Starch

Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined by

glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants for energy storage.
Worldwide, it is the most common carbohydrate in human diets, and is contained in large
amounts in staple foods like wheat, potatoes, maize (corn), rice, and cassava (manioc).
 Starch

Identifiers

CAS Number 9005-25-8 

ChemSpider none

ECHA InfoCard 100.029.696 (https://echa.europa.eu/substance-inf

ormation/-/substanceinfo/100.029.696)

EC Number 232-679-6

RTECS number GM5090000

CompTox Dashboard (EPA) DTXSID0049789 (https://comptox.epa.gov/dashbo

ard/DTXSID0049789)

Properties

Chemical formula (C6H10 O5)n +(H2O)

Molar mass Variable

Appearance White powder

Density Variable[1]

Melting point decomposes

Solubility in water insoluble (see starch gelatinization)

Thermochemistry

Std enthalpy of 4.1788 kilocalories per gram (17.484 kJ/g)[2]

combustion (ΔcH 298) (Higher heating value)

Hazards
 Safety data sheet ICSC 1553 (http://www.inchem.org/documents/ics
c/icsc/eics1553.htm)
Autoignition 410 °C (770 °F; 683 K)
temperature

NIOSH (US health exposure limits):

PEL (Permissible) TWA 15 mg/m3 (total) TWA 5 mg/m3 (resp)[3]

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in theirstandard state (at 25 °C [77 °F],
100 kPa).

 verify (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ComparePages&rev1=455316358&page2=Sta
rch)  (what is   ?)

Infobox references

Structure of the amylose molecule

Structure of the amylopectin molecule

Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odorless powder that is insoluble in cold water or alcohol. It
consists of two types of molecules: the linear and helical amylose and the branched
amylopectin. Depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to
80% amylopectin by weight.[4] Glycogen, the glucose store of animals, is a more highly branched
version of amylopectin.

In industry, starch is converted into sugars, for example by malting, and fermented to produce
ethanol in the manufacture of beer, whisky and biofuel. It is processed to produce many of the
sugars used in processed foods. Mixing most starches in warm water produces a paste, such as
wheatpaste, which can be used as a thickening, stiffening or gluing agent. The greatest
industrial non-food use of starch is as an adhesive in the papermaking process. Starch solution
may be applied to certain textile goods before ironing, to stiffen them.

Etymology

The word "starch" is from its Germanic root with the meanings "strong, stiff, strengthen,
stiffen".[5] Modern German Stärke (strength) is related and referring for centuries main
application, the use in textile: sizing yarn for weaving and starching linen. The Greek term for
starch, "amylon" (ἄμυλον), which means "not milled", is also related. It provides the root amyl,
which is used as a prefix for several 5-carbon compounds related to or derived from starch (e.g.
amyl alcohol).

History

Starch grains from the rhizomes of Typha (cattails, bullrushes) as flour have been identified from
grinding stones in Europe dating back to 30,000 years ago.[6] Starch grains from sorghum were
found on grind stones in caves in Ngalue, Mozambique dating up to 100,000 years ago.[7]

Pure extracted wheat starch paste was used in Ancient Egypt possibly to glue papyrus.[8] The
extraction of starch is first described in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder around AD 77–79.[9]
Romans used it also in cosmetic creams, to powder the hair and to thicken sauces. Persians and
Indians used it to make dishes similar to gothumai wheat halva. Rice starch as surface
treatment of paper has been used in paper production in China since 700 CE.[10]
 Starch industry

Starch mill at Ballydugan (Northern Ireland), built in 1792

West Philadelphia Starch works at Philadelphia (Pennsylvania), 1850

Faultless Starch Company at Kansas City

In addition to starchy plants consumed directly, by 2008 66 million tonnes of starch were being
produced per year worldwide. In 2011, production was increased to 73 million ton.[11]

In the EU the starch industry produced about 8.5 million tonnes in 2008, with around 40% being
used for industrial applications and 60% for food uses,[12] most of the latter as glucose
syrups.[13] In 2017 EU production was 11 million ton of which 9,4 million ton was consumed in
the EU and of which 54% were starch sweeteners.[14]

