Operational

Amplifiers
Prof.Mayur M.Sevak
Electronics & Communication Engineering Department
Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya
(An Autonomous Institution)
Contents
● Introduction
● Ideal Operational Amplifier
● Operational Amplifier Stages
● Operational Amplifier Parameters
● Equivalent Circuit of Op-amp
● Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve
● Open-loop Configuration
● Closed loop Op-amp Configuration
Introduction
● Op-amp was developed in response to need of analog computer designers

● High-gain,direct coupled amplifier

● It can be used with D.C to 1Mhz amplifier and signal processing circuits

● It is low-cost,high-performance,versatile and economic hence widely used in

signal processing and conditioning circuits.

Ideal Operational Amplifier
● It is differential input,single-ended output device which is having
following characteristics.
● Infinite input resistance ( Ri= ∞)
● Zero output resistance ( Ro=0)
● Infinite Voltage gain(Av= ∞ )
● Infinite Bandwidth(BW=∞ )
● Infinite CMRR
● Infinite Slew Rate
● Zero Offset V1=V2, Vo=0;
● Characteristics do not drift with temperature
● If V1 is non-inverting input and V2 is inverting input and if overall
voltage gain of op-amp is A then

Vo=A(V1-V2)
Contd.
● Advantage of ideal op amp is that it can be used to perform large number
of mathematical operations
● Or generate number of circuit functions
● If i/o impedance and gain are matched with nearer to ideal one than
performance of op-amp is determined by external components.
Op-amp Stages
● Figure below shows the block diagram of op-amp

● It consists of Input Stage,Intermediate Stage,Level Shifter Stage,Output

Stage.
Contd.

Schematic of 741 and Similar Op-amps

Contd
1. Input Stage: it is dual-input balanced
output differential amplifier.
● Provide most of voltage gain and input
resistance
● Q13 and Q14 form current mirror
Input stage has following characteristics:
1) High input resistance (10 M ohm)
2) Low input bias current . (0.5 µA)
3) Small input offset Voltage ( 10 mV )
4) Small input offset Current ( 0.2 mA )
5) High CMRR (70 dB)
6) High Open loop Voltage Gain ( 104 )

● Q14 sources tail current to Q1 and Q2

● Differential Amplifiers drives current mirror
of Q3 and Q4
● An amplified current of the current mirror
drive base of Q5
Contd.
3.Level Shifter Stage
2.Intermediate Stage
● It is used after intermediate stage to shift
● It is dual input unbalanced output
the D.C level downwards to Zero.
differential Amplifier
● Third stage is Emitter Follower(Q5) using
● Increase overall gain of op-amp
constant current source.
● D.C voltage level is well above ground
● It step up the input impedance of stage
potential because direct coupling
consists of (Q6) by factor β
between first two stages.
● Q6 is driver of output stage.
● That requires level translator to reverse
the effect
 Contd.
4. Output Stage:Q9 and Q10 forms
complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier.
● Q11 is part of current mirror circuit that
sources current through Q7 and Q8
● Cc is Compensating capacitor needed to
prevent oscillation and unwanted signals
produced within amplifier
● Q11,Q12 and R3 form current mirror
circuit.
Output Stage must have following desirable
properties:
● Large output voltage swing capability
● Large output current swing capability
● Low output resistance
● Short circuit protection
Op-amp parameters
❏ Input offset voltage: A small voltage applied to the input terminals to make the
output voltage as zero when the two input terminals are grounded is called input
offset voltage.
2 mV for 741 IC.
❏ Input Offset Current: The difference between the bias currents at the input
terminals of the op- amp is called as input offset current.
Iio = IB1 – IB2
200nA for 741 IC.
❏ Input Bias Current: Input bias current IB as the average value of the base
currents entering into terminal of an opamp.
IB=(IB1+IB2)/2
700nA for 741 IC
Contd.
❏ Input Resistance (Ri) :It is the equivalent resistance that can be measured
at either the inverting or non inverting input terminal with the other terminal
grounded.
2 MΩ for 741 IC.
❏ Output Resistance(Ro) : It is the equivalent resistance that can be
measured output terminal and the ground terminal.
75 Ω for 741 IC
❏ Common mode Rejection Ratio(CMRR) :It is defined as the ratio of
differential voltage gain Ad to the common mode voltage gain Acm.
CMRR = Ad/ Acm
20 dB for 741 IC
Example:
1. For a given op-amp ,CMRR=105 and Differential Gain is also Ad= 105 .Determine
Common mode gain of op-amp(Acm).

