3D Printable Concrete Using MSW Incinerated Ash

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Rapid industrialization and urbanization with the growth of the human
population is increasing the global production of solid waste each year. According to a
World Bank report, 2.01 billion tonnes of solid waste is generated annually in the
municipal areas of the world whereas global waste production is expected to be 3.40
billion tonnes by 2050. Solid waste management (SWM) is an integral part of an
environmental management system. The sustainability based on the “reduce”, “reuse”,
and “recycle” (3R) principles. The situation is equally alarming in rural areas where
there is a dearth of scientific waste management strategies, especially in the context of
underdeveloped and developing countries. Solid waste production has a significant
global footprint and high management costs. It is intricately associated with air, soil, and
water pollution. Poor management of municipal waste produces adverse effects on the
health of the local people and environment.

Waste management strategies consist of source reduction, collection, recycling,

composting, incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, and land filling but these strategies
vary worldwide. Land filling is the most common waste disposal route adopted globally
because of its convenience of execution. The priority of a sustainable solid waste
management program is to shift from traditional waste dumps that are cost-intensive
and hazardous to the environment towards proper waste management systems that
retain useful resources within the economy. Environmental issues stemming from solid
waste generation are often neglected during industrial and economic development. It
involves the dumping of municipal solid waste at a site but this is detrimental to the
environment. It pollutes soil, freshwater, ground water, and air and increases
greenhouse gas emissions. Incineration is the process of burning MSW with adequate
oxygen supply to produce heat and ash residues. The life cycle assessment studies of
waste management strategies report that the environmental and social impacts of land
filling are more detrimental than those of waste incineration. The greenhouse gas
emissions are lower in waste incineration processes than in land filling and the heat
energy produced during waste incineration can be used for power generation. The
problems associated with waste incineration are emission of pollutant gases and
production of ash. New technologies have been developed to reduce the air pollutants
from incineration plants. The wide use of waste incineration is generating a huge
amount of ash. The different areas of application of incineration ash that have been
verified to be environmentally safe are construction, geotechnical, renewable energy
and ceramic products.

Printing of concrete is an emerging method of constructing three-dimensional

structures. The applications in the field of concrete 3D printing regarded as a new
digital construction paradigm. Concrete is deposited layer by layer along a predefined
geometrical path. 3D model of a structure is made in CAD software, and is then sliced
into layers and a G-code is created for 3D printing. The movement of the print head
along the predefined path is controlled by the code and meanwhile concrete is pumped
to the print head through a hose and it is extruded through the nozzle, and vertical
buildability is achieved by printing layer upon layer.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Atta Ur Rehman, Sang - Min Lee, Jung-Hoon Kim (2020), developed a method that is
to recycle MSW incinerated ash in the development of 3D printable concrete. Printable
concrete containing MSW incineration ash fulfils the rheological requirements of
extrusion and show higher early compressive strength and sufficient shear strength.
Then different formulations containing incineration ash were studied in order to
evaluate the applicability of ash in 3Dconcrete printing. Workability, open time,
buildability, interface bond strength and compressive strength of concrete was
measured to know the effect of adding MSW incineration ash on fresh and hardened
properties of 3D printed concrete.

Jolien Van Der Putten, Maxim Deprez, Veerle Cnudde, Geert De Schutter, Kim Van
Tittelboom (2019), an experimental study on the relationship between 3DCP process
parameters and the formed microstructure. The effect of two different process
parameters (printing speed and inter-layer time) on the microstructure was established
for fresh and hardened states. The individual process parameters will affect not only the
structural behaviour of the material, but they will also affect the durability and
consequently the resistance against aggressive chemical substances.

Buswell et al (2018), Tay et al (2017), Jeon et al (2013), discussed that, Printing of

concrete is an emerging method of constructing three-dimensional structures. In this
process, concrete is deposited layer by layer along a predefined geometrical path. 3D
model of a structure is made in CAD software, and is then sliced into layers and a G-code
is created for 3D printing. The movement of the print head along the predefined path is
controlled by the code and meanwhile concrete is pumped to the print head through a
hose and it is extruded through the nozzle, and vertical buildability is achieved by
printing layer upon layer.

Hui-Shi, Li-Li Kan (2009), discussed about the the characteristics of municipal solid
waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash, surface leaching toxicity and successive leaching
concentration of heavy metals from MSWI fly ash-cement hardened pastes. And also the
relationships between leaching concentrations of heavy metals and leaching time.
Experimental results showed that immobilization effect of cement on MSWI fly ash is
good. The leaching concentration of heavy metals and leaching time has strong positive
relationships. Reusing of MSWI fly ash as partial replacement for cement in concrete
mixes is potentially feasible.

An Cheng (2012), investigation on the effect of incinerator bottom ash (IBA) fineness
and the cooled process of molten IBA on fresh mortar properties and compressive
strength, shrinkage, alkali-aggregate reaction, and pore size distribution of hardened
mortars. Incinerator bottom ash caused a reduction in compressive strength, unit
weight, and flowability values when used as a replacement for sand and cement. IBA can
be processed by melting to regain reactive pozzolanic activity, which may be used to
partially replace cement.