The US produced about 27.5 million tons of starch in 2017, of which about 8.2 million tons was
high fructose syrup, 6.2 million tons was glucose syrups, and 2.5 million tons were starch
products. The rest of the starch was used for producing ethanol (1.6 billion gallons).[15][16]

Energy store of plants

potato starch granules in cells of the potato

starch in endosperm in embryonic phase of maize seed

Most green plants store energy as starch, which is packed into semicrystalline granules.[17] The
extra glucose is changed into starch which is more complex than the glucose produced by
plants. Young plants live on this stored energy in their roots, seeds, and fruits until it can find
suitable soil in which to grow.[18] An exception is the family Asteraceae (asters, daisies and
sunflowers), where starch is replaced by the fructan inulin. Inulin-like fructans are also present in
grasses such as wheat, in onions and garlic, bananas, and asparagus.[19]

In photosynthesis, plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide. The glucose
is used to generate the chemical energy required for general metabolism, to make organic
compounds such as nucleic acids, lipids, proteins and structural polysaccharides such as
cellulose, or is stored in the form of starch granules, in amyloplasts. Toward the end of the
growing season, starch accumulates in twigs of trees near the buds. Fruit, seeds, rhizomes, and
tubers store starch to prepare for the next growing season.

Glucose is soluble in water, hydrophilic, binds with water and then takes up much space and is
osmotically active; glucose in the form of starch, on the other hand, is not soluble, therefore
osmotically inactive and can be stored much more compactly. The semicrystalline granules
generally consist of concentric layers of amylose and amylopectin which can be made
bioavailable upon cellular demand in the plant.[20]

Glucose molecules are bound in starch by the easily hydrolyzed alpha bonds. The same type of
bond is found in the animal reserve polysaccharide glycogen. This is in contrast to many
structural polysaccharides such as chitin, cellulose and peptidoglycan, which are bound by beta
bonds and are much more resistant to hydrolysis.[21]

Biosynthesis

Plants produce starch by first converting glucose 1-phosphate to ADP-glucose using the enzyme
glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase. This step requires energy in the form of ATP. The
enzyme starch synthase then adds the ADP-glucose via a 1,4-alpha glycosidic bond to a growing
chain of glucose residues, liberating ADP and creating amylose. The ADP-glucose is almost
certainly added to the non-reducing end of the amylose polymer, as the UDP-glucose is added to
the non-reducing end of glycogen during glycogen synthesis.[22]
Starch branching enzyme introduces 1,6-alpha glycosidic bonds between the amylose chains,
creating the branched amylopectin. The starch debranching enzyme isoamylase removes some
of these branches. Several isoforms of these enzymes exist, leading to a highly complex
synthesis process.[23]

Glycogen and amylopectin have similar structure, but the former has about one branch point per
ten 1,4-alpha bonds, compared to about one branch point per thirty 1,4-alpha bonds in
amylopectin.[24] Amylopectin is synthesized from ADP-glucose while mammals and fungi
synthesize glycogen from UDP-glucose; for most cases, bacteria synthesize glycogen from ADP-
glucose (http://www.genome.jp/dbget-bin/www_bget?C00498) (analogous to starch).[25]

In addition to starch synthesis in plants, starch can be synthesized from non-food starch
mediated by an enzyme cocktail.[26] In this cell-free biosystem, beta-1,4-glycosidic bond-linked
cellulose is partially hydrolyzed to cellobiose. Cellobiose phosphorylase cleaves to glucose 1-
phosphate and glucose; the other enzyme—potato alpha-glucan phosphorylase can add a
glucose unit from glucose 1-phosphorylase to the non-reducing ends of starch. In it, phosphate
is internally recycled. The other product, glucose, can be assimilated by a yeast. This cell-free
bioprocessing does not need any costly chemical and energy input, can be conducted in
aqueous solution, and does not have sugar losses.[27][28][29]

Degradation

Starch is synthesized in plant leaves during the day and stored as granules; it serves as an
energy source at night. The insoluble, highly branched starch chains have to be phosphorylated
in order to be accessible for degrading enzymes. The enzyme glucan, water dikinase (GWD)
phosphorylates at the C-6 position of a glucose molecule, close to the chains 1,6-alpha
branching bonds. A second enzyme, phosphoglucan, water dikinase (PWD) phosphorylates the
glucose molecule at the C-3 position. A loss of these enzymes, for example a loss of the GWD,
leads to a starch excess (sex) phenotype,[30] and because starch cannot be phosphorylated, it
accumulates in the plastids.

