled the discontent continuously but gradually because for a oil producing and exporting state like Bahrain other conflicts does not matters a lot what matters most is the economic expansion (direction of oil prices and its demand and supply). Bahrain is facing genuine social and economic problems. It has been largely fuelled by unemployment and inflation. The speed of new entrants in the market is a real big challenge for Bahrain. All these factors accelerate the squall of discontent which leads to riots. It is a mistake to look into the Bahrains problem only through the prism of sectarianism because it fails to recognize the ethnic economic character of the society and address the factors which demand the change in the political system because for Bahrain its security and political climate is directly related to its economic conditions. Both Bahrain and Syria depend on the declining oil resources for revenues. However the standard of living in Syria is much lower as compared to Bahrain. Syria has much higher number of people below poverty line as compared to Bahrain. The economic indicators given above merely gave an idea of the existing gap between rich and poor in Syria such indicators are present in all sectors. The rich are more influential on the decisions of the governmental authorities as compared to poor, the services available to the rich are way better as compared to the available opportunities to poor and the services available to them are lower in quality. The number of ambiguities that cloud the problem of poverty in Syria which includes establishing or defining the meaning of poverty, identification of the relationship of poverty with countryside, its connection with family, individual and gender. All such aspects made difficult the identification of certain issues of poverty instead contribute to mitigate the problem. Apart from the debate that whatever are the contributing factors of poverty in Syria, the most critical issue is that as confirmed by the statistics shows there is significant presence of poverty in Syria which has not been changed in essence over past decades in spite of numerous projects on reducing poverty the policy makers have been failed to tackle the issue. Syria is a republic officially but it is an authoritarian regime in reality which depicts the democratic system. Although the people vote for the parliament members and president but they
13

cannot change their government. The president and seniors in the services make the decisions with the quite limited public accountability. Political opposition against the president is not tolerated. The long term survival of the Assad regime is the result of its strong desire for stability and giving a stake of minorities in the society. Syria is facing number of immense socioeconomic and demographic challenges. It has been facing the grievances of excess of small business elite in contrast to high unemployed youth. As the other states of Middle East, Syria is not exception built on mosaic ancient sects. Ethnic and religious groups held uncomfortably by the central government. The governments have been neutral to favor several power plays and lead the upheavals which disturb the whole region creating a nightmare.

Conclusion
Every state has its own laws most of them have constitutions on which laws are based. But the important point is its acceptance by the people which is the source of legitimacy to the particular law of state. Laws could never be binding if these are unilaterally imposed by the power not allowing the public participation. The Shia in Bahrain is not calling for a Shia Islamic state but the demonstrators demand for a democratic state in which every one could participate freely and creation of a more empowered and representative parliament. The chasm between rich and poor lends an identity, status and role in the public life to both the groups in Syria which is quite distinct from other. So any attempt for the promotion of the equality and participation in public life begins by combating the phenomenon which plays critical role in prevention of the victims from enjoying the level of status as enjoyed by the rich citizens. This may called a revolution of poor. As the Syria is in the centre of the Middle East dense network of relations so a long term unrest in Syria would have an impact on the regional power structure. The economic indicators above and its source as conflict show that economic issues have replaced the territorial issues. The lessons of the not only Bahrain and Syria but the Arab revolt are for the authoritarians around their quest for discipline would only hasten their demise until and unless they grant democracy to their people. As from HOLY QURAN:
14

The blame is only upon those who oppress men with wrongdoing and insolently transgress beyond bounds through the land, defying right and justice: for such there will be a penalty grievous38 The Arab rulers have tended to perceive themselves a authority and legitimate rulers and there has been hardly done the efforts to satisfy the aspirations of people.

Implications:
There are number of regional and international implication for such a squall of uprising but some of them could be as follows: y Bahrain and Syria making the complex cases among other countries comprising the Arab spring are quite important strategically. Long and short the collapse of regime in the teeth of western powers and other Arab states could produce the irretrievable and outrageous chaos to neighboring states. y The unrest may impact the emerging markets as the investment opportunities goes beyond the boundaries so this unrest would impact the companies that have established the business from different areas of the globe. As every country is facing specific set of circumstances so it is quite difficult to outlook the regional economy as whole. y The political upheaval in the region could cause a pragmatic shift in the way the energy resources are supplied and priced on global basis. If chaos widens the disruption would get worse.