2. The two input terminals of op-amp are connected to voltage signals of strength 745
µV and 740 µV. The gain of op-amp in differential mode is 5x105 and CMRR is 80
dB.Calculate the output voltage and % error due to common mode.
Hint: Find Ac from CMRR
Output=AdVd+AcVc where ( Vc=(V1+V2)/2) ,Vd=V1-V2
Ideal Output is AdVd=?
% Error?
Contd.
❏ Slew Rate: it is defined as maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit time
❏ It is expressed in volts/Microseconds
❏ SR= dVo V/µs
❏ dt
❏ It limits the bandwidth of the signal.
❏ It indicates how fast the output of op-amp can change in response to change in
input frequency.
❏ Example:

Overloading an op-amp produces slew rate limiting

Contd.

Slew Rate distortion of Sine wave

let us assume that a high frequency,large amplitude sinusoidal input is given to
op-amp voltage follower.The equation for input sinusoidal is

Vs=Vm sinωt
Contd.
The output of the follower is
Vo=Vm sinωt
The rate of change of output is

The maximum rate of change of output occurs when cosωt=1

Thus slew rate is,

Contd.
Example 3: The voltage of certain op-amp circuit changes by 20 V in 4. What is slew
rate?
Example 4: The 741C is used as an inverting amplifier with gain of 50.The sinusoidal
input signal has a variable frequency and amplitude of 20 mV.What is maximum
frequency of input at which output will be undistorted?Assume that the amplifier is initially
nulled.
Hint find Vm and then Fmax.
Example 5: An inverting amplifier using the 741C must have a flat response upto
40Khz.The gain of amplifier is 10.what maximum peak-to-peak input signal can be applied
without distorting the output?
Hint find Vm and then Vid.
Equivalent Circuit of Op-Amp
● It includes the value of open loop voltage gain A,Input Resistance Ri,Output Resistance
Ro.
● The voltage AVid is equivalent Thevenin voltage source.

Vo=AVid=A(V1-V2)
Where A=Large-Signal Voltage Gain
Vid= Difference of input voltage
V1= Voltage at non inverting input terminal
V2= Voltage at Inverting input terminal
Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve
● Previous Equation is used to analyze
the characteristics.
● Output is plotted as function of input
differential voltage.Keeping large signal
gain constant.
● Notice that for small value of input
voltages,rapid change in output voltage.
● Output voltage is not exceeding the
saturation voltage.
● Saturation voltage is function of supply
voltage.
Open-loop Op-amp Configuration
● The word open loop indicates that in any form, no feedback is connected from output
to input.
● It behave as very high gain amplifier.
● There are three configurations.
● Differential Amplifier
● Inverting Amplifier
● Non inverting Amplifier.
● Input Signals may be either A.C or D.C.
● Configuration are based on number of input used and terminal to which input is
applied.
Open-Loop Differential Amplifier
● Inputs are applied to both terminals and
device amplifies the difference between the
input voltages as shown in figure.
● The input voltages are Vin1 and Vin2.The
source resistance are negligible Rin1 and
Rin2 with respect to input resistance of
op-amp.
Vo=A(Vin1-Vin2)
● A is open loop gain
Inverting Amplifier
● In this configuration,Input Signal is applied
to inverting terminal of op-amp and
non-inverting terminal is connected to
ground.
● Vo= -AVin
● Input signal is amplified by open-loop gain
A and also phase shifted by 1800.
Non Inverting Amplifier
● In this configuration,Input Signal is
applied to non-inverting terminal of
op-amp and inverting terminal is
connected to ground
● Vo=AVin
● Input signal is amplified by open-loop
gain A and o/p signal is inphase with
input signal.
● In all configuration,when only small input
signal is applied,due to large gain
op-amp will enter into saturation and
hence it is not used for linear
applications.
Limitations of Open-Loop
Configurations.
● Clipping of output voltage occurs due when the output voltage exceeds the
saturation level. Due to high gain it is applicable for input of microvolts or lesser
values.Noise is also posing problem on this level.
● Open-loop gain changes with temperature and power supply
● The bandwidth of open loop is small.Typical 5 Hz.So its not suitable for most of
a.c applications.
● Of course it finds its applications in non-linear circuits.i.e square-wave
generator,Astable multivibrator.
Concept of Virtual ground
● The open-loop gain of op-amp is very high.Typical 200000 for 741.If the
output voltage is 10V the input differential voltage is

