WAVES & OSCILLATIONS

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 Waves & Oscillations
LECTURE CONTENTS
No.
1 Simple harmonic motion (SHM), Differential equation of
SHM, Solution of differential equation of SHM, Velocity and
acceleration of SHM
2 Examples of SHM: Spring-mass system, Torsional Pendulum,
Total energy and average energy of SHM
3 Problem-solving related to simple harmonic motion

4 Combination of simple harmonic motions, Lissajous figures

5 Damped harmonic oscillation, Quality factor, Logarithmic
decrement
6 Forced oscillation, Resonance
7 Two-body oscillations, Reduced mass
8 Wave motion, Progressive wave equation and differential
equation of a progressive wave
9 Energy, power and intensity of wave motion, Stationary
wave, analytical treatment of stationary wave
10 Energy of stationary wave, Group velocity and phase
velocity
11 Architectural acoustics, Reverberation and Sabine’s
reverberation formula 2
 Example of SHM
EXAMPLE OF SHM: Rigid support
➢ The motion of simple pendulum
➢ Torsion pendulum P
➢ Spring-mass system
𝜽
Simple pendulum: l
❑ A simple pendulum consists of a point mass T T
𝜽
(bob) suspended by an inextensible weightless
string in a uniform gravitational field.
A m mg sin𝜽
m Q
❑ When pulled to one side of its equilibrium m
position and released, the bob of the pendulum O x
mg
oscillates about the mean position. Mean Position S
R
❑ Let the mass of the bob be ‘𝑚’ and the length of
the string be 𝑙.
❑ The path of the bob is not a straight line, but the
arc of a circle of radius 𝑙.
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 Example of SHM
❑ At point 𝑄 (at a displacement 𝑥), it will experience a force (𝑚𝑔) vertically
downward.
❑ Since OP ∥ 𝑄𝑅 and 𝑃𝑄 is the intersection, ∴ ∠𝑆𝑄𝑅 = 𝜃.
❑ The weight ( 𝑚𝑔 ) will resolve into two components along the radius
(𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) and along the tangent (𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) to the circle.
❑ The component 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is balanced by tension 𝑇. ∴ 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
❑ Unbalanced force, 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (known as restoring force) creates tangential
acceleration 𝑎.
∴ 𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, … … … 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = −𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, … … … (2)
For small value of 𝜃,
𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 = [𝜃 = ]
𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
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 Example of SHM
𝑥
From equation (2), 𝑎 = −𝑔𝜃 = −𝑔 , … … … (3)
𝑙

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑔
𝑜𝑟, 2 + 𝑥 = 0, … … … (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑙
𝑑2 𝑦
Equation (4) is similar to the differential equation of SHM, + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0.
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑥 𝑙
Rearranging equation (3) we can write, = − ,……… 5
𝑎 𝑔

From (5), 𝑔 is constant at a place and 𝑙 is also fixed. ∴ 𝑎 ∝ −𝑥

Therefore, the motion of a pendulum is SHM provided the amplitude of
oscillation is small.
The time period of oscillation of the simple pendulum is,

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑔

Therefore, for a small oscillation, the period of a pendulum for a given value
5
of g is determined entirely by its length.
 Example
SIMPLE of SHM
HARMONIC MOTION
Torsion pendulum:
❑ A disk suspended by a wire. One end of the wire is
fixed to a solid support and the other end is fixed to
the center of mass of the disk.
❑ When the disk is in equilibrium position, a radial line is
drawn from its center 𝑂 to a point 𝑃 on its rim.
❑ If the disk is rotated in a horizontal plane so that the
reference line 𝑂𝑃 moves to a position 𝑂𝑄, the wire will 𝑅 𝑄

be twisted. The twisted wire will exert a restoring

torque on the disk tending to return to its mean
position.
❑ If the disk is given a small twist and released, it will
execute angular oscillations about its equilibrium
position and it is known as torsion pendulum.
❑ For small twist, the restoring torque is proportional to
the angular displacement, so that,
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 Example of SHM
𝜏 = −𝑘𝜃, … … … (1)

Where, 𝑘 is a torsional constant. The minus sign indicates that the torque is
directed opposite to the angular displacement. It is a certain condition for
angular SHM.
❑ The equation of motion for such a system is based on the angular form of
Newton’s 2nd law,
𝑑2 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐼 2 , … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡
Where, 𝐼 is the rotational inertia of the oscillating disk and 𝛼 is the angular
acceleration.
Combining equation (1) and (2), we obtain,
𝑑2 𝜃
−𝑘𝜃 = 𝐼 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑘
𝑜𝑟, 2 = − 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝐼 7
 Example of SHM

𝑑2 𝜃 𝑘
𝑜𝑟, 2 + 𝜃 = 0, … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝐼

Equation (3) is similar to the differential equation of SHM,

𝑑2𝑦
+ 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0.
𝑑𝑡 2

Hence the angular oscillations of the torsion pendulum is

simple harmonic.