Recommendations:
Bahrain:  Reintroduce the publication and press law: The ruling power and legislator should reintroduce the revised press and publication law to practically introduce the freedom of expression and public opinion and the solution of the problem should be achieved through the margins of freedom  Granting citizenship: Government should have to follow the procedures by ending discrimination and grant citizenship to all.
15

 End of violence: Government should take steps to restrict and stop use of force against public protests.  Abandon restrictions on religious practices: Government should abandon the restrictions on the Friday sermons and on religious schools.  Rebuilding trust in reforms: There is need to build trust between social and political parties through reforms as many believe that the reforms failed to provide the expected security.  Review of political discourse: All the religious, political and human rights figures should have to review their political discourse and announcements and should favor the interests of the country and social unity.  Constitutional crises: The constitutional crises in Bahrain need to be addressed as it putting the reform process in a hazard that how long it will go.  Confidence building Steps: For a comprehensive and productive nation immediate steps are required for genuine confidence building after brutal crackdown. Syria:  Profound phenomenon to tackle poverty: The government should have to frame a profound phenomenon to tackle the strengthening grip of poverty which is trapping number of people.  Political will: The complex issue of poverty could only be solved if the competent authorities and policy makers show a political will to address the issue through the practical implementation of process.  Expand investment & use of resources: The serious use of resources and pursuing such policies to expand investment that could contribute towards the at least reduction in the poverty  Raising worker productivity:
16

The government should follow the policies to generate the job opportunities to increase the workers productivity to lower the inflation rate.  Restructure economy without oil revenues: As the Syrian oil resources are vanishing rapidly so government should attempt to restructure its economy without the oil revenues to cover the level of expenditures.

Paul Cole non-resident scholar at INEGMA, Regime change in the Arab world: An Islamic Domino Theory, accessed on< March 12, 2011> < accessed from http://www.eurasiareview.com/analysis/regime-change-in-thearab-world-an-islamic-domino-theory-24022011 >
2

George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (London: Cornell University Press, 1979), p.669

Bahrain Coutry Guide Washington Post <accessed on March 15, 2011> <accessed from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/countries/bahrain.html > Bernstien Laura W. Bharain:British Empire v. Iranian Shah ( Proceedings of the Five College Model United Nations Conference 2011, Mount Holyoke college, Massachusetts, April 1st -3rd , 2011) , 3.<accessed on March 15, 2011> <accessed from http://fcmun.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/JCC-Britain.pdf>
5 4

Bahrain Discovery of Oil data of January, 1993 < retrieved on March 20, 2011> <available at http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-1020.html >
6

Scott Smitson, The Road to Good Intentions: British Nation-Building in Aden, Centre for Complex Operations, National Defense University Case Study No. 10, 2010. <Retrieved on March 20, 2011> <retrieved from http://ccoportal.org/sites/ccoportal.org/files/case_study_10_student_edition.pdf >
7

Allison, Understanding Bahrain: News, History & Facts, April 5, 2011. <retrieved on March 22, 2011> <available at http://www.legallanguage.com/legal-articles/bahrain-facts/>
8

Encyclopedia of Nations, Syria-country history and economic development <retrieved on April 9, 2011> <retrieved from http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia-and-the-Pacific/Syria-COUNTRYHISTORY-AND-ECONOMIC-DEVELOPMENT.html>
9

Operational guidance note Syria, UK Border Agency V.4.0, February 2009. <retrieved on April 9, 2011> <retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/policyandlaw/countryspecificasylumpolicyogns/syriaog n?view=Binary>
10

Political Dynamics, source US Library of Congress <retrieved on June 25, 2011> <retrieved from http://countrystudies.us/syria/53.htm> One world nations online, History of Syria, <retrieved from http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/History/Syria-history.htm > <retrieved on June 20, 2011> Encyclopedia of Nations, Syria History <retrieved on April 9, 2011> <retrieved from http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia-and-the-Pacific/Syria-COUNTRY-HISTORY-ANDECONOMIC-DEVELOPMENT.html>
12 11

17

13

syria overview, <retrieved on June 20, 2011> <retrieved from http://www.cafe-syria.com/Constitution.htm>