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CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Two different municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration ashes (fly ash and
bottom ash) were used to develop a concrete having rheological and hardened
requirements of concrete used in 3D printing. Waste incinerator ashes were added as a
substitute of ordinary Portland cement in concrete mix proportions. Flow table test and
Gilmore needle test were used to measure the flow and setting time of concrete,
respectively. Yield stress was measured by shear vane test. The buildability of ash
containing printable concrete was simulated by comparing the vertical stresses due to
the printing of concrete layers with the increase in the strength of the first stacked
layer. Workability, open time, and buildability of the mix proportions were related to
yield stress. The effect of adding waste incinerator ash upon the compressive strength
was measured. The bond strength between layers at different printing time gaps was
evaluated using bi-surface direct shear test.

3.1 MATERIAL USED

Ordinary Portland cement, fine aggregate, incineration ash, 6 mm nylon fibers,

and high performance superplasticizer were used in the development of 3D printable
concrete. The physical properties of these components are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Physical properties of materials used.

Materials Physical properties

Cement Ordinary Portland Cement, Type 1
Specific gravity : 3.6
Fineness : 3214 cm2/g
Ignition loss : 0.78%

Silica sand Specific gravity : 2.65

Grading : 0.1 ̴ 0.6 mm

Superplasticizer Polycarboxylate superplasticizer

Viscous brown liquid form

Nylon fiber Nylon fiber

Length : 6 mm
Aspect ratio : 30

The water-binder ratio and binder-fine aggregate ratio was 0.40 and0.66, respectively.
The dosage of superplasticizer and nylon fibers was 2% and 0.14 % of binder weight,
respectively. Nylon fibers were added to restrain shrinkage strains at early ages. 0%,
5%, 7.5 %, 10 %, and 15% of cement weight was replaced with incinerated fly ash and

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bottom ash. Bottom ash particles were sieved through mesh openings of 2 mm before
using for study. Waste incineration ashes collected from different waste sources can
have different properties, therefore, microstructural characterization of waste
incineration ash was conducted. Laser diffraction particle size analysis was used to
study the particle size of incineration ashes. This method is used for measurement of
the particle size distribution ranging from nanometer (nm) to millimeter (mm). The
instrument used was a Beckman Coulter, LS 13 320 Laser Diffraction Particle Size
Analyzer. A Bruker D8 Advance X-Ray Diffractometer was used to detect different
phases present in the incinerated ashes. The material’s proportions are shown in Table
2.

Table 2: Mix proportion for waste incineration ashes.

Mix Ash (% of Weight (kg/m3)

binder weight
OPC Sand Water MSW Ash SP Fiber
Plain 0 812 1218 324.8 0 16.24 1.2
WFA05 05 771.4 1218 324.8 40.6 16.24 1.2
WFA7.5 7.5 751.1 1218 324.8 60.9 16.24 1.2
WFA10 10 730.8 1218 324.8 81.2 16.24 1.2
WFA15 15 690.2 1218 324.8 121.8 16.24 1.2
WBA05 05 771.4 1218 324.8 40.6 16.24 1.2
WBA7. 7.5 751.1 1218 324.8 60.9 16.24 1.2
5
WBA10 10 730.8 1218 324.8 81.2 16.24 1.2
WBA15 15 690.2 1218 324.8 121.8 16.24 1.2

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CHAPTER 4
TEST METHODS
Concrete is tested to ensure that the material that was specified and bought is
the same material delivered to the job site. The potential strength and durability of
concrete of a given mix proportion is very dependent on the degree of its compaction. It
is vital, therefore, that the consistency of the mix be such that the concrete can be
transported, placed and finished sufficiently early enough to attain the expected
strength and durability. The first 48 hours are very important for the performance of
the concrete structure. Waste incinerator ashes as a substitute of ordinary Portland
cement in concrete have different results in concrete. So many areas of application of
incineration ash that have been verified to be environmentally safe are construction,
geotechnical-cal, renewable energy and ceramic products. Concrete containing MSW
incinerator ash has been recycled to produce granular material which can be used in the
construction of embankments. Waste incineration ashes collected from different waste
sources can have different properties, therefore, microstructural characterization of
waste incineration ash is very important. Laser diffraction particle size analysis was
used to study the particle size of incineration ashes.

4.1. MICROSTRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION

Microstructural characterization is usually achieved by allowing some form of

probe to interact with a carefully prepared specimen. The most commonly used probes
are visible light, X-ray radiation, a high-energy electron beam, or a sharp, flexible
needle. The microstructure of a material (such as metals, polymers, ceramics or
composites) can strongly influence physical properties such as strength, toughness,
ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance, high/low temperature behaviour or wear
resistance. Direct characterization and indirect characterization are the two different
approaches of microstructural characterization. Microstructural characterizations of
MSW fly ash and MSW bottom ash are shown in Figure 1 and 2.

Fig. 1: Microstructural characterizations of MSW fly ash.

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Fig. 2: Microstructural characterizations of MSW bottom ash.

4.2 LASER DIFFRACTION PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS

Laser diffraction measures particle size distributions by measuring the angular

variation in intensity of light scattered as a laser beam passes through a dispersed
particulate sample. The particle size is reported as a volume equivalent
sphere diameter. It is a widely used particle sizing technology for material ranging from
hundreds of nanometers up to several millimeters. XRD analysis, by way of the study of
the crystal structure, is used to identify the crystalline phases present in a material and
thereby reveal chemical composition information. The instrument used was a Beckman
Coulter, LS 13 320 Laser Diffraction Particle Size Analyzer (Figure 3). A Bruker D8
Advance X-Ray Diffractometer was used to detect different phases present in the
incinerated ashes (Figure 4).