After the phosphorylation, the first degrading enzyme, beta-amylase (BAM) can attack the
glucose chain at its non-reducing end. Maltose is released as the main product of starch
degradation. If the glucose chain consists of three or fewer molecules, BAM cannot release
maltose. A second enzyme, disproportionating enzyme-1 (DPE1), combines two maltotriose
molecules. From this chain, a glucose molecule is released. Now, BAM can release another
maltose molecule from the remaining chain. This cycle repeats until starch is degraded
completely. If BAM comes close to the phosphorylated branching point of the glucose chain, it
can no longer release maltose. In order for the phosphorylated chain to be degraded, the enzyme
isoamylase (ISA) is required.[31]

The products of starch degradation are predominantly maltose[32] and smaller amounts of
glucose. These molecules are exported from the plastid to the cytosol, maltose via the maltose
transporter, which if mutated (MEX1-mutant) results in maltose accumulation in the plastid.[33]
Glucose is exported via the plastidic glucose translocator (pGlcT).[34] These two sugars act as a
precursor for sucrose synthesis. Sucrose can then be used in the oxidative pentose phosphate
pathway in the mitochondria, to generate ATP at night.[31]

Properties

Structure

Corn starch, 800x magnified, under polarized light, showing characteristic extinction cross

Rice starch seen on light microscope. Characteristic for the rice starch is that starch granules have an angular outline
and some of them are attached to each other and form larger granules

While amylose was thought to be completely unbranched, it is now known that some of its
molecules contain a few branch points.[35] Amylose is a much smaller molecule than
amylopectin. About one quarter of the mass of starch granules in plants consist of amylose,
although there are about 150 times more amylose than amylopectin molecules.

Starch molecules arrange themselves in the plant in semi-crystalline granules. Each plant
species has a unique starch granular size: rice starch is relatively small (about 2 μm) while
potato starches have larger granules (up to 100 μm).

Some cultivated plant varieties have pure amylopectin starch without amylose, known as waxy
starches. The most used is waxy maize, others are glutinous rice and waxy potato starch. Waxy
starches have less retrogradation, resulting in a more stable paste. High amylose starch,
amylomaize, is cultivated for the use of its gel strength and for use as a resistant starch (a
starch that resists digestion) in food products.

Synthetic amylose made from cellulose has a well-controlled degree of polymerization.

Therefore, it can be used as a potential drug deliver carrier.[26]

Dissolution and gelatinization

When being heated in abundant water, the granules of native starch swell and burst, the semi-
crystalline structure is lost, and the smaller amylose molecules start leaching out of the granule,
forming a network that holds water and increasing the mixture's viscosity. This process is called
starch gelatinization. The gelatinization temperature of starch varies depending on starch
cultivar, amylose/amylopectin content, and water content. Starch with water could experience
complex multiphase transitions during differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) temperature
scanning.[36] For starch with excess water, a single gelatinisation endotherm can be usually
observed in the low temperature range (54–73 °C).[36] By reducing the water content (<64%) in
starch, more endothermic transitions representing different structural changes can be seen
because they become separated and they will move to higher temperatures.[36][37] With limited
water content, the swelling forces will be much less significant, and the process of gelatinization
in a low moisture content environment could more accurately be defined as the “melting” of
starch.[38] Besides, the number of endotherms and enthalpies depended on
amylose/amylopectin ratio, and the gelatinisation enthalpy of the amylopectin-rich starch was
higher than that of the amylose-rich starch.[37] Specifically, waxy and normal maize starches
show a large gelatinization endotherm at about 70 °C; for normal maize starches, there was also
a second endotherm at about 90 °C, considered as the phase transition within an amylose–lipid
complex; In contrast, for high-amylose content starches (e.g. Gelose 50 and Gelose 80), there is
a very broad endotherm in the temperature range between 65 and 115 °C, which is composed of
the main gelatinization endotherm and the phase transition within an amylose–lipid complex.[37]

During cooking, the starch becomes a paste and increases further in viscosity. During cooling or
prolonged storage of the paste, the semi-crystalline structure partially recovers and the starch
paste thickens, expelling water. This is mainly caused by retrogradation of the amylose. This
process is responsible for the hardening of bread or staling, and for the water layer on top of a
starch gel (syneresis).