Fred H.Lawson, Bahrain <retrieved on April 29, 2011> <retrieved from http://www.freedomhouse.org/modules/publications/ccr/modPrintVersion.cfm?edition=9&ccrpage=43&ccrcountry= 177>
15

14

Ibid Ibid

16

17

Advameg Inc, Bahrain< retrieved on May 1, 2011> <retrieved from http://www.pressreference.com/ABe/Bahrain.html>

18

Joe Stork, Deputy Middle East Director at Human rights watch Bahrain: protest leaders Arbitrarily Detained

19

Interview with Abdullah Jarahi, General Secretary of National Democratic Action Society (NDAS) Manama, Feburary 26, 2005
20

Freedom House: Freedom in the world Report 2008

US State Background Note, May 2007 <retrieved on June 23, 2011> <retrieved from http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm> Fred H.Lawson, Bahrain <retrieved on April 29, 2011> <retrieved from http://www.freedomhouse.org/modules/publications/ccr/modPrintVersion.cfm?edition=9&ccrpage=43&ccrcountry= 177> Bahrain Economic Quarterlty, <retrieved on April 25, 2011> retrieved from http://www.bahrainedb.com/uploadedFiles/Bahraincom/BahrainForBusiness/BEQ%20Q1%202011.pdf>
24 23 22

21

Figure based on 2006 population statistoics. William wallis, jobless corner of Bahrain a far cry from glossy malls, Financial Times ( November 25, 2004)

25

A survey by crash_Watcher, survey of oil exports from middle east, February 27, 2011 <retrieved on May 2, 2011> <retrieved from http://crash-watcher.blogspot.com/2011/02/survey-of-oil-exports-from-middle-east.html> Kenneth Katzman, Bahrain: Reform, Security, and U.S. Policy Congressional Research Service, March 10, 2011 <accessed on April 19, 2011> <accessed from> Comment by Toby Jones editor at Middle East Report political Journal Egypt, Bahrain protests differ in key ways <accessed on April 7, 2011> <Available at: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/41651773/ns/world_newsmideast/n_africa/> A survey by crash_Watcher, survey of oil exports from middle east, February 27, 2011 <retrieved on May 2, 2011> <retrieved from http://crash-watcher.blogspot.com/2011/02/survey-of-oil-exports-from-middle-east.html> Poverty and Distributive Justice in Syria report prepared by State Planning Commission in collaboration with United Nations Development Programme in Syria, 2008 <retrieved on june19, 2011> <retrieved fom http://www.strescom.org/research/policy-analysis-gap-separating-rich-poor-syria >
30 29 28 27

26

18

Nabil Sukkar, Pitfalls Along Reform Road, Emerging Syria 2006, ed. Andrew Jeffreys (Lebanon: Oxford Business Group, 2006), 38
32

31

Kessler, Oren & Reuters, Syria: thousands call for revolt at funeral of protestor, March 19, 2011, The Jerusalem Post <retrieved on June 23, 2011> <retrieved from http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?ID=212892&R=R1> Dalia Haider, Drawing the Poverty Line, May, 2011 Syria Today <retrieved on June 25, 2011> <retrieved from http://www.syria-today.com/index.php/focus/7730-drawing-the-poverty-line?tmpl=composition>
34 33

Kenneth Katzman, Bahrain: U.S. posture on the uprising-analysis, Eurasia Review, April 1, 2011. <retrieved on June 28, 2011 <retrieved from http://www.eurasiareview.com/bahrain-u-s-posture-on-the-uprising-analysis01042011/>
35

Adalah: Libya, Syria and Bahrain: Different responses to crisis Daily Kos, March 31, 2011 <retrieved on June 28, 2011> <retrieved from http://www.dailykos.com/story/2011/03/31/961453/-Adalah:-Libya,-Syria-and-Bahrain:different>
36

Russian president voices support for "Syrian reforms". NOW Lebanon. 6 April 2011. http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArchiveDetails.aspx?ID=258656.
37

Pakistan desires peace stability in Bahrain: Middle East , March 29, 2011 <retrieved on June 15, 2011> <retrieved from http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Regional/Islamabad/29Mar-2011/Pakistan-desires-peace-stability-in-Bahrain-Middle-East-Zardari>
38

Quran 42, Verses 39, 41 & 42

19