GOLIS UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER 4: TISSUES, GLANDS, AND MEMBRANES

Course: Human Anatomy & Physiology

Class: Diploma Bio/Chem

Lecturer: Mr. Abdilahi M. Bade (MPH, MED, BSc)

A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure and function, plus the extracellular substances
located between the cells. The microscopic study of tissue structure is called histology.
Knowledge of tissue structure and function is important in understanding how individual cells
are organized to form tissues and how tissues are organized to form organs, organ systems, and
the complete organism.
There are four basic tissue types:
i. Epithelial tissue
ii. Connective tissue
iii. Muscular tissue
iv. Nervous tissue
This chapter emphasizes epithelial and connective tissues. Muscular and nervous tissues are
considered in more detail in later chapters.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Epithelium (plural: epithelia) covers surfaces of the body or forms glands. Surfaces of the body
include the skin on the outside of the body and the lining of cavities such as the digestive tract
and blood vessels. Epithelium consists of almost entirely of cells that have very little
extracellular material between them.

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 CLASSIFICATION
Epithelia are classified according to the number of:
i. Cell layers
 Simple epithelium (consists of single layer of cells).
 Stratified epithelium (consists of more than one layer of epithelium cells, with some
cells sitting on top of other cells).

ii. Shape of the cells

 Squamous (flattened and thin).
 Cuboidal (cube-like, boxy, as wide as it is tall).
 Columnar (rectangular, taller than it is wide).
In most cases, an epithelium is given two names such as:
i. Simple squamous
ii. Simple columnar or stratified squamous

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 GLANDS
A gland is a single cell or a multicellular structure that secretes substances onto a surface, into
a cavity, or into the blood. Most glands are composed primarily of epithelium. Glands with
ducts are called exocrine glands. They can be simple, with ducts that have no branches, or
compound, with ducts that have many branches. The end of a duct can be tubular or expanded
into a saclike structure called an acinus or alveolus.
Secretions from glands pass through the ducts onto a surface or into an organ. For example,
sweat from sweat glands and oil from sebaceous glands flow onto the skin surface.
Endocrine glands have no ducts and empty their secretions directly into the blood. These
secretions called hormones are carried by the blood to other parts of the body.

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 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Connective tissue joins together other tissues. In addition, bone provides a supporting
framework for the body, fat stores energy, and blood transports substances. Connective tissue is
usually characterized by large amounts of extracellular materials that separate cells from each
other.
The extracellular matrix has three major components:
i. Protein fibers.
ii. Ground substance consisting of non-fibrous protein and other molecules.
iii. Fluid.
Three types of protein fibers help to form most connective tissues:
i. Collagen fibers which resemble microscopic ropes are flexible but resist stretching.
ii. Reticular fibers are very fine, short, collagen fibers that branch to form a supporting
network.
iii. Elastic fibers have a structure similar to coiled metal bed springs.

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 CLASSIFICATION

The nature of the extracellular matrix determines the functional characteristics of the
connective tissue and is used as a means of classifying connective tissues.

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 MEMBRANES
A membrane is a thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a structure or lines a cavity. Most
membranes consist of epithelium and the connective tissue.
The two major categories of membranes are:
i. Mucous membranes
ii. Serous membranes
Mucous Membranes
Mucous membranes consist of various kinds of epithelium resting on a thick layer of loose
connective tissue. They line cavities that open to the outside of the body, such as the digestive,
respiratory, excretory and reproductive tracts.
Functions of mucous membranes are: protection, absorption, and secretion.

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Serous Membranes
Serous membranes consist of simple squamous epithelium resting on a delicate layer of loose
connective tissue. Serous membranes line the trunk cavities and cover the organs located
within these cavities.
The serous membranes secrete serous fluid, which covers the surface of the membranes.
The serous membranes are named according to their location:
 Pleural membranes are associated with the lungs.
 Pericardial membranes are associated with the heart.
 Peritoneal membranes are located in the abdominpelvic cavity.
INFLAMMATION
The inflammatory response, or inflammation occurs when tissues are damaged. It mobilizes
the body’s defenses and isolates and destroys micro-organisms, foreign materials, and damaged
cells so that tissue repair can proceed.
Inflammation produces five major symptoms: redness, heat, swelling, pain, and disturbance of
function.
TISSUE REPAIR
Tissue repair is the substitution of viable cells for dead cells, and it can occur by regeneration or
replacement. In regeneration, the new cells are the same type as those that were destroyed,
and normal function is usually restored.
In replacement, a new type of tissue develops that eventually causes scar production and the
loss of some tissue function.
TERMINOLOGY
 Serosa (serous membrane)—is a smooth tissue membrane lining the contents and inner
walls of body cavities which secrete serous fluid to allow lubricated sliding movements
between opposing surfaces.
 Glomeruli—are tiny network of blood vessels that are the “cleaning units” of your
kidney.
 Goblets cells—are simple columnar epithelial cells that secret gel-forming mucins.
 Esophagus—is between pharynx and the stomach.

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  Throat—is the front part of the neck, containing pharynx and larynx.
 Fibroblast—a cell in connective tissue which produces collagen and other fibers.
 Aponeuroses—a flat sheet or ribbon of tendon-like material that anchors muscle.
 Osteocyte—a cell that lies within a substance of fully formed. It occupies a small
chamber called a lacuna.
ASSIGNMENT
CHAPTER 2: THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
Basic Chemistry
 The structure of atoms
 Electrons and chemical bonds
 Ionic bonds
 Covalent bonds
 Hydrogen bonds
Chemical Reactions
 Classification of chemical reactions
 Chemical reactions and energy
 Rate of chemical reactions
 Reversible reactions
Acids and Bases
 The pH scale
 Salts
 Buffers
Water
Inorganic Molecules
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Enzymes
 Nucleic Acids

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