Fig. 3: Laser Diffraction Particle Size Analyze. Fig. 4: X-Ray Diffractometer.

4.3 FRESH CONCRETE TESTS

When concrete is its plastic state it is known as fresh concrete. Fresh

concrete can be easily moulded to a durable structural member. The elastic properties
of materials are the measurement of their resistance to deformation under an applied
load. Strength usually refers to the maximum stress that a given kind of sample can

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carry. Understanding this properties and how they are measured essential for anyone
wishing to use materials.

4.3.1 Flow Table Test

The flow table test or flow test is a method to determine consistency of

fresh concrete. Prepare concrete as per mix design and place the flow table on a
horizontal surface. Flow table test of concrete also determines the quality of concrete
concerning its workability, cohesiveness and the proneness to segregation. When fresh
concrete is delivered to a site by a truck mixer, its consistency needs to be checked
before it is poured into formwork. If consistency is not at the desired level, concrete will
not have the required strength and other qualities once it has set. If concrete is too
pasty, cavities may form within it. Rebar may become corroded, and concrete will crack.
Cavities also reduce the concrete strength.

4.3.1.1 Apparatus

Flow table made of metal having thickness 1.5mm and dimensions 750mm x
750mm, tamping rod made of hardwood having diameter 20mm , Scoop, Centimeter
Scale, Metal Cone or mould having lower diameter 100mm, upper diameter 70mm and
height is 50mm. The middle portion of flow table is marked with a concentric circle of
diameter 200mm to place a metal cone on it. A lift handle is provided at the outer
surface of cone. The flow table is shown in Figure 5.

Fig. 5: Flow Table Apparatus.

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4.3.1.2 Procedure

• Prepare concrete as per mix design and place the flow table on a horizontal surface.
• Clean the dust or other gritty material on Flow table and sprinkle a hand of water on
it.
• Now place the metal cone at the middle portion of the flow table and stand on it.
• Pour the freshly mixed concrete in the mould comprising two layers (Figure 6)
• Each layer should be tamped with tamping rod for 25times. After tamping the last
layer, the overflowed concrete on the cone is struck off using a trowel.
• Slowly, lift the mould vertically up & let concrete stand on its own without any
support.
• The flow table is raised at the height of 12.5mm and dropped. The same is repeated
for 25 times in 15secs.
• Measure the spread of concrete in Diameter using centimetre scale horizontally and
vertically (Figure 7).
• The diameter of the spread concrete is the average of six symmetrically distributed
Caliper measurements read to the nearest 5 mm.

Fig. 6: Concrete filled in the metal cone.

Fig. 7: Spread of concrete.

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4.3.2 Setting Time Test

Setting time is the time required for stiffening of cement paste to a defined
consistency. The setting time of cement includes the initial setting time and the final
setting time. The initial time refers to the time that cement turns into paste by mixing
with water and begins to lose its plasticity. And the time that cement completely loses
its plasticity by mixing with water and begins to have a certain structural strength is
known as the final setting time. The setting time of cement is very important in the
construction projects. The initial setting time should not be too fast in order to ensure
that there is enough time to complete every process, such as casting, before the initial
setting time; and the final setting time should not be too late in order to enable the
cement to complete its setting and hardening as soon as possible after pouring and
tamping to make the next process occur earlier. Theoretically, Initial setting time of
concrete is the period between addition of water to cement till the time a 1mm square
section needle fails to penetrate the cement pate, placed in the Vicat’s mould 5mm to
7mmm from the of the mould. Final setting time is the time period between the time
water is added to cement and the time at which 1 mm needle makes an impression on
the paste in the mould but 5mm attachment does not makes any impression

4.3.2.1 Apparatus

Gillmore Needle Apparatus is used to determine initial and final set times of
Portland cement (Figure 8). The adjustable support has horizontal arms to guide two
weighted needles with flat-end cylindrical stainless steel tips. The base has an ample flat
shelf for positioning specimens. In testing the moulded specimen for the time of setting,
the initial-set needle has 113.4g weight and 2.12mm diameter. For final-set needle have
453.6g weight and 1.06mm diameter. The glass plate is needed for placing the sample.
Features Gillmore apparatus are:-

• Meets several ASTM and AASHTO test methods for set-time testing
• Includes initial and final-set needles
• Large base to position specimens

Fig. 8: Gillmore Needle Apparatus

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4.3.2.2 Procedure

• Prepare concrete as per mix design (Figure 9)

• Mould the paste into a truncated cone according to the specified dimensions
• Leave the sample for 30 min
• After 30 min the sample is ready for testing
• Ensure that the tip of the needle should touch the surface of the sample taken for the
test (Figure 10)
• The needles were cylindrical with a plane cross-section at the end.
• Setting time is determined by placing a needle carefully on the surface of concrete
which is put on a glass plate.
• In order to measuring the initial setting time, the tip of the needle should not touches
the surface of the sample taken for the test
• If the tip of the needle touches the surface of the glass plate where sample is taken,
wait for another 15 minutes and test again
• Repeat the test every 15 minutes until the tip of the needle no longer reaches the
surface of the plate where sample is taken
• If the tip of the needle no longer reaches the surface, record the initial setting time of
sample
• Repeat the procedure for the final setting time, when needle until the same point no
longer reaches the surface
• Take and record the initial and final setting time