Certain starches, when mixed with water, will produce a non-Newtonian fluid sometimes
nicknamed "oobleck".

Starch can also be dissolved or undergo gelation in ionic liquids or metal chloride salt solutions.
The thermal transition of starch is largely influenced by the ratio of ionic liquid/water. Aqueous
ionic liquid with a certain ionic liquid/water ratio leads to the most effective structural
disorganisation of some starches at significantly reduced temperature (even at room
temperature).[39][40] This phenomenon is very different from the dissolution of cellulose, as the
latter occurs most efficiently in pure ionic liquids and any water contained in the ionic liquids will
hinder the dissolution significantly.[41] It is proposed that for starches with granule surface pores
(e.g. millet, waxy maize, normal maize and wheat starches), the corrosion by the aqueous IL
follows an inside-out pattern and the destruction to the granules is fast and even, whereas for
starches with a relatively smooth surface (e.g. high-amylose maize, potato, purple yam and pea
starches), the corrosion can only start from the surface and thus the change caused the
aqueous IL is slow.[42] Besides, starch, even high-amylose starch, can be fully dissolved by
aqueous metal chloride salts (e.g. ZnCl2, CaCl2, and MgCl2) at moderate temperature (≤50 °C),
and starch nanoparticles can form during this dissolution process.[43][44]

Hydrolysis

The enzymes that break down or hydrolyze starch into the constituent sugars are known as
amylases.

Alpha-amylases are found in plants and in animals. Human saliva is rich in amylase, and the
pancreas also secretes the enzyme. Individuals from populations with a high-starch diet tend to
have more amylase genes than those with low-starch diets;[45]

Beta-amylase cuts starch into maltose units. This process is important in the digestion of starch
and is also used in brewing, where amylase from the skin of seed grains is responsible for
converting starch to maltose (Malting, Mashing).[46][47]

Given a heat of combustion of glucose of 2,805 kilojoules per mole (670 kcal/mol) whereas that
of starch is 2,835 kJ (678 kcal)[2] per mole of glucose monomer, hydrolysis releases about 30 kJ
(7.2 kcal) per mole, or 166 J (40 cal) per gram of glucose product.

Dextrinization

If starch is subjected to dry heat, it breaks down to form dextrins, also called "pyrodextrins" in
this context. This break down process is known as dextrinization. (Pyro)dextrins are mainly
yellow to brown in color and dextrinization is partially responsible for the browning of toasted
bread.[48]

Chemical tests

Granules of wheat starch, stained with iodine, photographed through a light microscope

A triiodide (I3−) solution formed by mixing iodine and iodide (usually from potassium iodide) is
used to test for starch; a dark blue color indicates the presence of starch. The details of this
reaction are not fully known, but recent scientific work using single crystal x-ray crystallography
and comparative Raman spectroscopy suggests that the final starch-iodine structure is similar
to an infinite polyiodide chain like one found in a pyrroloperylene-iodine complex.[49] The
strength of the resulting blue color depends on the amount of amylose present. Waxy starches
with little or no amylose present will color red. Benedict's test and Fehling's test is also done to
indicate the presence of starch.

Starch indicator solution consisting of water, starch and iodide is often used in redox titrations:
in the presence of an oxidizing agent the solution turns blue, in the presence of reducing agent
the blue color disappears because triiodide (I3−) ions break up into three iodide ions,
disassembling the starch-iodine complex. Starch solution was used as indicator for visualizing
the periodic formation and consumption of triiodide intermediate in the Briggs-Rauscher
oscillating reaction. The starch, however, changes the kinetics of the reaction steps involving
triiodide ion.[50] A 0.3% w/w solution is the standard concentration for a starch indicator. It is
made by adding 3 grams of soluble starch to 1 liter of heated water; the solution is cooled
before use (starch-iodine complex becomes unstable at temperatures above 35 °C).

Each species of plant has a unique type of starch granules in granular size, shape and
crystallization pattern. Under the microscope, starch grains stained with iodine illuminated from
behind with polarized light show a distinctive Maltese cross effect (also known as extinction
cross and birefringence).