● Open loop input impedance is around 2MΩ for input differential voltage of
0.05 mV, the input current is
Close loop Op-amp Inverting Amplifier
Close loop Op-amp Non-Inverting
Amplifier
Example:
Thank You
Questions ? ?
 555 Timers

Prof.Mayur M.Sevak
Electronics & Communication Engineering Department
Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya
(An Autonomous Institution)
Contents

● Introduction of multivibrators
● IC 555 Timer
● 555 Timer as Astable Multivibrator
● 555 Timer as Monostable Multivibrator
Introduction
● Multivibrators are regenerative circuits for timing applications
● They are Bistable,Astable,and Monostable.
● Bistable Multivibrator: Both State are stable,so external commands are needed to force the circuit
to given state.Example is Flip-Flop.
● Astable Multivibrator: Output toggles between one state and other state without external
commands.Also called free running multivibrator.Timing is set by suitable network that consists of
capacitor and crystal.
● Monostable Multivibrator: Also called one-shot multivibrator,only one stable state.It forced into
other state via external command on trigger.it returns to stable state quickly,after delay by suitable
timing circuits.
The 555 Timer
● Block Diagram of 555 Timer is shown in figure,here
● Vth=⅔ Vcc and Vtl=⅓ Vcc
● First to understand the function of SR Flip Flop
● Now we have two cases with the 555 Timer
● Whenever voltage at TRIG input falls below Vtl,then
CMP2 will be on and Flip Flop will be set.That forces
Q high and Q’ low and with this Q0 is cut off.
● Whenever voltage at THRESH pin goes above Vth
then CMP1 will be on and Flip Flop will be reset and
hence Q will be low and Q’ will be high
● Hence transistor Q0 is heavily on by 100 ohm
resistor.
● RESET is available to force Q low and Q’ High
● It is available in both bipolar and CMOS
● BJT has range between 4.5 V to 18 V
● CMOS is having range of 2V to 18 V
● CMOS is having low power consumption and high
input impedance and o/p swing.
555 Timer as Astable Multivibrator
● At power on (t=0) when the capacitor is still
discharged, Voltage at TRIG input is less than
Vtl.This forces Q high and Q’ Low.
● Hence BJT will cut off and Capacitor will be
charged through (RA+RB)
● As soon as Vc reaches to Vth, CMP 1 will be on
and this turns transistor Q to be ON.
● Hence capacitor will discharge through RB
● Again as Vc falls below Vtl then CMP2 will be
on and Capacitor is going to be charged
● This cycle repeats and hence its astble or free
running multivibrator.
● During TL the time constant is RBC and hence
TL= RBC ln(Vth/Vtl)
● = RBC ln 2,
● During TH the time constant is (RA +RB )C
● TH= (RA +RB )C ln[(Vcc-Vtl)/(Vcc-Vth)]
Contd.

Substituting Vth=⅔ Vcc and Solving for fo=1/T and D(%) =100 TH / (TL+TH) gives

We observe that oscillation characteristics are set by external components and are
independent of Vcc.To prevent the power supply noise to cause false triggering we can
connect bypass capacitor between pin5 and ground.
555 Timer as Monostable Multivibrator
● Under normal condition,the TRIG input is
held high,and circuit is in the stable state
represented by Q low.BJT Q0 is closed and
C is discharged or Vc=0.
● The circuit is triggered only when TRIG
input is kept low below Vtl. At this time
CMP2 sets the flip flop and Q is high and
Q0 is off and capacitor charges towards
Vcc via R.
● As soon as Vc reaches to Vth,CMP1 will
be on and reset the flip flop.That makes Q
low and Q0 is on that discharge the
capacitor
Contd.