𝐼
∴ Time period, 𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝐾

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 Example of SHM
Spring-mass system:
❑ Consider a spring whose upper end is fixed to a rigid support and mass
(𝑚) is attached to its free end. Let the length of the spring be 𝐿.
❑ When the load is attached, the spring extended by an amount 𝑠.
❑ Under this condition, the upward force 𝐹 exerted by the spring is equal to
the weight of the body 𝑚𝑔.
If the spring obeys Hooke’s law,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑘. 𝑠, … … … (1)
Where, 𝑘 is the spring constant. The
𝑦=0
minus sign indicates that the force and 𝑦
displacement are oppositely directed.
𝑚𝑔
From equation (1), 𝑘 = − , … … … (2)
𝑠

Thus, the spring constant can be defined https://opentextbc.ca/calculusv3openstax/chapter/applications/

as the tension per unit displacement.

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 Example of SHM
❑ If the body is now displaced from its equilibrium position and released, it
will oscillate along the vertical direction.

❑ Let ‘𝑦’ denote the displacement of the mass from equilibrium position.

❑ When the body is at a distance 𝑦 below its equilibrium position, the

extension of the spring is (𝑠 + 𝑦). The downward force it exerts on the
body is 𝑘(𝑠 + 𝑦) and the gravitational force is 𝑚𝑔. Hence, the resultant
force 𝐹 on the body is,

𝐹 = −𝑘 𝑠 + 𝑦 + 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑘𝑠 − 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑚𝑔 − 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑘𝑦

∴ 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑦, … … … (3)

Therefore, the resultant force is proportional to the displacement of the

body from its equilibrium position and is oppositely directed.

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 Example
SIMPLE of SHM
HARMONIC MOTION
According to Newton’s second law of motion,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑦
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑦
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑘
𝑜𝑟, 2 + 𝑦 = 0, … … … (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑2𝑦
This is similar to the differential equation of SHM, + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0.
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑘 𝑘
∴ 𝜔2 = 𝑜𝑟, 𝜔 =
𝑚 𝑚

𝑚
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑘
Thus, the body oscillates simple harmonically with a time period mentioned
above. 11
 Energy of a body executing SHM
Mechanical energy: The particle that having oscillatory motion, has both types of
mechanical energy. i.e., potential energy and kinetic energy.
If no non-conservative forces, such as the force of friction act on the particle, the
sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy remains constant.
𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Let the displacement of a particle executing SHM at any instant be 𝑦, mass of the
particle be 𝑚 and its velocity at that instant be 𝑣.
1
∴ kinetic energy, K = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

The potential energy of the particle at the same instant,

𝑦
Potential enery, U = W = ‫׬‬0 𝐹. 𝑑𝑦

Whenever a distance is travelled against a force, the body gathers potential energy
equal to workdone on it.
We know, the displacement, 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑
𝑑𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣 = = 𝜔𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑
𝑑𝑡
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 Energy of a body executing SHM
𝑑2𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = 2 = −𝜔2 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 = −𝜔2 𝑦
𝑑𝑡
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = −𝑚𝜔2 𝑦
∴ The potential energy of the particle is,
𝑦 𝑦
U= ‫׬‬0 𝐹. 𝑑𝑦 = ‫׬‬0 𝑚𝜔2 𝑦. 𝑑𝑦
1
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑦 2
2
1
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑
2
The kinetic energy of the particle is,
1 1 2
𝐾= 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚 𝜔𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑
2 2
1
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑
2

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 Energy of a body executing SHM
Therefore, the total energy,
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑
2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
∴ 𝑬 = 𝒎𝝎 𝒂 = 𝒌𝒂 = 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
[∵ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑛, 𝑛 is the frequency of oscillation]
At the maximum displacement, kinetic energy is zero, but the potential energy
1
is 2 𝑘𝑎2 . At equilibrium position, potential energy is zero, but the kinetic energy
1
is 2 𝑘𝑎2 .

Thus, the total energy of the system is the same as the maximum value
of any one of the two forms of energy and is independent of both time
and displacement.
Therefore, mechanical energy is always conserved during SHM.

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P.E.

K.E.