Fig. 9: Making of specimen

Fig. 10: Testing of specimen

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4.3.3 Yield Stress Test

Stress and strain are directly related to each other: as one increases, the other
increases as well. So, the more stress that an object experiences, the more it deforms
until the object fails. All objects will begin experiencing elastic deformation at first, but
once the stress on the object exceeds a certain amount, it will experience plastic
deformation. When that switch happens, the object has reached its yield stress.
Typically, every material has the same stress-strain relationship, though the size of each
portion may be different. Elastic deformation is linear. The slope of the line is
dependent on the material the object is made out of. Plastic deformation is not linear,
making it more difficult to model. Some material also has a yield point, a point where
there is a sharp increase in the object's strain that does not correlate with an increase in
stress. The yield point happens after an object has reached its yield stress.

4.3.3.1 Apparatus

The shear vane test is a method of measuring the undrained shear strength. A
hand held shear vane tester was used to measure the yield stress of concrete. This
instrument is commonly used for the evaluation of the shear strength of cohesive soils
in the field by measuring the maximum torque of the vane’s rotation inserted into the
material. The tester consists of a vane and torque head, in which gradations and pointer
are displayed. The size of the shear vane was 90mm × 67 mm. The shear vane apparatus
and shear vane testers are shown in Figure 11 and 12.

Fig. 11: Shear Vane tester Fig. 12: Shear Vanes

4.3.3.2 Procedure

• Prepare concrete as per mix design for determine the yield stress of concrete
• After mixing the concrete, its filled in a mould
• The shear vane was positioned to be vertical with the surface of the 3D printing
concrete and carefully inserted into the sample to avoid excessive lateral movement.
• The torque head was held by one hand without concealing the pointer and rotated
slowly at a rate of one rotation per min constantly.
• The pointer registered the maximum deflection required to shear concrete.

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Yield stress,

Where, M = torque to shear ( Nm)

K = Constant ( 0.0195 )
D = Diameter
H =Height

• The experiment conducted with a total of six time gaps (0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 min)
• In order to prevent agitation of the samples, six containers with a diameter of 300
mm and a height of330 mm were used.
• After the six containers were filled with 3D printing concrete up to 120 mm depth
• The yield stress was measured at three different points in the bucket.
• Calibration of the vane size was performed according to the recommendations of
British Standard Institution.

Fig. 13: Shear Vane testing

4.4 HARDENED CONCRETE TESTS

Hardened concrete is a concrete which must be strong enough to withstand the

structural and service loads which will be applied to it and must be durable enough to
the environmental exposure for which it is designed. Hardened concrete has a number
of properties such as mechanical strength, durability, fire resistance, impact resistance,
porosity and density, thermal and acoustic properties etc. The strength of normal
concrete varies between 25 and 40 MPa. Above 50 MPa, the term High Performance
Concrete is used. Concrete is extremely resistant to the physico-chemical attack
emanating from the environment (frost, rain atmospheric pollution, etc...) It is
particularly well-suited for structures exposed to demanding and extreme conditions.
The denser (or the less porous) the concrete the better its performance and the greater

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its durability. The density of concrete is increased by optimizing the dimensions and
packing of the aggregate and reducing the water content.

4.4.1 Compressive Strength Test

Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or

structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to which withstands
loads tending to elongate. In other words, compressive strength resists being pushed
together, whereas tensile strength resists tension (being pulled apart). In the study
of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, and shear strength can
be analyzed independently. The compressive strength of concrete is given in terms of
the characteristic compressive strength of 150mm size cubes tested at 28 days (f ck) as
per Indian Standards (ACI standards use cylinder of diameter 150mm and height
300mm). The characteristics strength is defined as the strength of the concrete below
which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall. The normal distribution
curve on test specimens for determining compressive strength is shown in Figure 14.

Fig. 14: The normal distribution curve on test specimens for determining compressive strength.

The compressive strength of the concrete cube test provides an idea about all the
characteristics of concrete. By this single test one judge that whether Concreting has
been done properly or not. A concrete cube test or concrete cylinder test is generally
carried out to assess the strength of concrete after 7 days, 14 days or 28 days of casting.

Concrete is a mixture of sand, cement, and aggregate. The strength of the

concrete depends upon many factors like individual compressive strength of its
constituents (Cement, Sand, aggregate), quality of materials used, air entrainment mix
proportions, water-cement ratio, curing methods and temperature effects. Compressive
strength gives an idea of the overall strength and above-mentioned factors. So this test
gives an overall idea about these factors. Concrete gains maximum strength at 28days.
Since in construction sector great amount of capital is at stake, so instead of checking
strength at 28 days we can check strength in terms of concrete strength psi (pounds per
square inch) at 7 and 14 days to predict the target strength of construction work. The
percentages of strength of normal concrete mix in different days are shown in Table 3.

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Table 3: percentages of strength of normal concrete mix in different days.