Food

Sago starch extraction from palm stems

Starch is the most common carbohydrate in the human diet and is contained in many staple
foods. The major sources of starch intake worldwide are the cereals (rice, wheat, and maize)
and the root vegetables (potatoes and cassava).[51] Many other starchy foods are grown, some
only in specific climates, including acorns, arrowroot, arracacha, bananas, barley, breadfruit,
buckwheat, canna, colocasia, katakuri, kudzu, malanga, millet, oats, oca, polynesian arrowroot,
sago, sorghum, sweet potatoes, rye, taro, chestnuts, water chestnuts and yams, and many kinds
of beans, such as favas, lentils, mung beans, peas, and chickpeas.

Widely used prepared foods containing starch are bread, pancakes, cereals, noodles, pasta,
porridge and tortilla.

Digestive enzymes have problems digesting crystalline structures. Raw starch is digested poorly
in the duodenum and small intestine, while bacterial degradation takes place mainly in the colon.
When starch is cooked, the digestibility is increased.

Starch gelatinization during cake baking can be impaired by sugar competing for water,
preventing gelatinization and improving texture.

Before the advent of processed foods, people consumed large amounts of uncooked and
unprocessed starch-containing plants, which contained high amounts of resistant starch.
Microbes within the large intestine fermented the starch, produced short-chain fatty acids, which
are used as energy, and support the maintenance and growth of the microbes. More highly
processed foods are more easily digested and release more glucose in the small intestine—less
starch reaches the large intestine and more energy is absorbed by the body. It is thought that
this shift in energy delivery (as a result of eating more processed foods) may be one of the
contributing factors to the development of metabolic disorders of modern life, including obesity
and diabetes.[52]

The amylose/amylopectin ratio, molecular weight and molecular fine structure influences the
physicochemical properties as well as energy release of different types of starches.[53] In
addition, cooking and food processing significantly impacts starch digestibility and energy
release. Starch can be classified as rapidly digestible, slowly digestible and resistant starch.[54]
Raw starch granules resist digestion by human enzymes and do not break down into glucose in
the small intestine - they reach the large intestine instead and function as prebiotic dietary
fiber.[55] When starch granules are fully gelatinized and cooked, the starch becomes easily
digestible and releases glucose quickly within the small intestine. When starchy foods are
cooked and cooled, some of the glucose chains re-crystallize and become resistant to digestion
again. Slowly digestible starch can be found in raw cereals, where digestion is slow but relatively
complete within the small intestine.[54]

Starch production
Glucose syrup

The starch industry extracts and refines starches from seeds, roots and tubers, by wet grinding,
washing, sieving and drying. Today, the main commercial refined starches are cornstarch,
tapioca, arrowroot,[56] and wheat, rice, and potato starches. To a lesser extent, sources of refined
starch are sweet potato, sago and mung bean. To this day, starch is extracted from more than 50
types of plants.

Untreated starch requires heat to thicken or gelatinize. When a starch is pre-cooked, it can then
be used to thicken instantly in cold water. This is referred to as a pregelatinized starch.

Starch sugars

Karo corn syrup advert 1917

Niagara corn starch advert 1880s

Pacific Laundry and Cooking Starch advert 1904

Starch can be hydrolyzed into simpler carbohydrates by acids, various enzymes, or a

combination of the two. The resulting fragments are known as dextrins. The extent of
conversion is typically quantified by dextrose equivalent (DE), which is roughly the fraction of the
glycosidic bonds in starch that have been broken.

These starch sugars are by far the most common starch based food ingredient and are used as
sweeteners in many drinks and foods. They include:
 Maltodextrin, a lightly hydrolyzed (DE 10–20) starch product used as a bland-tasting filler and
thickener.

Various glucose syrups (DE 30–70), also called corn syrups in the US, viscous solutions used
as sweeteners and thickeners in many kinds of processed foods.

Dextrose (DE 100), commercial glucose, prepared by the complete hydrolysis of starch.