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 Average Energy of a body executing SHM
The potential energy (P.E.) of the particle at a displacement 𝑦 is given by,
1
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑦 2
2
The average potential energy,
𝑇1
‫׬‬0 2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑡
ഥ=
𝑈 𝑇
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡
1 2 𝑇 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝜔 ‫׬‬0
= 2
𝑇
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡
1 2 𝑇 𝑎 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝜔 ‫׬‬0
= 2
𝑇
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡

We know, the displacement, 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴
From trigonometry, we know that, 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 = 2

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 Average Energy of a body executing SHM

1
𝑚𝜔 2 𝑎 2 𝑇 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑑𝑡
2 ‫׬‬0 2
ഥ
𝑈= 𝑇
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡
1 2 𝑎 2 𝑇 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝜔 ‫׬‬0
= 4
𝑇
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡

𝑇 𝑇
𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2
= න 𝑑𝑡 − න 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑑𝑡
4𝑇
0 0

𝑇
But ‫׬‬0 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑑𝑡 =0

[Since the average value of both sine and cosine function for a complete cycle or
a whole time period T is zero]

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 Average Energy of a body executing SHM

∴ The average P.E. of the particle,

𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑇
= 𝑡 0 −0
4𝑇

𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 1 1 𝑘
= 𝑇 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 = 𝑘𝑎2 [∵ 𝜔2 = ]
4𝑇 4 4 𝑚
The kinetic energy (K.E.) of the particle at a displacement 𝑦 is given by,

1 𝑑𝑦 2 1 𝑑 2
= 𝑚 = 𝑚 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑
2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

1
= 2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

The average kinetic energy of a particle over a complete cycle is given by,

𝑇1
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 ‫׬‬0 2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) 𝑑𝑡
= = 𝑇
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 ‫𝑡𝑑 ׬‬ 0
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 Average Energy of a body executing SHM

𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑇
= න 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑑𝑡
4𝑇 0

𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑇
= න 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑑𝑡
4𝑇 0

𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑇 𝑇
= න 𝑑𝑡 + න 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑑𝑡
4𝑇 0 0

[Since the average value of both sine and cosine function for a complete cycle or a
whole time period T is zero]

∴ The average K.E. of the particle,

𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑇
= 𝑡 0
4𝑇

𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2
= 𝑇
4𝑇
19
 Average Energy of a body executing SHM

1
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2
4
1 2
= 𝑘𝑎
4
Thus, average value of P.E. of the particle = average value of K.E. of the particle
1 1
= 4 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎 2 = 4 𝑘𝑎2 = half of the total energy.

Problem:
Which of the following represent simple harmonic motion?

(i) x = A sin ωt + B cos ωt

(ii) x = A sin ωt+ B cos 2ωt

(iii) x = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

(iv) x = A ln ωt
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 Simple Harmonic Motion
(i) x = A sin ωt + B cos ωt

𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 − 𝐵𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝐴𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 − 𝐵𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝜔2 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = −𝜔2 𝑥

This differential equation is similar to the differential equation of SHM.

Therefore, x = A sin ωt + B cos ωt represents SHM.
(ii) x = A sin ωt+ B cos 2ωt
𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 − 𝐵 2𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡

𝑑2𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 2 = −𝐴𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 − 4𝐵𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡 = −𝜔2 A sin ωt+ 4B cos2ω𝑡 ≠ −𝜔2 𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Therefore, x = A sin ωt + B cos 2ωt does not represent SHM. 21
 Simple Harmonic Motion
(iii) x = A 𝒆𝒊𝝎𝒕

𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟, = 𝐴𝑖𝜔 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑡 2 = 𝐴 𝑖 2 𝜔2 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 = −𝐴𝜔2 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 = −𝜔2 x

This differential equation is similar to the differential equation of SHM.

Therefore, x = A 𝒆𝒊𝝎𝒕 represents SHM.
(iv) x = A ln ωt

𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝐴
𝑜𝑟, = 𝜔=
𝑑𝑡 𝜔𝑡 𝑡

𝑑2𝑥 𝐴
𝑜𝑟, 2 = − 2 ≠ −𝜔2 x
𝑑𝑡 𝑡
Therefore, x = A ln ωt does not represent SHM.
22
 Simple Harmonic Motion
Problem: The total energy of simple harmonic motion is E. What will be the kinetic
energy of the particle when displacement is half of the amplitude?
Ans: The total energy of a particle executing SHM,

1
𝐸= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 , … … … (1)
2
The kinetic energy of a particle executing SHM,

1
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑
2
1
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑
2
1
= 𝑚𝜔2 (𝑎2 − 𝑦 2 )
2
𝑎 1 1 𝑎2
When 𝑦 = , then K.E. = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 −
2 2 2 4
1 3 3 1 3
= 2 𝑚𝜔2 4 𝑎2 = 4 × 2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 = 4 𝐸 (𝐴𝑛𝑠. )
23
 Simple Harmonic Motion
1 𝑜
The average value or the DC value of a waveform is calculated as: 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑇 ‫𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝑉 𝑇׬‬

The average value of the sine wave over a complete cycle (0 to T) will be:
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
1 1 𝑇 1 𝑇
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝑉 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡ቚ = න 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡ቚ
𝑇 𝜔𝑇 0 𝜔𝑇 0
0 0 0

2𝜋
Replacing 𝜔 with , we get,
𝑇
1 2𝜋 𝑇
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = − . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡ቚ
2𝜋 𝑇 0
1 2𝜋
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑇 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0
2𝜋 𝑇
1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = − 1−1 =0
2𝜋

So, the average value of a sine wave over a

complete cycle is zero.

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