The pulse width T is readily found in Eq as

T=RC ln Vcc/(Vcc-Vth)

Letting Vth=(⅔)Vcc gives T=RC ln 3

T=1.10 RC

To enhance the noise immunity connect 0.01-Microfarad Capacitor between pin5

and ground.
Thanks
Questions?
Unit:03
Transducers
By
Prof.Mayur M.Sevak
Electronics and Communication Engg. Department
BVM Engineering College
2

Introduction

● It is device that converts one energy

form into another form. Active Transducer:
● I.e ● Own voltage or current as output
Electrical,Mechanical,Chemical,Opti ● Energy is obtained from physical
cal or thermal phenomenon
● The Transducer that gives electrical
energy as output is called electrical
transducer.
● For measuring non electrical
quantity, a detector is used which
usually converts physical quantity Passive Transducer:
into displacement and then to ● Externally Powered Transducers
electrical energy. ● They may also absorb some energy
● Displacement transducer take help during conversion
of force summing device to covert
force into displacement.
3
Active and Passive transducers
Active Transducers
● Thermocouple
● Piezoelectric Transducer
● Photovoltaic Cell
● Moving Coil Generator
● Photoelectric Cell
Passive Transducers
● Resistance
● Potentiometric Device
● Resistance Strain Gauge
● Resistance Thermometer
● Thermistor
● Photoconductive Cell
● Inductance
● LVDT
● Capacitance
● Voltage and Current
● Device using hall effect
● Photoemissive cell
● Photomultiplier tube
4
Basic Requirement of Transducer
Linearity i/o characteristics should be linear

Ruggedness It should withstand overload with measures for overload protection

Repeatablity It should produce identical o/p for same i/p at different times under same
environmental condition
High Stability Output must not be affected by temperature and other variations and
and Reliability minimum error in measurements

Good dynamic Input may be dynemic i.e changing in nature. It must respond to changes
response inputs quickly as possible

Convenient
It must produce high analog o/p with high SNR so that it can be measured
Instrumentation
directly.
and Good
Mechanical
It is subject to mechanical strain and hence it must not be deformed or
Characteristics performance must not be affected.
 “
Capacitive Transducer
● When a force is applied to
diaphragm,which also acts one plate of
capacitor,distance between diaphragm
and static plate is changed.
● Change in capacitance can be
measured with a.c bridge or oscillator
circuit that detects change in frequency
and hence measured by electronic
counter.
● In capacitor microphone this principle
is used.
● It can measure static and dynamic
changes
● It is sensitive to temperature variations
6

Inductive Transducer

● When force applied to ferromagnetic

armature,the air gap is changed
● Hence reluctance is changed
● So, applied force is measured by
change of inductance in a single coil
● This transducer enables static and
dynamic measurements.
● It has limited frequency response
 7
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
● It consists of primary and exactly two similar secondary
coils with rod shaped magnetic core at centre.
● An alternating current is fed into primary and hence
voltages Vo1 and Vo2 induced in secondary coils.
● Vo=Vo1- Vo2 ( Series opposition of secondary coils)
● Look at the figure. If core is at centre the net output voltage
Vo will be zero. The voltage will increase towards which
core moves and on other side voltage decreases.
● The output voltage is linear over some range and after it
will be flatten.Voltage phase changes by 1800
● Repeatablity is excellent due to low hysteresis and cont.
Resolution.
● Less friction and less noise due to no sliding contacts.
● It is sensitive to vibration and temperature and compatible
with receiving a.c instrument.
8

Oscillation Transducer

● Force summing device is used to

change the distance between
parallel plates and thereby changes
the capacitance.
● Hence in LC circuit,the frequency is
changed that can be measured by
counter.
● So applied force can be measured
by o/p electronic counter value.
● It measures both static and
dynamic phenomena and used in
telemetry systems.
● Limited range,poor thermal stability
and low accuracy.
9

Potentiometric Transducer

● Resistance element is contacted by movable

slider.
● A force summing member is used to move
the slider.
● That reflects change in output resistance
and hence change in output voltage.
● Same principle is used in bridge circuits.
● High electrical efficiency
● It provide sufficient output to permit control
operation without amplification.
10

Electrical Strain Gauges

● If metal conductor is stretched or compressed, it’s resistance changes because of (L or A)

● If wire is under tension and increases its length from l to then its resistance is
change by R to
● Sensitivity of strain gauge is measured by Gauge Factor. I.e