High fructose syrup, made by treating dextrose solutions with the enzyme glucose isomerase,
until a substantial fraction of the glucose has been converted to fructose. In the U.S. high-
fructose corn syrup is significantly cheaper than sugar, and is the principal sweetener used in
processed foods and beverages.[57] Fructose also has better microbiological stability. One
kind of high fructose corn syrup, HFCS-55, is sweeter than sucrose because it is made with
more fructose, while the sweetness of HFCS-42 is on par with sucrose.[58][59]

Sugar alcohols, such as maltitol, erythritol, sorbitol, mannitol and hydrogenated starch
hydrolysate, are sweeteners made by reducing sugars.
Modified starches

A modified starch is a starch that has been chemically modified to allow the starch to function
properly under conditions frequently encountered during processing or storage, such as high
heat, high shear, low pH, freeze/thaw and cooling.

The modified food starches are E coded according to European Food Safety Authority and INS
coded Food Additives according to the Codex Alimentarius:[60]

1400 Dextrin

1401 Acid-treated starch

1402 Alkaline-treated starch

1403 Bleached starch

1404 Oxidized starch

1405 Starches, enzyme-treated

1410 Monostarch phosphate

1412 Distarch phosphate

1413 Phosphated distarch phosphate

1414 Acetylated distarch phosphate

 1420 Starch acetate

1422 Acetylated distarch adipate

1440 Hydroxypropyl starch

1442 Hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate

1443 Hydroxypropyl distarch glycerol

1450 Starch sodium octenyl succinate

1451 Acetylated oxidized starch

INS 1400, 1401, 1402, 1403 and 1405 are in the EU food ingredients without an E-number.[61]
Typical modified starches for technical applications are cationic starches, hydroxyethyl starch
and carboxymethylated starches.

Use as food additive

As an additive for food processing, food starches are typically used as thickeners and stabilizers
in foods such as puddings, custards, soups, sauces, gravies, pie fillings, and salad dressings,
and to make noodles and pastas. They function as thickeners, extenders, emulsion stabilizers
and are exceptional binders in processed meats.

Gummed sweets such as jelly beans and wine gums are not manufactured using a mold in the
conventional sense. A tray is filled with native starch and leveled. A positive mold is then
pressed into the starch leaving an impression of 1,000 or so jelly beans. The jelly mix is then
poured into the impressions and put onto a stove to set. This method greatly reduces the
number of molds that must be manufactured.

Use in pharmaceutical industry

In the pharmaceutical industry, starch is also used as an excipient, as tablet disintegrant, and as
binder.

Resistant starch

Resistant starch is starch that escapes digestion in the small intestine of healthy individuals.
High-amylose starch from corn has a higher gelatinization temperature than other types of
starch, and retains its resistant starch content through baking, mild extrusion and other food
processing techniques. It is used as an insoluble dietary fiber in processed foods such as bread,
pasta, cookies, crackers, pretzels and other low moisture foods. It is also utilized as a dietary
supplement for its health benefits. Published studies have shown that resistant starch helps to
improve insulin sensitivity,[62] increases satiety,[63] reduces pro-inflammatory biomarkers
interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha[64] and improves markers of colonic function.[65] It
has been suggested that resistant starch contributes to the health benefits of intact whole
grains.[66]

Non-food applications

Starch adhesive

Gentleman with starched ruff in 1560

Papermaking

Papermaking is the largest non-food application for starches globally, consuming many millions
of metric tons annually.[12] In a typical sheet of copy paper for instance, the starch content may
be as high as 8%. Both chemically modified and unmodified starches are used in papermaking.
In the wet part of the papermaking process, generally called the "wet-end", the starches used are
cationic and have a positive charge bound to the starch polymer. These starch derivatives
associate with the anionic or negatively charged paper fibers / cellulose and inorganic fillers.
Cationic starches together with other retention and internal sizing agents help to give the
necessary strength properties to the paper web formed in the papermaking process (wet
strength), and to provide strength to the final paper sheet (dry strength).

In the dry end of the papermaking process, the paper web is rewetted with a starch based
solution. The process is called surface sizing. Starches used have been chemically, or
enzymatically depolymerized at the paper mill or by the starch industry (oxidized starch). The
size/starch solutions are applied to the paper web by means of various mechanical presses
(size presses). Together with surface sizing agents the surface starches impart additional
strength to the paper web and additionally provide water hold out or "size" for superior printing
properties. Starch is also used in paper coatings as one of the binders for the coating
formulations which include a mixture of pigments, binders and thickeners. Coated paper has
improved smoothness, hardness, whiteness and gloss and thus improves printing
characteristics.