Age in days Percentage of Strength

1 Days 16%
3 Days 40%
7 Days 65%
14 Days 90%
21 Days 94%
28 Days 99%

4.4.1.1 Apparatus

Testing Machine: The testing machine may be of any reliable type of sufficient
capacity for the tests and capable of applying the load at the specified rate. Compression
testing mould for making specimen

4.4.1.2 Procedure

• Prepare concrete as per mix design for testing compressive strength

• Place the prepared concrete mix in the cube mould having size 50 x 50 x 50mm for
casting
• The filling of concrete is by 3 layers and each layer is compacted for 35 times using
tamping rod having 16mm diameter and 600mm height
• The casting moulds are chosen to be made of cast iron and must be rubbed with
grease on inner side for easy removal of cubes.
• Once it sets, after 24 hours remove the concrete cube from the mould.
• The cube specimens were cured in a saturated limewater solution and were tested at
the age of 1, 3, 7, and 28 days, respectively
• Ensure that concrete specimen must be well dried before placing it on the testing
machine
• Testing specimens are placed in the space between bearing surfaces.
• The concrete cubes are placed on bearing plate and aligned properly with the centre
of thrust in the testing machine plates.

Fig. 15: Casting mould Fig. 16: Casted cubes

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Fig. 17: Testing Machine

4.4.2 Bond Strength Test

Bond strength can be defined as the resistance to slipping of the steel reinforcing bars
which are embedded in concrete. This resistance is provided by the friction and
adhesion between the concrete and steel friction between concrete and the lugs of
deformed bars. It is also affected by the shrinkage of concrete relative to the steel. Bond
involves not only the properties of concrete, but also mechanical properties of steel and
its position in the concrete member. For higher strengths of concrete, the increase in
bond strength becomes progressively smaller. In the initial stages of failure (slip) the
bond strength depends on the magnitude and uniformity of lateral pressure that exists
or may be developed between steel and surrounding concrete. Bond strength varies
considerably with the type of cement, admixtures and water cement ratio i.e., on quality
of paste. It is not affected by air entrainment.

The bond strength of concrete is a function of compressive strength and is

approximately proportional to the compressive strength up to 20 MPa. For
higher strength, the increase of bond strength is progressively smaller. The bond
strength of high-pressured steam-cured concrete is low. In terms of corrosion, bond
strength is most commonly used in reinforced concrete. It is a measure of the transfer of
load between the concrete and reinforcement. Bond strength is influenced by:

 Bar geometries
 Concrete properties
 Amount of confinement around the bar
 Surface conditions of the bar

A loss of bond between the concrete and reinforcement could lead to failure of the
structure. Effect of environmental corrosion on the bond between steel bars and
concrete, reports a considerable loss of bond strength. Bond strength is also reduced by
alternations of wetting and drying, freezing and thawing etc. The bond strength of
concrete can be evaluated by various methods such as pull-off test, splitting test, slant
shear test and bi – surface direct shear test.

Since 3D printed concrete has a layered structure, the interface b/w its layers
acts as weak point, affecting the mechanical properties of 3D printed concrete. Bi-

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surface direct shear test creates a shear state at the interface and it can successfully
characterize the bond strength b/w two layers. Bi-surface direct shear test was used to
measure the bond strength b/w two layers of concrete.

4.4.2.1 Apparatus

Bi – surface direct shear test apparatus is major instrument. Mould having size
150 x 150 x 150mm is required for casting the specimen for the test.

4.4.2.2 Procedure

• Prepare concrete as per mix design for testing compressive strength

• Place the prepared concrete mix in the cube mould having size 150 x 150 x 150mm
for casting and make 15 specimen
• The filling of concrete is by 3 layers and each layer is compacted for 35 times using
tamping rod having 16mm diameter and 600mm height
• The casting moulds are chosen to be made of cast iron and must be rubbed with
grease on inner side for easy removal of cubes.
• Once it sets, after 24 hours remove the concrete cube from the mould.
• The cube specimens were cured in a saturated limewater solution for 7 days
• The shear bond strength was measured with five time gaps:0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min
• A total of 15 specimens were fabricated for each mix proportion: three specimens for
each time gap. After pouring first layer (100 mm), the second layer (50 mm) was
casted after 0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min, respectively.
• 0 min represents the filling of concrete in a mould as a single unit without layers.
• Two steel plates were located at the lower surface of the specimen and one steel
plate was positioned in the centre of the upper surface of the specimen. The upper
and lower plates were moved with compression equipment to evaluate the bond
strength b/w layers. The test setup is shown in Figure 18.

Fig. 18: Test setup bond strength test

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CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 MICROSTRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF MSW INCINERATED ASHES

Incinerated fly ash had finer particles than bottom ash (Figure 19). The average
particle sizes observed for incinerated fly ash and bottom ash were 29.2µm and 732µm
respectively. The median particle sizes of incinerated fly ash and bottom ash were
19.1µm and 626.2µm respectively. In the incinerated fly ash and bottom ash, 90 % of
particles had diameter of less than 71.5µm and 1598µm, respectively. Specific gravities
of incinerated fly ash and bottom ash were 1.89 and 1.76, respectively. Crystalline
phases detected in incinerated ashes were portlandite (Ca(OH)2, anhydrite (CaSO4),
quartz(SiO2), sylvite (KCl), gehlenite (Ca2Al(AlSiO7), calcite (CaCO3), alite(Ca3SiO5),
mullite (3Al2O3.2SiO2), periclase (MgO), halite (NaCl)and belite (Ca2SiO4). The hump
around 20o in the XRD pattern of incinerated fly ash indicates amorphous silica, which is
reactive (Figure 20). Alite is a reactive crystalline phase and it reduces the setting time
of cement and increases the rate of early strength gain of concrete whereas belite
contributes to strength development at later ages. Anhydrite effects the hydration of
cement, quartz acts as a filler, calcite can stabilize ettringite whereas gehlenite and
periclase are carbonatable minerals.