Unbonded Strain Gauges

● Measuring forces are transmitted to platform
containing unbonded structure by force rod.
● When external force is applied to gauge then
armature moves in direction indicated. A and D
are stretched,B and C are compressed.
● Change in length is resistance is measured by
wheatstone bridge.
● Unbalance bridge produces output voltage.
11

Contd. ( Bonded Wire Strain Gauge)

● Bonded wire strain gauge consists of grid of fine resistance wire of diameter of 25
micrometer.
● Wire is connected to base.The base may be thin sheet of paper or thin Bakelite sheet.
● Wire is covered with thin sheet of material so that it can’t be damaged mechanically.
● Base is bonded to structure under study with adhesive material.
12

Thermocouple

● A thermocouple is junction between two

dissimilar metals or semiconductors that
generate small voltages.with coefficient
range of 50 µV/0C
● In figure it consists of two junction,
reference and sensing are maintained at
different temperature.
● Each junction is made by welding two
dissimilar metals.
● The reference junction is maintained at fix
temperature i.e 0 0C and o/p voltage is
depending upon temp. of sensing junction
● It is necessary to amplify output for
calibration.
● Iron-constantan- 760 0C
● Chromel-Alumel-1370 0C
 Resistance Thermometer
13

● The resistance of most electrical conductor varies with

temperature according to
● R=R0(1+𝞪T+βT2+...)
● R0 is resistance at temperature T0 at 00C ,R=resistance at T
and 𝞪,β =constants
● R=R0(1+𝞪T) ,𝞪 is temperature coefficient of resistance.
● Important properties of materials used for resistance
thermometers are
● 1. High temperature coefficient of resistance
● 2. Stable properties (not be drifted by rapid heating or
cooling or mechanical strain)
● 3. High resistivity to permit construction of small sensors.
● From figure it can be seen that tungsten has suitable
temperature coefficient of resistance but it is brittle and
difficult to from. Copper has low resistivity and size is
flexible
14

Contd.

● Both platinum and nickel are widely used because

easy to obtain in pure state.
● Resistance temperature relationship for platinum
resistance is given by

● Rt is resistance at temperature T,R0 is resistance at

temperature T0 at 00C
● R100 is resistance at temperature 1000C d is
calendar constant
15

Thermistor

● It is two terminal device whose resistance decreases with

temperature. Oxide of cobalt,nickel,copper ,iron,uranium and
manganese are used to manufacture it.
● It has very high temperature coefficient making it an ideal
temperature transducer.
● The temperature coefficient of resistance is negative.the
resistance at any temperature T is given by
●
16

Contd.

● Look at the characteristics the cure is non linear and drop in

resistance from 5000Ω to 10Ω occurs for increase in
temperature of 200C to 1000C.
● An increase in current through device will raise the
temperature and resistance will be dropped.
● Any externally applied heat source will do the same action.
● Three useful parameters to characterize thermistor are
● 1. Time Constant: Time for thermistor to change its resistance
by 63% of its initial value for zero power dissipation. 1 s to 50 s
values.
● 2. Dissipation Factor: it is power necessary to increase
temperature of thermistor by 10C.(1 mW/0C to 10 mW/0C).
● 3. Resistance Ratio: it is ratio of resistance at 25 0C to that
125 0C
● They are used to measure temperature,flow,pressure,liquid
level,voltage or power level,vacuum etc.
17

Piezoelectric transducer

● It works on principle that if the dimension of

asymmetrical crystalline material,such as
quartz,rochelle salt or barium titanite are changed
by mechanical force ,the crystal produces emf.
● Here Crystal is placed between solid base and
Force-summing member.
● Externally force produces emf across crystal which
is proportional to applied pressure
● It is having good frequency response and its used
in high frequency accelerometer.
● It is self generating transducer.
● It can not measure static condition and o/p voltage
is affected by temperature variations.
18

Photoelectric transducer

● It uses phototube and light source separated by

small window.
● Aperture of window is controlled by force
summing device.
● The quantity of incident light on photosensitive
cathode is varied in accordance with externally
applied force thereby changing anode current.
● It is compatible with static and dynamic
measurements.
● It is not responding to high frequency light
variation.
19

THANKS!
Any questions?