Corrugated board adhesives

Corrugated board adhesives are the next largest application of non-food starches globally.
Starch glues are mostly based on unmodified native starches, plus some additive such as borax
and caustic soda. Part of the starch is gelatinized to carry the slurry of uncooked starches and
prevent sedimentation. This opaque glue is called a SteinHall adhesive. The glue is applied on
tips of the fluting. The fluted paper is pressed to paper called liner. This is then dried under high
heat, which causes the rest of the uncooked starch in glue to swell/gelatinize. This gelatinizing
makes the glue a fast and strong adhesive for corrugated board production.

Clothing starch
Kingsford Oswego Starch advertising, 1885

Clothing or laundry starch is a liquid prepared by mixing a vegetable starch in water (earlier
preparations also had to be boiled), and is used in the laundering of clothes. Starch was widely
used in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries to stiffen the wide collars and ruffs of fine linen
which surrounded the necks of the well-to-do. During the 19th and early 20th century it was
stylish to stiffen the collars and sleeves of men's shirts and the ruffles of women's petticoats by
starching them before the clean clothes were ironed. Starch gave clothing smooth, crisp edges,
and had an additional practical purpose: dirt and sweat from a person's neck and wrists would
stick to the starch rather than to the fibers of the clothing. The dirt would wash away along with
the starch; after laundering, the starch would be reapplied. Starch is available in spray cans, in
addition to the usual granules to mix with water.

Bioplastic

Bioplastic § Starch-based plastics

Starch is an important natural polymer to make bioplastics. With water and plasticisers such as
glycerol, starch can be processed into so-called "thermoplastic starch" using conventional
polymer processing techniques such as extrusion, injection molding and compression
molding.[67] Since materials based on only native starch have poor processibility, mechanical
properties and stability, more commonly modified starches (e.g. hydroxypropyl starch) are used
and starch is combined with other polymers (preferably biodegradable polymers such as
polycaprolactone), as some commercial products (e.g. PLANTIC™ HP[68] and Mater-Bi®[69])
available on the market.
Rice starch for ironing

Other

Another large non-food starch application is in the construction industry, where starch is used in
the gypsum wall board manufacturing process. Chemically modified or unmodified starches are
added to the stucco containing primarily gypsum. Top and bottom heavyweight sheets of paper
are applied to the formulation, and the process is allowed to heat and cure to form the eventual
rigid wall board. The starches act as a glue for the cured gypsum rock with the paper covering,
and also provide rigidity to the board.

Starch is used in the manufacture of various adhesives or glues[70] for book-binding, wallpaper
adhesives, paper sack production, tube winding, gummed paper, envelope adhesives, school
glues and bottle labeling. Starch derivatives, such as yellow dextrins, can be modified by addition
of some chemicals to form a hard glue for paper work; some of those forms use borax or soda
ash, which are mixed with the starch solution at 50–70 °C (122–158 °F) to create a very good
adhesive. Sodium silicate can be added to reinforce these formula.

Textile chemicals from starch: warp sizing agents are used to reduce breaking of yarns during
weaving. Starch is mainly used to size cotton based yarns. Modified starch is also used as
textile printing thickener.

In oil exploration, starch is used to adjust the viscosity of drilling fluid, which is used to
lubricate the drill head and suspend the grinding residue in petroleum extraction.
 Starch is also used to make some packing peanuts, and some drop ceiling tiles.

In the printing industry, food grade starch[71] is used in the manufacture of anti-set-off spray
powder used to separate printed sheets of paper to avoid wet ink being set off.

For body powder, powdered corn starch is used as a substitute for talcum powder, and
similarly in other health and beauty products.

Starch is used to produce various bioplastics, synthetic polymers that are biodegradable. An
example is polylactic acid based on glucose from starch.

Glucose from starch can be further fermented to biofuel corn ethanol using the so-called wet
milling process. Today most bioethanol production plants use the dry milling process to
ferment corn or other feedstock directly to ethanol.[72]

Hydrogen production could use glucose from starch as the raw material, using enzymes.[73]

Occupational safety and health

In the US the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit
(Permissible exposure limit) for starch exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure
and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit (REL) of
10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.[74]

See also

Acrylamide, which is present in fried and baked foods

Destarch

Starch analysis

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