Fig. 19: Particle size distribution of MSW incinerated ashes (a) fly ash, (b) bottom ash.

Fig. 20: XRD patterns: (a) waste incinerated fly ash (WFA), (b) waste incinerated bottom ash
(WBA) (Legends: P = portlandite, N = anhydrite, Q = quartz, K = sylvite, G =gehlenite, C = calcite A =
alite, M = mullite, r = periclase, H = halite, B = belite.

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5.2 FLOW TABLE TEST

The flow of the concrete is the percentage increase in diameter of spread

concrete over the base diameter of the moulded concrete. The workability of concrete
decreased with increasing amounts of incinerated fly ash and bottom ash. The effect
was more prominent in fly ash compared to bottom ash. The changes in flow table test
results with the addition of incinerated fly ash and bottom ash are shown in Figure 21.

Fig. 21: Variation of flow with the addition of ashes: (a) waste incinerated fly ash (WFA) (b) waste
incinerated bottom ash (WBA).

The noticeable effect of fly ash on flow table spread compared to bottom ash can be
attributed to smaller particle size of incinerated fly ash. Reduced spread of concrete due
to the presence of incinerated ash can be beneficial for shape retention of extruded
concrete from printing nozzle.

Fig. 22: Variation of flow with addition of cement (conventional concrete mix)

The workability of concrete is characterized by using the rheological properties. The

close spacing of the aggregates within the mixture suggests segregation of the
aggregates within the mixture and this also corresponds with the poor workability of

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the concrete. The mechanisms behind the decrease in workability are due to
characteristics of particles. The incineration fly ash was more effective in workability
and will ensure the ability to maintain the shape of concrete after extrusion and will be
helpful for obtaining a rapid construction rate.

5.3 SETTING TIME TEST

A decrease in the setting time with the increased dosage of incineration ashes is
visible. The changes in setting time with the addition of incinerated fly ash and bottom
ash is shown in Figure 23. The reduction in setting time with the increased inclusion of
incinerated waste ashes shown in Figure 24.

Fig. 23: Variation of setting time with the addition of ashes: (a) waste incinerated fly ash (WFA) (b)
waste incinerated bottom ash.

Fig. 24: Reduction of setting time per replacement ratio of ashes: (a) waste incinerated fly ash
(WFA) (b) waste incinerated bottom ash.

The effect of incinerated fly ash upon the set-ting time was more prominent than that of
incinerated bottom ash due to the two reasons: the presence of alite in fly ash and finer
particles of fly ash. XRD of incinerated fly ash showed the presence of alite, which can
increase the early hydration of a cement and consequently reduce the setting time of
concrete. Secondly, finer particles are more reactive than coarse particles. Fine particles
of incinerated fly ash performed better than coarse particles of incinerated bottom ash.

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These results suggest that incinerated fly ash can be used as an accelerator to reduce
the setting time of 3D printing concrete and increase the buildability of concrete.

In case of cement concrete, the cement is mixed with water, the surfaces of
cement particles react with water immediately and the generated colloidal hydrated
products gather on the surfaces to slow down the chemical reactions and render the
cement paste with plasticity. Hydrated products can dissolve in water immediately and
new surfaces of cement particles appear. Then hydration continues. The generated
colloidal hydrated products increase continuously and form a loose mesh structure by
contacting with some points which make the paste lose mobility and plasticity, known
as setting of cement. The national standards prescribe that the initial setting time of
Portland cement should not be earlier than 45 minutes and the final setting time should
not be later than 6.5 hours. All the products off-grade at the initial setting time are
spoiled products and those unqualified at the final setting time are sub-quality products.
The setting time of cement is very important in the construction projects. The initial
setting time should not be too fast in order to ensure that there is enough time to
complete every process, such as casting, before the initial setting time and the final
setting time should not be too late in order to enable the cement to complete its setting
and hardening as soon as possible after pouring and tamping to make the next process
occur earlier.

But incinerated ash has different properties over cement. It will be finally
confirmed that replacing cement with incinerated fly ash increases the construction
speed of concrete 3Dprinting. The incineration fly ash was more effective in reducing
the setting time of 3D concrete printing. The use of incinerator fly ash will ensure the
ability to maintain the shape of concrete after extrusion and will be helpful for obtaining
a rapid construction rate.

5.3 YIELD STRESS TEST

A shear vane test was used to measure the yield stress at six different time
periods (0, 15, 30, 45, 60, and 90 min) for three different replacement ratios (5, 7.5, and
10 %) of waste incinerated fly ash in concrete. In order to prevent confusion of
specimens during measurement, six buckets were prepared from each mix proportion,
one for each time period, and were marked with the corresponding time interval. The
results for mix proportions at different time intervals are shown in Table 4.

Table 4: mix proportions at different time intervals.

Mix Time Gap (min)

0 15 30 45 60 90
WFA05 0.128 0.504 0.974 1.085 1.270 2.145
WFA7.5 0.183 0.826 1.465 2.014 2.380 2.964
WFA10 0.536 1.085 2.127 2.333 2.671 3.618

With the passage of time, the yield stress of all mix proportions increased. Initially, the
increase in yield stress is considered linear over time. The variation of yield stress with
time and increasing the replacement ratio of cement with incinerator fly ash increased
the evolution of yield stress of concrete initially are shown in Figure 25.

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Fig. 25: Development of yield stress with time and open time zone.

The evolution of yield stress is linear for a certain period of time. However, the
measurements of yield stress obtained in this study show a linear increase in yield
stress. The increase in yield stress with time is due to two different phenomena:
colloidal inter-action of cement particles to produce flocs and nucleation of cement
grains due to the production of calcium silicate hydrate gels. This is consistent with the
results of the flow table and setting time tests, which displayed a decrease in
workability and setting time, respectively, as the replacement ratio of incinerator fly ash
increased. These results suggest that incinerator fly ash can be used to accelerate the
development of yield stress when the yield stress of a concrete is low and the ability to
maintain the shape of the printed layer is not secured. An optimum mix design for
printing concrete and printed a 3D concrete bench. Results of the study showed that
0.55 kPa was the optimal value of yield stress for concrete 3D printing and a suitable
range of yield stress for extrudable concrete was 0.3∼0.9 kPa. A mix with yield stress in
this range would be smoothly pumped and extruded through the nozzle of the concrete
3D printer. Mix proportions with lower yield stress would not be able to support the
self-weight and load of layers printed upon it, resulting in collapse of the printed
structure. If the yield stress is higher, then the mix will be stiff and the pumping
pressure will be high. Open time in concrete 3D printing is the time period during which
concrete is pumpable and extrudable. Optimal yield stress and sufficient opentime are
required for efficient concrete 3D printing. 10 % replacement of cement with waste
incinerated fly ash produced the most appropriate value of initial yield stress, but the
opentime was 10 min, which was shortest among the mix proportions (Figure 25). On
the other hand, the initial yield stress of mix proportions with5% and 7.5 %
replacement ratios did not satisfy the specified values, but their open time was 28 and
17 min, respectively, which were longer time periods than that of the 10 % replacement
ratio. Concrete 3D printing should be performed within the corresponding opentime
after contact of water with incinerator ash containing cement. If open time is exceeded
then concrete will be stiff due to structuration and cement hydration, it can block the
hose and nozzles.

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5.4 BUILDABILITY

Buildability is the ability of the extruded concrete layer to support self-weight

and weight of layers built over it without deformation. The extruded layers should be
stacked at the designed locations precisely and next layer should be laid before the
previous layer is hardened to get a strong bond b/w layers. The underlying layer should
develop enough green strength due to structuration and cement hydration to withstand
the loads of the layers stacked on top of it. If the lower layers cannot endure the loads of
overhead deposited layers, the printed structure will become unbalanced and will
collapse. If the time gap b/w the printing of two layers is large, then the former printed
layer will become hardened and the bond with the new layer will be weakened. The
vertical stress due to the increasing material load was obtained from the product of the
specific weight of the fresh concrete with the stacked height per hour. The results of the
buildability simulation are shown Figure 26, 27 and 28.

Fig. 26: Investigation of buildability of concrete with 5% WFA.

Fig. 27: Investigation of buildability of concrete with 7.5 % WFA.

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Fig. 28: Investigation of buildability of concrete with 10 % WFA.

The thick lines shown in the figures indicate the increase of the material strength over
time. The three straight dotted lines show different construction rates. The lines having
the maximum slope value among the dotted lines but not intersecting the thick line
show the maximum possible construction speed for concrete mixes containing
incinerated fly ash. The mix proportion with 5%replacement of cement with fly ash can
provide the maximum construction rate of 16 cm/h for 3D printing. The construction
rate of concrete 3D printing increases with increase in replacement ratio of incinerated
fly ash.

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

The compressive strength results at 1, 3, 7, and 28days of age at a w/b ratio of

0.40 with different replacement ratios of cement with waste incineration fly ash and
bottom ash is shown in figure. When incinerator bottom ash was used, both early and
late strengths decreased. The reduction in strength of conventional concrete is due to
the addition of incinerator bottom ash. After 1 day of casting the incinerator fly ash was
replaced by 5% and 7.5 %, the compressive strength increases to 21 % and 54%. Except
for 15 % replacement, the slight increase in strength at the ages of 1 and 3 day indicates
that incinerator fly ash is helpful in securing high early strength in 3D printable
concrete. The better behavior of incinerated fly ash compared to bottom ash in terms of
compressive strength is due to the pozzolanic activity of amorphous silica present in fly
ash an dfilling effect by very fine powders of fly ash.

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Fig. 29: Variation of compressive strength with the addition of ashes: (a) waste incinerated fly ash
(WFA) (b) waste incinerated bottom ash.

5.5 BOND STRENGTH BETWEEN LAYERS

The transition of the failure mode from bi-surface when concrete was casted as a
single unit to failure at interface b/w layers with an increase of time gap. The failure
mode in concrete casted without a time gap and with a time gap of 30 min is shown in
Figure 30 and the variation in shear bond strength at different time gaps (0, 15, 30, 45,
and 60 min) is shown in Figure 31.

Fig. 30: Failure mode of concrete in bi-surface direct shear test: (left) w/o time gap, (right) with 30
min time gap.

Fig. 31: Results of shear bond strength test at different time gaps.

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The 0 min time gap represents the continuous casting of concrete in moulds without a
time gap. The 15, 30, 45, and 60 min cases show the time gap between the first and
second layer. Shear strength between layers decreases with the increase of replacement
ratio of cement with waste incinerator fly ash. These experimental results also show
that the shear bond strength decreases with an increase of the time gap. Within the first
30 min, when the incinerator fly ash was replaced by 5%, the shear bond strength
decreased by approximately 1.2% per minute, and when the incinerator fly ash was
replaced at7.5 % and 10 %, the shear bond strength decreased by approximately 1.8 %
and 2.1 % per minute, respectively. As the setting time decreases with the increase in
the replacement ratio of fly ash, hardening occurs quickly at the joint between layers,
which results in a decrease of shear bond strength. Shear bond strength test results
suggest that 3D printed concrete can have lower structural performance at interfaces
between layers due to the layer-by-layer construction method. The interface between
printed layers will have a better bond strength with a minimum time gap, which can be
achieved with a faster construction rate. However, in the 3Dprinting process, it is
necessary to consider the time dependent rheological properties of the concrete. The
faster construction rate will be helpful to secure higher bond strength between
filaments, but the vertical stresses due to the faster construction rate should not surpass
the evolution of the yield stress of printed layers to secure structural stability. A long
printing time gap will reduce the bond between layers, and therefore an optimum
construction rate is required with reference to evolution of the yield stress of concrete
and the printing time gap.

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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
Concrete 3D printing is an application of 3D printing technology for the
construction of concrete structural and non-structural elements. It is a rapid method of
construction without the use of formwork, with minimum labor involvement and
reduced material wastage. The fusion of this technology with waste materials is
necessary to reduce the problems associated with the recycling of wastes and to
minimize CO2emissions associated with the production of cement. Waste incinerator
ashes can be used as substitute of ordinary Portland cement in concrete mix
proportions.

A significant reduction in municipal solid waste is possible through the

incineration process. Incineration reduces the mass and volume of MSW up to 70% and
90 %. The environmental and social impacts of landfilling are more detrimental than
those of waste incineration. The greenhouse gas emissions are lower in waste
incineration processes than in landfilling and the heat energy produced during waste
incineration can be used for power generation. Potential areas of application of
incineration ash are environmentally safe are construction, geotechnical-cal, renewable
energy and ceramic products. Use of incinerated ash as aggregate or a partial substitute
of cement in concrete is an increasing trend. Fly ash and bottom ash collected from
MSW incinerator facilities has been used in the production of artificial light weight
aggregate. Substitute of cement with MSW incinerated ash can reduce the greenhouse
gas emissions due to cement production and reduce landfill required for dumping
incineration ash. Concrete containing MSW incinerator ash has been recycled to
produce granular material which can be used in the construction of embankments.
Printable concrete containing MSW incineration ash that fulfil the rheological
requirements of extrusion and show higher early compressive strength and sufficient
shear strength should be developed.

The setting time and flow table test shows that incineration fly ash was more
effective in reducing the setting time and flow of 3D printing concrete than bottom ash.
The use of incinerator fly ash will ensure the ability to maintain the shape of concrete
after extrusion and will be helpful for obtaining a rapid construction rate. Yield stress
shows that the incineration fly ash can be used to instantaneously increase the yield
stress of a concrete mixture. Poor shape stability after extrusion due to yield stress
lower than 0.3 kPa can be moderated by replacing cement with incinerated fly ash. A
higher replacement ratio of fly ash improves buildability by accelerating the evolution
of yield stress. The use of incinerated fly ash up to 10 % can increase the initial
compressive strength without a significant effect on the compressive strength at 28
days. The addition of incinerated fly ash negatively affects the bond strength b/w layers.
Use of incinerator fly ash can modify the rheology of 3D printable concrete in favor of
rapid construction rate and better shape stability. It is a suitable to replace cement in
concrete for 3D printing. Use of incinerated fly ash in concrete3D printing is
recommended to solve current problems related to recycling incineration ash and also
to create valuable products from recycled waste. The fusion of 3D printing technology
with waste materials is necessary to reduce the problems associated with the recycling
of wastes and to minimize CO2 emissions associated with the production of cement.

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CHAPTER 7
REFERENCES
1. Atta Ur Rehman, Sang - Min Lee, Jung-Hoon Kim, ” Use of municipal solid waste
incineration ash in 3D printable concrete ”, Process Safety and Environmental
Protection, (2020)

2. Hui-Sheng Shi, Li-Li Kan, “ Leaching behavior of heavy metals from municipal solid
waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash used in concrete ” , Journal of Hazardous
Materials, (2009)

3. An Cheng, “ Effect of incinerators bottom ash properties on mechanical and pore

size of blended cement mortars ”, Materials and Design, (2012)

4. Das, S., Lee, S. H. Kumar. P., Kim, K. -H, Lee, S. S, Bhattacharya, S. S., “ Solid waste
management scope and the challenge of sustainability ”, Journal of Cleaner
Protection, (2019)

5. Van Der Putten, J., Deprez, M., Cnudde, V., De Schutter, G., Van Tittelboom, K. J. M,
“ Micro structural characterization of 3D printed cementetious materials ”, (2019)

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